Chimeric Antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells targeting Epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) can inhibit tumor growth in ovarian cancer mouse model

Chimeric antigen receptor-immune cells against solid tumors: Structures, mechanisms, recent advances, and future developments

ABSTRACT

The advent of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell immunotherapies has led to breakthroughs in the treatment of hematological malignancies. However, their success in treating solid tumors has been limited. CAR-natural killer (NK) cells have several advantages over CAR-T cells because NK cells can be made from pre-existing cell lines or allogeneic NK cells with a mismatched major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which means they are more likely to become an "off-the-shelf" product. Moreover, they can kill cancer cells via CAR-dependent/independent pathways and have limited toxicity. Macrophages are the most malleable immune cells in the body. These cells can efficiently infiltrate into tumors and are present in large numbers in tumor microenvironments (TMEs). Importantly, CAR-macrophages (CAR-Ms) have recently yielded exciting preclinical results in several solid tumors. Nevertheless, CAR-T, CAR-NK, and CAR-M all have their own advantages and limitations. In this review, we systematically discuss the current status, progress, and the major hurdles of CAR-T cells, CAR-NK cells, and CAR-M as they relate to five aspects: CAR structure, therapeutic mechanisms, the latest research progress, current challenges and solutions, and comparison according to the existing research in order to provide a reasonable option for treating solid tumors in the future.

Exploring the Immunological Profile in Breast Cancer: Recent Advances in Diagnosis and Prognosis through Circulating Tumor Cells

This review offers a comprehensive exploration of the intricate immunological landscape of breast cancer (BC), focusing on recent advances in diagnosis and prognosis through the analysis of circulating tumor cells (CTCs). Positioned within the broader context of BC research, it underscores the pivotal role of the immune system in shaping the disease's progression. The primary objective of this investigation is to synthesize current knowledge on the immunological aspects of BC, with a particular emphasis on the diagnostic and prognostic potential offered by CTCs. This review adopts a thorough examination of the relevant literature, incorporating recent breakthroughs in the field. The methodology section succinctly outlines the approach, with a specific focus on CTC analysis and its implications for BC diagnosis and prognosis. Through this review, insights into the dynamic interplay between the immune system and BC are highlighted, with a specific emphasis on the role of CTCs in advancing diagnostic methodologies and refining prognostic assessments. Furthermore, this review presents objective and substantiated results, contributing to a deeper understanding of the immunological complexity in BC. In conclusion, this investigation underscores the significance of exploring the immunological profile of BC patients, providing valuable insights into novel advances in diagnosis and prognosis through the utilization of CTCs. The objective presentation of findings emphasizes the crucial role of the immune system in BC dynamics, thereby opening avenues for enhanced clinical management strategies.

CAR-T Cell Therapy in Ovarian Cancer: Where Are We Now?

The success of chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapies in the treatment of hematologic malignancies has led to the investigation of their potential in the treatment of solid tumors, including ovarian cancer. While the immunosuppressive microenvironment of ovarian cancer has been a barrier in their implementation, several early phase clinical trials are currently evaluating CAR-T cell therapies targeting mesothelin, folate receptor a, HER2, MUC16, and B7H3. Ongoing challenges include cytokine-associated and "on-target, off-tumor" toxicities, while most common adverse events include cytokine release syndrome, hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis/macrophage activation-like syndrome (HLH/MAS), and neurotoxicity. In the present review, we summarize the current status of CAR-T therapy in ovarian cancer and discuss future directions.

CAR-based immunotherapy for breast cancer: peculiarities, ongoing investigations, and future strategies

Surgery, chemotherapy, and endocrine therapy have improved the overall survival and postoperative recurrence rates of Luminal A, Luminal B, and HER2-positive breast cancers but treatment modalities for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) with poor prognosis remain limited. The effective application of the rapidly developing chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy in hematological tumors provides new ideas for the treatment of breast cancer. Choosing suitable and specific targets is crucial for applying CAR-T therapy for breast cancer treatment. In this paper, we summarize CAR-T therapy's effective targets and potential targets in different subtypes based on the existing research progress, especially for TNBC. CAR-based immunotherapy has resulted in advancements in the treatment of breast cancer. CAR-macrophages, CAR-NK cells, and CAR-mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) may be more effective and safer for treating solid tumors, such as breast cancer. However, the tumor microenvironment (TME) of breast tumors and the side effects of CAR-T therapy pose challenges to CAR-based immunotherapy. CAR-T cells and CAR-NK cells-derived exosomes are advantageous in tumor therapy. Exosomes carrying CAR for breast cancer immunotherapy are of immense research value and may provide a treatment modality with good treatment effects. In this review, we provide an overview of the development and challenges of CAR-based immunotherapy in treating different subtypes of breast cancer and discuss the progress of CAR-expressing exosomes for breast cancer treatment. We elaborate on the development of CAR-T cells in TNBC therapy and the prospects of using CAR-macrophages, CAR-NK cells, and CAR-MSCs for treating breast cancer.

CAR-T cell immunotherapy for ovarian cancer: hushing the silent killer

As the most lethal gynecologic oncological indication, carcinoma of the ovary has been ranked as the 5th cause of cancer-related mortality in women, with a high percentage of the patients being diagnosed at late stages of the disease and a five-year survival of ~ 30%. Ovarian cancer patients conventionally undergo surgery for tumor removal followed by platinum- or taxane-based chemotherapy; however, a high percentage of patients experience tumor relapse. Cancer immunotherapy has been regarded as a silver lining in the treatment of patients with various immunological or oncological indications; however, mirvetuximab soravtansine (a folate receptor α-specific mAb) and bevacizumab (a VEGF-A-specific mAb) are the only immunotherapeutics approved for the treatment of ovarian cancer patients. Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy has achieved tremendous clinical success in the treatment of patients with certain B-cell lymphomas and leukemias, as well as multiple myeloma. In the context of solid tumors, CAR-T therapies face serious obstacles that limit their therapeutic benefit. Such hindrances include the immunosuppressive nature of solid tumors, impaired tumor infiltration, lack of qualified tumor-associated antigens, and compromised stimulation and persistence of CAR-Ts following administration. Over the past years, researchers have made arduous attempts to apply CAR-T therapy to ovarian cancer. In this review, we outline the principles of CAR-T therapy and then highlight its limitations in the context of solid tumors. Ultimately, we focus on preclinical and clinical findings achieved in CAR-T-mediated targeting of different ovarian cancer-associated target antigens.

A review of strategies to overcome immune resistance in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer

Immunotherapy has become integral in cancer therapeutics over the past two decades and is now part of standard-of-care treatment in multiple cancer types. While various biomarkers and pathway alterations such as dMMR, CDK12, and AR-V7 have been identified in advanced prostate cancer to predict immunotherapy responsiveness, the vast majority of prostate cancer remain intrinsically immune-resistant, as evidenced by low response rates to anti-PD(L)1 monotherapy. Since regulatory approval of the vaccine therapy sipuleucel-T in the biomarker-unselected population, there has not been much success with immunotherapy treatment in advanced prostate cancer. Researchers have looked at various strategies to overcome immune resistance, including the identification of more biomarkers and the combination of immunotherapy with existing effective prostate cancer treatments. On the horizon, novel drugs using bispecific T-cell engager (BiTE) and chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) technology are being explored and have shown promising early efficacy in this disease. Here we discuss the features of the tumour microenvironment that predispose to immune resistance and rational strategies to enhance antitumour responsiveness in advanced prostate cancer.

Update on immune-based therapy strategies targeting cancer stem cells

Accumulating data reveals that tumors possess a specialized subset of cancer cells named cancer stem cells (CSCs), responsible for metastasis and recurrence of malignancies, with various properties such as self-renewal, heterogenicity, and capacity for drug resistance. Some signaling pathways or processes like Notch, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), Hedgehog (Hh), and Wnt, as well as CSCs' surface markers such as CD44, CD123, CD133, and epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) have pivotal roles in acquiring CSCs properties. Therefore, targeting CSC-related signaling pathways and surface markers might effectively eradicate tumors and pave the way for cancer survival. Since current treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy cannot eradicate all of the CSCs and tumor relapse may happen following temporary recovery, improving novel and more efficient therapeutic options to combine with current treatments is required. Immunotherapy strategies are the new therapeutic modalities with promising results in targeting CSCs. Here, we review the targeting of CSCs by immunotherapy strategies such as dendritic cell (DC) vaccines, chimeric antigen receptors (CAR)-engineered immune cells, natural killer-cell (NK-cell) therapy, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), checkpoint inhibitors, and the use of oncolytic viruses (OVs) in pre-clinical and clinical studies. This review will mainly focus on blood malignancies but also describe solid cancers.

"DEPHENCE" system-a novel regimen of therapy that is urgently needed in the high-grade serous ovarian cancer-a focus on anti-cancer stem cell and anti-tumor microenvironment targeted therapies

Ovarian cancer, especially high-grade serous type, is the most lethal gynecological malignancy. The lack of screening programs and the scarcity of symptomatology result in the late diagnosis in about 75% of affected women. Despite very demanding and aggressive surgical treatment, multiple-line chemotherapy regimens and both approved and clinically tested targeted therapies, the overall survival of patients is still unsatisfactory and disappointing. Research studies have recently brought some more understanding of the molecular diversity of the ovarian cancer, its unique intraperitoneal biology, the role of cancer stem cells, and the complexity of tumor microenvironment. There is a growing body of evidence that individualization of the treatment adjusted to the molecular and biochemical signature of the tumor as well as to the medical status of the patient should replace or supplement the foregoing therapy. In this review, we have proposed the principles of the novel regimen of the therapy that we called the "DEPHENCE" system, and we have extensively discussed the results of the studies focused on the ovarian cancer stem cells, other components of cancer metastatic niche, and, finally, clinical trials targeting these two environments. Through this, we have tried to present the evolving landscape of treatment options and put flesh on the experimental approach to attack the high-grade serous ovarian cancer multidirectionally, corresponding to the "DEPHENCE" system postulates.

Mechanisms of Action and Limitations of Monoclonal Antibodies and Single Chain Fragment Variable (scFv) in the Treatment of Cancer

Monoclonal antibodies are among the most effective tools for detecting tumor-associated antigens. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved more than 36 therapeutic antibodies for developing novel alternative therapies that have significant success rates in fighting cancer. However, some functional limitations have been described, such as their access to solid tumors and low interaction with the immune system. Single-chain variable fragments (scFv) are versatile and easy to produce, and being an attractive tool for use in immunotherapy models. The small size of scFv can be advantageous for treatment due to its short half-life and other characteristics related to the structural and functional aspects of the antibodies. Therefore, the main objective of this review was to describe the current situation regarding the mechanisms of action, applications, and limitations of monoclonal antibodies and scFv in the treatment of cancer.

Efficacy of Bispecific Antibody Targeting EpCAM and CD3 for Immunotherapy in Ovarian Cancer Ascites: An Experimental Study

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore the value of M701, targeting epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) and CD3, in the immunotherapy of ovarian cancer ascites by the in vitro assay.

METHODS

The expression of EpCAM in ovarian cancer tissues was analyzed by databases. The EpCAM expression and immune cell infiltration in different foci of ovarian cancer were detected by 8-channel flow cytometry. The toxic effect of M701 on OVCAR3 was tested using the in vitro cytotoxicity assay. The 3D cell culture and drug intervention experiments were performed to evaluate the therapeutic effect of M701 in ovarian cancer specimens. Flow cytometry was used to examine the effect of M701 on the binding of immune cells to tumor cells and the activation capacity of T cells.

RESULTS

The results of the bioinformatic analysis showed that the expression of EpCAM in ovarian cancer tissue was significantly higher than that in normal ovarian tissue. The 8-channel flow cytometry of clinical samples showed that the EpCAM expression and lymphocyte infiltration were significantly heterogeneous among ovarian cancer patients and lesions at different sites. The in vitro experiment results showed that M701 had a significant killing effect on OVCAR3 cells. M701 also obviously killed primary tumor cells derived from some patients with ovarian cancer ascites. M701 could mediate the binding of CD3⁺ T cells to EpCAM⁺ tumor cells and induce T cell activation in a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

M701 showed significant inhibitory activity on tumor cells derived from ovarian cancer ascites, which had a promising application in immunotherapy for patients with ovarian cancer ascites.

CAR-T Cells in the Treatment of Ovarian Cancer: A Promising Cell Therapy

Ovarian cancer (OC) is among the most common gynecologic malignancies with a poor prognosis and a high mortality rate. Most patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage (stage III or IV), with 5-year survival rates ranging from 25% to 47% worldwide. Surgical resection and first-line chemotherapy are the main treatment modalities for OC. However, patients usually relapse within a few years of initial treatment due to resistance to chemotherapy. Cell-based therapies, particularly adoptive T-cell therapy and chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy, represent an alternative immunotherapy approach with great potential for hematologic malignancies. However, the use of CAR-T-cell therapy for the treatment of OC is still associated with several difficulties. In this review, we comprehensively discuss recent innovations in CAR-T-cell engineering to improve clinical efficacy, as well as strategies to overcome the limitations of CAR-T-cell therapy in OC.

Current advances and challenges in CAR T-Cell therapy for solid tumors: tumor-associated antigens and the tumor microenvironment

The past decade has witnessed ongoing progress in immune therapy to ameliorate human health. As an emerging technique, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy has the advantages of specific killing of cancer cells, a high remission rate of cancer-induced symptoms, rapid tumor eradication, and long-lasting tumor immunity, opening a new window for tumor treatment. However, challenges remain in CAR T-cell therapy for solid tumors due to target diversity, tumor heterogeneity, and the complex microenvironment. In this review, we have outlined the development of the CAR T-cell technique, summarized the current advances in tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), and highlighted the importance of tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) or neoantigens for solid tumors. We also addressed the challenge of the TAA binding domain in CARs to overcome off-tumor toxicity. Moreover, we illustrated the dominant tumor microenvironment (TME)-induced challenges and new strategies based on TME-associated antigens (TMAs) for solid tumor CAR T-cell therapy.

The current landscape of CAR T-cell therapy for solid tumors: Mechanisms, research progress, challenges, and counterstrategies

The successful outcomes of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy in treating hematologic cancers have increased the previously unprecedented excitement to use this innovative approach in treating various forms of human cancers. Although researchers have put a lot of work into maximizing the effectiveness of these cells in the context of solid tumors, few studies have discussed challenges and potential strategies to overcome them. Restricted trafficking and infiltration into the tumor site, hypoxic and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), antigen escape and heterogeneity, CAR T-cell exhaustion, and severe life-threatening toxicities are a few of the major obstacles facing CAR T-cells. CAR designs will need to go beyond the traditional architectures in order to get over these limitations and broaden their applicability to a larger range of malignancies. To enhance the safety, effectiveness, and applicability of this treatment modality, researchers are addressing the present challenges with a wide variety of engineering strategies as well as integrating several therapeutic tactics. In this study, we reviewed the antigens that CAR T-cells have been clinically trained to recognize, as well as counterstrategies to overcome the limitations of CAR T-cell therapy, such as recent advances in CAR T-cell engineering and the use of several therapies in combination to optimize their clinical efficacy in solid tumors.

Endometriosis Stem Cells as a Possible Main Target for Carcinogenesis of Endometriosis-Associated Ovarian Cancer (EAOC)

Endometriosis is a serious recurrent disease impairing the quality of life and fertility, and being a risk for some histologic types of ovarian cancer defined as endometriosis-associated ovarian cancers (EAOC). The presence of stem cells in the endometriotic foci could account for the proliferative, migrative and angiogenic activity of the lesions. Their phenotype and sources have been described. The similarly disturbed expression of several genes, miRNAs, galectins and chaperones has been observed both in endometriotic lesions and in ovarian or endometrial cancer. The importance of stem cells for nascence and sustain of malignant tumors is commonly appreciated. Although the proposed mechanisms promoting carcinogenesis leading from endometriosis into the EAOC are not completely known, they have been discussed in several articles. However, the role of endometriosis stem cells (ESCs) has not been discussed in this context. Here, we postulate that ESCs may be a main target for the carcinogenesis of EAOC and present the possible sequence of events resulting finally in the development of EAOC.

Efficacy evaluation of multi-immunotherapy in ovarian cancer: From bench to bed

Ovarian cancer, one of the most common gynecological malignancies, is characterized by high mortality and poor prognosis. Cytoreductive surgery and chemotherapy remain the mainstay of ovarian cancer treatment, and most women experience recurrence after standard care therapies. There is compelling evidence that ovarian cancer is an immunogenic tumor. For example, the accumulation of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes is associated with increased survival, while increases in immunosuppressive regulatory T cells are correlated with poor clinical outcomes. Therefore, immunotherapies targeting components of the tumor microenvironment have been gradually integrated into the existing treatment options, including immune checkpoint blockade, adoptive cell therapy, and cancer vaccines. Immunotherapies have changed guidelines for maintenance treatment and established a new paradigm in ovarian cancer treatment. Despite single immunotherapies targeting DNA repair mechanisms, immune checkpoints, and angiogenesis bringing inspiring efficacy, only a subset of patients can benefit much from it. Thus, the multi-immunotherapy investigation remains an active area for ovarian cancer treatment. The current review provides an overview of various clinically oriented forms of multi-immunotherapy and explores potentially effective combinational therapies for ovarian cancer.

Prostate cancer immunotherapy: a review of recent advancements with novel treatment methods and efficacy

Immunotherapy remains to be an appealing treatment option for prostate cancer with some documented promise. Prostate cancer is traditionally considered as an immunologically "cold" tumor with low tumor mutation burden, low expression of PD-L1, sparse T-cell infiltration, and a immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Sipuleucel-T (Provenge) is the first FDA approved immunotherapeutic agent for the treatment of asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic metastatic castrate resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC); demonstrating a benefit in overall survival. However various clinical trials by immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and their combinations with other drugs have shown limited responses in mCRPC. Up to now, only a small subset of patients with mismatch repair deficiency/microsatellite instability high and CDK12 mutations can clinically benefit from ICIs and/or their combinations with other agents, such as DNA damage agents. The existence of a large heterogeneity in genomic alterations and a complex TME in prostate cancer suggests the need for identifying new immunotherapeutic targets. As well as designing personalized immunotherapy strategies based on patient-specific molecular signatures. There is also a need to adjust strategies to overcome histologic barriers such as tissue hypoxia and dense stroma. The racial differences of immunological responses between men of diverse ethnicities also merit further investigation to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy and better patient selection in prostate cancer.

A promising antitumor method: Targeting CSC with immune cells modified with CAR

Tumors pose a great threat to human health; as a subgroup of tumor cells, cancer stem cells (CSCs) contribute to the genesis, development, metastasis, and recurrence of tumors because of their enhanced proliferation and multidirectional differentiation. Thus, a critical step in tumor treatment is to inhibit CSCs. Researchers have proposed many methods to inhibit or reduce CSCs, including monoclonal antibodies targeting specific surface molecules of CSCs, signal pathway inhibitors, and energy metabolic enzyme inhibitors and inducing differentiation therapy. Additionally, immunotherapy with immune cells engineered with a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) showed favorable results. However, there are few comprehensive reviews in this area. In this review, we summarize the recent CSC targets used for CSC inhibition and the different immune effector cells (T cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages) which are engineered with CAR used for CSC therapy. Finally, we list the main challenges and options in targeting CSC with CAR-based immunotherapy. The design targeting two tumor antigens (one CSC antigen and one mature common tumor antigen) should be more reasonable and practical; meanwhile, we highlight the potential of CAR-NK in tumor treatment.

Immunotherapy and immunoengineering for breast cancer; a comprehensive insight into CAR-T cell therapy advancements, challenges and prospects

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer (BC) is a highly prevalent solid cancer with a high-rise infiltration of immune cells, turning it into a significant candidate for tumor-specific immunotherapies. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells are emerging as immunotherapeutic tools with genetically engineered receptors to efficiently recognize and attack tumor cells that express specific target antigens. Technological advancements in CAR design have provided five generations of CAR-T cells applicable to a wide range of cancer patients while boosting CAR-T cell therapy safety. However, CAR-T cell therapy is ineffective against breast cancer because of the loss of specified antigens, the immunosuppressive nature of the tumor and CAR-T cell-induced toxicities. Next-generation CAR-T cells actively pass through the tumor vascular barriers, persist for extended periods and disrupt the tumor microenvironment (TME) to block immune escape.

CONCLUSION

CAR-T cell therapy embodies advanced immunotherapy for BC, but further pre-clinical and clinical assessments are recommended to achieve maximized efficiency and safety.

Tumor microenvironment manipulates chemoresistance in ovarian cancer (Review)

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the leading cause of mortality among the various types of gynecological cancer, and >75% of the cases are diagnosed at a late stage. Although platinum‑based chemotherapy is able to help the majority of patients to achieve remission, the disease frequently recurs and acquires chemoresistance, resulting in high mortality rates. The complexity of OC therapy is not solely governed by the intrinsic characteristics of the OC cells (OCCs) themselves, but is also largely dependent on the dynamic communication between OCCs and various components of their surrounding microenvironment. The present review attempts to describe the mutual interplay between OCCs and their surrounding microenvironment. Tumor‑associated macrophages (TAMs) and cancer‑associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the most abundant stromal cell types in OC. Soluble factors derived from CAFs steadily nourish both the OCCs and TAMs, facilitating their proliferation and immune evasion. ATP binding cassette transporters facilitate the extrusion of cytotoxic molecules, eventually promoting cell survival and multidrug resistance. Extracellular vesicles fulfill their role as genetic exchange vectors, transferring cargo from the donor cells to the recipient cells and propagating oncogenic signaling. A greater understanding of the vital roles of the tumor microenvironment will allow researchers to be open to the prospect of developing therapeutic approaches for combating OC chemoresistance.

Cancer Stem Cells in Ovarian Cancer-A Source of Tumor Success and a Challenging Target for Novel Therapies

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal neoplasm of the female genital organs. Despite indisputable progress in the treatment of ovarian cancer, the problems of chemo-resistance and recurrent disease are the main obstacles for successful therapy. One of the main reasons for this is the presence of a specific cell population of cancer stem cells. The aim of this review is to show the most contemporary knowledge concerning the biology of ovarian cancer stem cells (OCSCs) and their impact on chemo-resistance and prognosis in ovarian cancer patients, as well as to present the treatment options targeted exclusively on the OCSCs. The review presents data concerning the role of cancer stem cells in general and then concentrates on OCSCs. The surface and intracellular OCSCs markers and their meaning both for cancer biology and clinical prognosis, signaling pathways specifically activated in OCSCs, the genetic and epigenetic regulation of OCSCs function including the recent studies on the non-coding RNA regulation, cooperation between OCSCs and the tumor microenvironment (ovarian cancer niche) including very specific environment such as ascites fluid, the role of shear stress, autophagy and metabolic changes for the function of OCSCs, and finally mechanisms of OCSCs escape from immune surveillance, are described and discussed extensively. The possibilities of anti-OCSCs therapy both in experimental settings and in clinical trials are presented, including the recent II phase clinical trials and immunotherapy. OCSCs are a unique population of cancer cells showing a great plasticity, self-renewal potential and resistance against anti-cancer treatment. They are responsible for the progression and recurrence of the tumor. Several completed and ongoing clinical trials have tested different anti-OCSCs drugs which, however, have shown unsatisfactory efficacy in most cases. We propose a novel approach to ovarian cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Cell-based immunotherapies in gynecologic cancers

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review provides an update on recent developments in cell-based immunotherapy in gynecologic cancers.

RECENT FINDINGS

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) technology has made significant progress allowing now for not only expressing CARs on T-cells, but also on other immune effector cells, such as natural killer cells and macrophages. Cell-based vaccines have started to show promising results in clinical trials.

SUMMARY

Cell-based immunotherapies in gynecologic cancers continue to evolve with promising clinical efficacy in select patients.