Update on the diagnosis and management of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in a child with STEC-HUS: a forgotten complication

BACKGROUND

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is an extremely rare complication of hemolytic uremic syndrome related to Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC-HUS) and, to our knowledge, only one patient has been reported to have received pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT). Furthermore, STEC-HUS is not usually included among EPI causes.

CASE DIAGNOSIS/TREATMENT

We report a 4-year-old girl with STEC-HUS who required dialysis and 4 days after admission developed acute pancreatitis (ACPAN) and diabetes mellitus (DM). Amylase and lipase normalized 15 days later but on the 73rd day of admission, she presented abdominal discomfort, bloating, and bulky and malodorous stools with a low fecal elastase-1 level (FE-1) of 15.74 µg/g confirming EPI diagnosis. She received 3 months of PERT until normalization of FE-1 levels.

CONCLUSIONS

In children with STEC-HUS with ACPAN or DM, a high index of suspicion for EPI is required, since its symptoms are often mild, nonspecific, or delayed. In addition, STEC-HUS should be further recognized as a cause of secondary EPI.

The clinical, economic, and humanistic burden of treatments for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and cost-effectiveness of treatments: A systematic literature review

BACKGROUND

To examine the burden of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), specifically the clinical impact of EPI on patients, their quality of life (QoL) and the cost-effectiveness of existing treatments.

METHODS

A systematic literature review was conducted using key search terms for the clinical, economic, and humanistic burden. Databases were searched from 2010 to 2022, with articles screened independently by 2 reviewers at abstract and full-text stage against pre-defined eligibility criteria.

RESULTS

Seventy-one publications were identified that reported relevant clinical, humanistic, and economic data. Prevalence and incidence of EPI varied across identified studies; EPI appears to be especially prevalent as a comorbid condition in patients with cystic fibrosis. EPI has a large impact on QoL, with lower QoL scores in patients with EPI compared with those without EPI. The instruments used to assess QoL, however, were inconsistent across studies. Where reported, economic burden studies highlighted that patients with EPI have higher healthcare resource utilization compared with those without, with costs increasing with disease severity.

CONCLUSION

This systematic literature review highlights that patients with EPI have higher treatment costs and lower QoL scores than patients without EPI. The prevalence of EPI as a comorbid condition is high, particularly in patients with cystic fibrosis.

Validity and Diagnostic Ability of Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency Questionnaire in Turkish Patients

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) is a prevalent disease that is often underdiagnosed and undertreated, leading to resulting in diminished health-related quality of life. The PEI questionnaire (PEI-Q), a patient-reported outcome questionnaire developed to diagnose and evaluate PEI, is available only in English. The study aimed to provide a Turkish translation of PEI-Q and validate its reliability and diagnostic performance in a Turkish-speaking population with PEI. This study included 161 participants: 98 patients with PEI and 63 healthy controls. Participants underwent the PEI-Q test, and the results were statistically analyzed for reliability and validity. The diagnostic value of PEI-Q was determined using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Cronbach's alpha was used to assess internal consistency, while exploratory factor analysis was performed to determine construct validity and reveal the factor structure. The mean age of participants was 45.0 years, and 60.2% were male. Participants with PEI were significantly older than those without. Scores for abdominal, bowel movement, and total symptoms were significantly higher in patients with PEI than in controls. ROC analysis revealed good diagnostic value for PEI-Q, with areas under the curve ranging from 0.798 to 0.851 for different symptom scores. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were above 0.70, indicating good internal consistency, and exploratory factor analysis supported a 4-factor structure, accounting for 68.9% of the total variance. The Turkish version of the PEI-Q is a reliable, easy-to-use, and valid screening tool for diagnosing PEI. It consistently assesses symptoms and quality of life in patients with PEI, helping to inform diagnosis and treatment.

Cystic fibrosis and fat malabsorption: Pathophysiology of the cystic fibrosis gastrointestinal tract and the impact of highly effective CFTR modulator therapy

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a progressive, genetic, multi-organ disease affecting the respiratory, digestive, endocrine, and reproductive systems. CF can affect any aspect of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, pancreas, liver, and gall bladder. GI pathophysiology associated with CF results from CF membrane conductance regulator (CFTR) dysfunction. The majority of people with CF (pwCF) experience exocrine pancreatic insufficiency resulting in malabsorption of nutrients and malnutrition. Additionally, other factors can cause or worsen fat malabsorption, including the potential for short gut syndrome with a history of meconium ileus, hepatobiliary diseases, and disrupted intraluminal factors, such as inadequate bile salts, abnormal pH, intestinal microbiome changes, and small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Signs and symptoms associated with fat malabsorption, such as abdominal pain, bloating, malodorous flatus, gastroesophageal reflux, nausea, anorexia, steatorrhea, constipation, and distal intestinal obstruction syndrome, are seen in pwCF despite the use of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy. Given the association of poor nutrition status with lung function decline and increased mortality, aggressive nutrition support is essential in CF care to optimize growth in children and to achieve and maintain a healthy body mass index in adults. The introduction of highly effective CFTR modulator therapy and other advances in CF care have profoundly changed the course of CF management. However, GI symptoms in some pwCF may persist. The use of current knowledge of the pathophysiology of the CF GI tract as well as appropriate, individualized management of GI symptoms continue to be integral components of care for pwCF.

Symptoms, burden, and unmet needs of patients living with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: a narrative review of the patient experience

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) stems from a deficiency of functional pancreatic enzymes with consequent maldigestion and malnutrition. EPI shares clinical symptoms and manifestations with other disorders and is a considerable burden to individuals affected. In this narrative review, we analyzed the literature to identify relevant publications on living with EPI with the scope of individuating evidence gaps, including those related to symptoms, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), emotional functioning, disease burden, presence of comorbidities, and the use of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT). Abdominal pain emerged as one of the most prominent symptoms. HRQoL was affected in EPI, but no articles examined emotional functioning. Comorbidities reported involved other pancreatic disorders, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, sarcopenia and osteopenia, cardiovascular disorders, bacterial overgrowth, and nutritional deficiencies. PERT was found to be effective in improving EPI symptoms and was well tolerated by most individuals. Our review revealed a dearth of literature evidence on patients' experience with EPI, such as emotional functioning and disease burden. We also revealed that studies on long-term effects of PERT are missing, as are studies that would help advance the understanding of the disease and its progression, risk/mitigating factors, and comorbidities. Future studies should address these identified gaps.

The Role of Surgery in Chronic Pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis is an inflammatory disease characterized by the progressive replacement of the functional pancreatic parenchyma with fibrotic tissue. This leads to exocrine and endocrine insufficiency. A typical clinical feature is recurrent, severe upper abdominal pain, which negatively affects the patient's quality of life. Conservative treatment as the method of first choice does not prevent irreversible changes in the pancreatic tissue. While endoscopic drainage can have some benefits in the early stages of the disease, it is generally unsuccessful in the long term. Based on recent studies, surgical intervention appears to be the most suitable treatment option for improving the patient's quality of life. It currently includes a wide range of effective, proven drainage and resection procedures. Advances in surgical techniques and postsurgical intensive care have increased the frequency of pancreatic surgeries, while improvements in diagnostic methods have increased the number of patients who meet the indications for such surgery, including elderly and chronically ill patients. However, despite mortality rates decreasing, high morbidity rates remain a problem. Currently, in patients with an inflammatory mass in the head of the pancreas, pyloric and duodenal-preserving resection offers the best results. Different variants of these techniques appear to produce similar results. Various techniques have shown similar outcomes in terms of mortality, morbidity, pain relief, life expectancy and improved quality of life. The optimal timing of surgery has been addressed by several studies and most surgeons now favor early surgical intervention in order to prevent extensive destruction of pancreatic tissue.

Pancreatic duct pressure: A review of technical aspects and clinical significance

Pancreatic duct pressure (PDP) dynamics comprise an intricately modulated system that helps maintain homeostasis of pancreatic function. It is affected by various factors, including the rate of pancreatic fluid secretion, patency of the ductal system, sphincter of Oddi function, and pancreatic fluid characteristics. Disease states such as acute and chronic pancreatitis can alter the normal PDP dynamics. Ductal hypertension or increased PDP is suspected to be involved in the pathogenesis of pancreatic pain, endocrine and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, and recurrent pancreatitis. This review provides a comprehensive appraisal of the available literature on PDP, including the methods used in the measurement and clinical implications of elevated PDP.

Evaluation and management of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: pearls and pitfalls

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The diagnosis and management of exocrine pancreatic dysfunction (EPD) can be challenging. EPD classically results from conditions that cause loss of pancreatic acinar cell function and decreased digestive enzyme production. However, several conditions may contribute to signs or symptoms of EPD with otherwise normal pancreatic exocrine function. A thoughtful approach to considering these conditions, along with their specific therapies, can guide a tailored management approach.

RECENT FINDINGS

An EPD severity classification schema has been proposed, which emphasizes a shift towards a more restrictive prescription of pancreas enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) for patients with milder EPD. In contrast, PERT use has been associated with a measurable survival benefit among individuals with EPD and pancreatic cancer, so the prescription of PERT may be more liberal in this population. Recent publications in the cystic fibrosis population offer pearls guiding the titration and optimization of PERT.

SUMMARY

Among individuals with severe EPD, PERT is an effective therapy. Among individuals with milder EPD, although PERT is effective, there may be opportunities to provide additional and potentially more effective therapies.

Survey of Pancreatic Enzyme Replacement Therapy Dosing Experiences in Adults with Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency

OBJECTIVES

Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) is essential for treating exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), a condition where the pancreas does not produce adequate enzymes for digestion. This study delves into the real-world experiences of individuals with EPI regarding their PERT usage.

METHODS

A study was executed using a tailored survey targeting individuals with EPI. Quantitative data analysis assessed factors such as age, duration of EPI, elastase levels, choice of PERT, perceived effectiveness of titration, and the time taken for effective titration.

RESULTS

The study comprised 111 participants, predominantly female (93%) and hailing from North America (79%). Of these, 36.7% had been diagnosed with EPI for 3 or more years. A significant 72% felt they were not consistently consuming adequate enzymes, with only 22% believing their intake was sufficient. There were 44 participants (42%) still in the process of adjusting their enzyme doses. In contrast, 17 participants (16%) took a few weeks, 21 (20%) a few months, 11 (10%) over six months, 10 (9%) more than a year, and 3 (3%) several years for dose adjustment. Regarding enzyme titration advice, 30 participants (29%) received vague guidance, while 22 (21%) found the advice beneficial.

CONCLUSIONS

This study underscores the pressing need for enhanced PERT dosing guidance. The insights gleaned spotlight the prevalent undertreatment across the entire EPI demographic, including in those with lesser-studied co-conditions.

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency in diabetes mellitus

Diabetes is disease of both the endo- and exocrine parts of the pancreas. Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) can occur in every 2–3 patients with diabetes and affect not only the quality, but also life expectancy. At the same time, the diagnosis and treatment of PEI is not getting enough attention. The endocrinologist, as the main specialist leading patients with diabetes, can diagnose and treat patients with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and diabetes using adequate doses of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT).

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency in diabetes mellitus

Diabetes is disease of both the endo- and exocrine parts of the pancreas. Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) can occur in every 2–3 patients with diabetes and affect not only the quality, but also life expectancy. At the same time, the diagnosis and treatment of PEI is not getting enough attention. The endocrinologist, as the main specialist leading patients with diabetes, can diagnose and treat patients with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and diabetes using adequate doses of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT).

Casting a Wider NET: Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency Induced by Somatostatin Analogues among Patients with Neuroendocrine Tumours?

Somatostatin-analogues (SSAs) are a first-line treatment of unresectable neuroendocrine tumours (NETs). However, SSAs inhibit pancreatic secretions, which could lead to pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI). PEI is known to be detrimental to patient quality of life and nutritional status. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of SSAs on pancreatic exocrine function in patients with NETs, using the ¹³C-mixed triglyceride breath test (¹³C-MTGT). Exocrine function was assessed using the ¹³C-MTGT at baseline and after a third SSA injection (two months). A quotient of ¹³CO₂/¹²CO₂ was measured by mass spectrometry, and the cumulative percent dose recovered at 6 h (cPDR) is reported. The secondary endpoints investigated were change in weight, HbA1C, and vitamin D levels. Ten patients completed the study. Exocrine function reduced in all patients (n = 10) following SSA therapy (median reduction from baseline: -23.4% (range: -42.1-0.5%, p = 0.005)). vitamin D levels decreased in all but one patient (median decrease from baseline: -26.5%, (-44.7-10%; p = 0.038)), and median HbA1C levels increased by 8.0% (0-59.3%; p = 0.008). Change in weight was not significant (median decrease from baseline: -0.21% (-4.5-3.5%, p = 1.000)). SSA therapy has a consistent impact on exocrine function from early in the treatment course, but the long-term clinical effects of this remain to be defined. Further studies are required to determine the clinical relevance of this observation and optimise the management of PEI in this cohort.

Prevalence of Radiological Chronic Pancreatitis and Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency in Patients with Decompensated Liver Disease: Is Fecal Elastase Useful in This Setting?

Chronic alcohol consumption is a well-known etiological factor for both chronic pancreatitis (CP) and liver cirrhosis. However, there is discussion over how often these two entities are present together in the same patient. The main goal of our study is to establish the prevalence of CP and low fecal elastase (FE-1) in patients with decompensated liver disease (DLD). In addition, we aim to identify the demographic, epidemiological and clinical factors associated with EPI and CP in patients with decompensated liver cirrhosis. This was an observational single-center study including 119 consecutive patients hospitalized for acute decompensation of cirrhosis, mostly of alcoholic etiology. Patients underwent computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to assess the radiological features of CP. We also performed two FE-1 tests and complete blood tests to assess the presence of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) and nutritional status, including micronutrients. The results of our study show that 32 patients (26.9%) had low fecal elastase suggesting EPI and 11 (9.2%) had CP. Patients meeting radiological CP criteria had lower FE-1 than patients without CP. There were no statistically significant differences in micronutrient deficiencies according to the presence of CP or not. Likewise, we did not find any statistically significant differences in micronutrient deficiencies among patients with normal and low FE-1 indicative of EPI. FE-1 alone may not be suitable for assessing EPI in patients with acute DLD. Detecting co-existing pancreatic disease may be important in a subset of patients with DLD, when the FE-1 levels are significantly low, potentially suggestive of a pancreatic anomaly. Moreover, the clinical manifestations of EPI and CP are not useful in detecting CP in DLD patients. Likewise, CP cannot explain all causes of EPI in these patients.

Exocrine pancreas insufficiency in chronic pancreatitis - Risk factors and associations with complications. A multicentre study of 1869 patients

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

There is scarce information about risk factors for exocrine pancreas insufficiency (EPI) in chronic pancreatitis (CP), and how it associates with other complications. The aim of the present study was to examine risk factors for EPI and associations to procedures and other CP related complications in a large, Northern European cohort.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We retrieved cross-sectional data on demographics, status on EPI, aetiological risk factors for CP, CP related complications as well as surgical and endoscopic treatment from the Scandinavian Baltic Pancreatic Club Database. Associations were assessed by univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses. Results are presented as odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals.

RESULTS

We included 1869 patients with probable or definitive CP in the study. Exocrine pancreas insufficiency was present in 849 (45.4%) of patients. In multivariate analyses, EPI associated with smoking aetiology (OR 1.47 (1.20-1.79), p < 0.001), and nutritional/metabolic aetiology (OR 0.52 (0.31-0.87), p = 0.01) to CP. Pancreatic or common bile duct stenting procedure and pancreatic resection were both associated with EPI (ORs 1.44 (1.15-1.80), p = 0.002 and 1.54 (1.02-2.33), p = 0.04, respectively). The presence of diabetes mellitus (OR 2.45 (1.92-3.15), p < 0.001), bile duct stenosis (OR 1.48 (1.09-2.00), p = 0.02) and underweight (2.05 (OR 1.40-3.02), p < 0.001) were all associated with presence of EPI.

CONCLUSIONS

Smoking, bile duct stenosis, previous stenting and resection procedures are all associated with EPI in patients with CP. Presence of EPI were also associated with malnutrition and diabetes mellitus. Hence, intensive nutritional surveillance is needed in these patients.

Sarcopenia in Chronic Pancreatitis - Prevalence, Diagnosis, Mechanisms and Potential Therapies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To investigate the prevalence, pathogenesis, diagnosis, clinical sequelae, and management of sarcopenia to improve mortality and quality of life in those with Chronic Pancreatitis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Sarcopenia is prevalent in chronic pancreatitis and can significantly affect clinical outcomes. Sarcopenia is prevalent in chronic pancreatitis. While effects on some clinical outcomes is has been shown, there is a significant gap in knowledge regarding effects on outcomes, pathophysiology, and options for management.

Intestinal Absorption of Lipids Using a Pancreatic Enzyme-Free Nutritional Supplement in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Crossover Pilot Trial

Nutritional supplements for patients with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) typically utilize pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) which is associated with gastrointestinal side effects. We evaluated serum triglyceride levels in patients with cystic fibrosis following consumption of an enzyme-modified oil oral nutritional supplement (EMO-ONS) versus a standard triacylglycerol-based ONS product (TAG-ONS) used concomitantly with PERT and patient tolerability between the two approaches. Ten subjects with CF and EPI taking PERT were enrolled in a single-center, double-blind, cross-over proof of concept trial. Five subjects randomized to Arm 1 were administered a PERT placebo and EMO-ONS and 5 subjects in Arm 2 were administered TAG-ONS+PERT. After 4 to 14 days, subjects received the opposite ONS. Serum triglyceride levels were measured at baseline and hourly for 6 h. Following the above, subjects were randomly assigned to receive 2 daily servings of EMO-ONS+PERT placebo or TAG-ONS+PERT at home for 7-days, self-reporting gastrointestinal symptoms daily. Mean change in peak serum triglyceride levels were similar for both groups (EMO-ONS = 41.9 ± 46.7 mg/dL vs. TAG-ONS+PERT = 46.4 ± 44.1 mg/L; p = 0.85). There was no difference in mean ratio of the serum triglyceride AUC between the two groups (p = 0.58) or self-reported gastrointestinal tolerance. EMO-based products may provide a PERT-free alternative to traditional ONS products in patients with cystic fibrosis.

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency after bariatric surgery

BACKGROUND

Chronic abdominal complaints after bariatric surgery may be explained by pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI).

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to evaluate the clinical value of the Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency Questionnaire (PEI-Q) as a screening tool to identify patients with a high probability of having PEI.

SETTING

Outpatient clinic for bariatric surgery.

METHODS

Patients scheduled for a screening or follow-up appointment were asked to complete the PEI-Q and the Gastrointestinal Quality of Life Index questionnaire (GIQLI). Postoperative patients with a high PEI-Q score (0,6) were offered a fecalelastase (FE) test (abnormal if <200 μg/g).

RESULTS

Between June 2020 and February 2021, a total of 1600 of 1629 PEI-Qs were completed, 1073 (67%) of which after surgery. The postoperative group consisted mostly of females (81.9%), aged 49.0 ± 10.6 years, with a total weight loss of 30.3% ± 8.8%. Among them, 63.4% had abnormal PEI-Q scores compared with 34.9% before surgery (P < .01). In contrast, the median GIQLI score increased (119 [interquartile range (IQR), 107-129.25] versus 110 [IQR, 95-121.75]) before surgery (P < .01). Additionally, 310 FE tests were performed, of which only 11.9% was suggestive of PEI. No correlation was found between the PEI-Q scores and FE levels (c-index .55).

CONCLUSION

The PEI-Q in its current version is not able to distinguish complaints of PEI and bariatric surgery itself and therefore cannot be used as a screening tool for PEI. The specificity of the FE test seems to be reduced after surgery. Future research should include a more direct pancreatic function test, which may provide more insight into PEI after bariatric surgery.

Effect of Fat-Soluble Vitamins A, D, E and K on Vitamin Status and Metabolic Profile in Patients with Fat Malabsorption with and without Urolithiasis

Patients with intestinal fat malabsorption and urolithiasis are particularly at risk of acquiring fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies. The aim of the study was to evaluate the vitamin status and metabolic profile before and after the supplementation of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K (ADEK) in 51 patients with fat malabsorption due to different intestinal diseases both with and without urolithiasis. Anthropometric, clinical, blood and 24-h urinary parameters and dietary intake were assessed at baseline and after ADEK supplementation for two weeks. At baseline, serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity was higher in stone formers (SF; n = 10) than in non-stone formers (NSF; n = 41) but decreased significantly in SF patients after supplementation. Plasma vitamin D and E concentrations increased significantly and to a similar extent in both groups during intervention. While plasma vitamin D concentrations did not differ between the groups, vitamin E concentrations were significantly lower in the SF group than the NSF group before and after ADEK supplementation. Although vitamin D concentration increased significantly in both groups, urinary calcium excretion was not affected by ADEK supplementation. The decline in plasma AST activity in patients with urolithiasis might be attributed to the supplementation of ADEK. Patients with fat malabsorption may benefit from the supplementation of fat-soluble vitamins ADEK.

State of the Art in Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is defined as the maldigestion of foods due to inadequate pancreatic secretion, which can be caused by alterations in its stimulation, production, transport, or interaction with nutrients at duodenal level. The most frequent causes are chronic pancreatitis in adults and cystic fibrosis in children. The prevalence of EPI is high, varying according to its etiology, but it is considered to be underdiagnosed and undertreated. Its importance lies in the quality of life impairment that results from the malabsorption and malnutrition and in the increased morbidity and mortality, being associated with osteoporosis and cardiovascular events. The diagnosis is based on a set of symptoms, indicators of malnutrition, and an indirect non-invasive test in at-risk patients. The treatment of choice combines non-restrictive dietary measures with pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy to correct the associated symptoms and improve the nutritional status of patients. Non-responders require the adjustment of pancreatic enzyme therapy, the association of proton pump inhibitors, and/or the evaluation of alternative diagnoses such as bacterial overgrowth. This review offers an in-depth overview of EPI in order to support the proper management of this entity based on updated and integrated knowledge of its etiopathogenesis, prevalence, diagnosis, and treatment.

Pancreatectomy, Islet Cell Transplantation, and Nutrition Considerations

Pancreatic islet transplantation is a reliable approach for treating insulin-deficient diabetes. This established β-cell replacement approach has shown considerable improvements in the last 2 decades. It has helped achieve metabolic homeostasis and safe outcomes for a subset of patients with type 1 diabetes and severe pancreatitis. Nutrition support, until recently, was considered as a secondary factor, merely identified as a means of providing all the necessary nutrients for such patients. However, new literature suggests that several factors, such as the route, timing, quantity, and composition of all the nutrients administered, have key disease-altering properties and are vital during the perioperative management of such patients. This review will highlight the benefits of performing the clinical islet transplantation on a subgroup of patients with type 1 diabetes and pancreatitis and summarize new data that identify the pivotal role of nutrition support as a critical intervention in their management.

Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Type 1 and type 2 diabetes are often accompanied by mostly mild forms of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. Despite high prevalence, little is known about the clinical consequences of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and its optimal (nutritional) treatment. Even less is known if and to what extent exocrine pancreas insufficiency also affects glycemic control in diabetes. This article aims for summarizing current clinical knowledge on screening, diagnosis, and treatment and gives an overview on the pathophysiology of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in diabetes.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies reveal novel insights into the close interaction of acinar, ductal, and endocrine cells and the gut-pancreas axis. Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency is a clinically relevant, frequent but poorly understood disorder in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.