Evolution of ribozymes in the presence of a mineral surface

Effect of montmorillonite K10 clay on RNA structure and function

One of the earliest living systems was likely based on RNA ("the RNA world"). Mineral surfaces have been postulated to be an important environment for the prebiotic chemistry of RNA. In addition to adsorbing RNA and thus potentially reducing the chance of parasitic takeover through limited diffusion, minerals have been shown to promote a range of processes related to the emergence of life, including RNA polymerization, peptide bond formation, and self-assembly of vesicles. In addition, self-cleaving ribozymes have been shown to retain activity when adsorbed to the clay mineral montmorillonite. However, simulation studies suggest that adsorption to minerals is likely to interfere with RNA folding and, thus, function. To further evaluate the plausibility of a mineral-adsorbed RNA world, here we studied the effect of the synthetic clay montmorillonite K10 on the malachite green RNA aptamer, including binding of the clay to malachite green and RNA, as well as on the formation of secondary structures in model RNA and DNA oligonucleotides. We evaluated the fluorescence of the aptamer complex, adsorption to the mineral, melting curves, Förster resonance energy transfer interactions, and 1H-NMR signals to study the folding and functionality of these nucleic acids. Our results indicate that while some base pairings are unperturbed, the overall folding and binding of the malachite green aptamer are substantially disrupted by montmorillonite. These findings suggest that minerals would constrain the structures, and possibly the functions, available to an adsorbed RNA world.

Peptide conjugates with polyaromatic hydrocarbons can benefit the activity of catalytic RNAs

Early stages of life likely employed catalytic RNAs (ribozymes) in many functions that are today filled by proteins. However, the earliest life forms must have emerged from heterogenous chemical mixtures, which included amino acids, short peptides, and many other compounds. Here we explored whether the presence of short peptides can help the emergence of catalytic RNAs. To do this, we conducted an in vitro selection for catalytic RNAs from randomized sequence in the presence of ten different peptides with a prebiotically plausible length of eight amino acids. This in vitro selection generated dozens of ribozymes, one of them with ∼900-fold higher activity in the presence of one specific peptide. Unexpectedly, the beneficial peptide had retained its N-terminal Fmoc protection group, and this group was required to benefit ribozyme activity. The same, or higher benefit resulted from peptide conjugates with prebiotically plausible polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as fluorene and naphthalene. This shows that PAH-peptide conjugates can act as potent cofactors to enhance ribozyme activity. The results are discussed in the context of the origin of life.

Sequencing the Origins of Life

One goal of origins of life research is to understand how primitive informational and catalytic biopolymers emerged and evolved. Recently, a number of sequencing techniques have been applied to analysis of replicating and evolving primitive biopolymer systems, providing a sequence-specific and high-resolution view of primitive chemical processes. Here, we review application of sequencing techniques to analysis of synthetic and primitive nucleic acids and polypeptides. This includes next-generation sequencing of primitive polymerization and evolution processes, followed by discussion of other novel biochemical techniques that could contribute to sequence analysis of primitive biopolymer driven chemical systems. Further application of sequencing to origins of life research, perhaps as a life detection technology, could provide insight into the origin and evolution of informational and catalytic biopolymers on early Earth or elsewhere.

Primitive Compartmentalization for the Sustainable Replication of Genetic Molecules

Sustainable replication and evolution of genetic molecules such as RNA are likely requisites for the emergence of life; however, these processes are easily affected by the appearance of parasitic molecules that replicate by relying on the function of other molecules, while not contributing to their replication. A possible mechanism to repress parasite amplification is compartmentalization that segregates parasitic molecules and limits their access to functional genetic molecules. Although extent cells encapsulate genomes within lipid-based membranes, more primitive materials or simple geological processes could have provided compartmentalization on early Earth. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the types and roles of primitive compartmentalization regarding sustainable replication of genetic molecules, especially from the perspective of the prevention of parasite replication. In addition, we also describe the ability of several environments to selectively accumulate longer genetic molecules, which could also have helped select functional genetic molecules rather than fast-replicating short parasitic molecules.

Nucleic Acid Catalysis under Potential Prebiotic Conditions

Catalysis by nucleic acids is indispensable for extant cellular life, and it is widely accepted that nucleic acid enzymes were crucial for the emergence of primitive life 3.5-4 billion years ago. However, geochemical conditions on early Earth must have differed greatly from the constant internal milieus of today's cells. In order to explore plausible scenarios for early molecular evolution, it is therefore essential to understand how different physicochemical parameters, such as temperature, pH, and ionic composition, influence nucleic acid catalysis and to explore to what extent nucleic acid enzymes can adapt to non-physiological conditions. In this article, we give an overview of the research on catalysis of nucleic acids, in particular catalytic RNAs (ribozymes) and DNAs (deoxyribozymes), under extreme and/or unusual conditions that may relate to prebiotic environments.

Survival of RNA Replicators is much Easier in Protocells than in Surface-Based, Spatial Systems

In RNA-World scenarios for the origin of life, replication is catalyzed by polymerase ribozymes. Replicating RNA systems are subject to invasion by non-functional parasitic strands. It is well-known that there are two ways to avoid the destruction of the system by parasites: spatial clustering in models with limited diffusion, or group selection in protocells. Here, we compare computational models of replication in spatial models and protocells as closely as possible in order to determine the relative importance of these mechanisms in the RNA World. For the survival of the polymerases, the replication rate must be greater than a minimum threshold value, k_min, and the mutation rate in replication must be less than a maximum value, M_max, which is known as the error threshold. For the protocell models, we find that k_min is substantially lower and M_max is substantially higher than for the equivalent spatial models; thus, the survival of polymerases is much easier in protocells than on surfaces. The results depend on the maximum number of strands permitted in one protocell or one lattice site in the spatial model, and on whether replication is limited by the supply of monomers or the population size of protocells. The substantial advantages that are seen in the protocell models relative to the spatial models are robust to changing these details. Thus, cooperative polymerases with limited accuracy would have found it much easier to operate inside lipid compartments, and this suggests that protocells may have been a very early step in the development of life. We consider cases where parasites have an equal replication rate to polymerases, and cases where parasites multiply twice as fast as polymerases. The advantage of protocell models over spatial models is increased when the parasites multiply faster.

Mineral surfaces select for longer RNA molecules

We report empirically and theoretically that multiple prebiotic minerals can selectively accumulate longer RNAs, with selectivity enhanced at higher temperatures. We further demonstrate that surfaces can be combined with a catalytic RNA to form longer RNA polymers, supporting the potential of minerals to develop genetic information on the early Earth.

Adsorption of RNA on mineral surfaces and mineral precipitates

The prebiotic significance of laboratory experiments that study the interactions between oligomeric RNA and mineral species is difficult to know. Natural exemplars of specific minerals can differ widely depending on their provenance. While laboratory-generated samples of synthetic minerals can have controlled compositions, they are often viewed as "unnatural". Here, we show how trends in the interaction of RNA with natural mineral specimens, synthetic mineral specimens, and co-precipitated pairs of synthetic minerals, can make a persuasive case that the observed interactions reflect the composition of the minerals themselves, rather than their being simply examples of large molecules associating nonspecifically with large surfaces. Using this approach, we have discovered Periodic Table trends in the binding of oligomeric RNA to alkaline earth carbonate minerals and alkaline earth sulfate minerals, where those trends are the same when measured in natural and synthetic minerals. They are also validated by comparison of co-precipitated synthetic minerals. We also show differential binding of RNA to polymorphic forms of calcium carbonate, and the stabilization of bound RNA on aragonite. These have relevance to the prebiotic stabilization of RNA, where such carbonate minerals are expected to have been abundant, as they appear to be today on Mars.