The effect of β-caryophyllene on nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

Exploring the therapeutic potential of natural compounds modulating the endocannabinoid system in various diseases and disorders: review

Cannabinoid receptors, endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids), and the enzymes involved in the biosynthesis and degradation of the endocannabinoids make up the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The components of the ECS are proven to modulate a vast bulk of various physiological and pathological processes due to their abundance throughout the human body. Such discoveries have attracted the researchers' attention and emerged as a potential therapeutical target for the treatment of various diseases. In the present article, we reviewed the discoveries of natural compounds, herbs, herbs formula, and their therapeutic properties in various diseases and disorders by modulating the ECS. We also summarize the molecular mechanisms through which these compounds elicit their properties by interacting with the ECS based on the existing findings. Our study provides the insight into the use of natural compounds that modulate ECS in various diseases and disorders, which in turn may facilitate future studies exploiting natural lead compounds as novel frameworks for designing more effective and safer therapeutics.

β-Caryophyllene Acts as a Ferroptosis Inhibitor to Ameliorate Experimental Colitis

Macrophage infiltration is one of the main pathological features of ulcerative colitis (UC) and ferroptosis is a type of nonapoptotic cell death, connecting oxidative stress and inflammation. However, whether ferroptosis occurs in the colon macrophages of UC mice and whether targeting macrophage ferroptosis is an effective approach for UC treatment remain unclear. The present study revealed that macrophage lipid peroxidation was observed in the colon of UC mice. Subsequently, we screened several main components of essential oil from Artemisia argyi and found that β-caryophyllene (BCP) had a good inhibitory effect on macrophage lipid peroxidation. Additionally, ferroptotic macrophages were found to increase the mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (Tnf-α) and prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (Ptgs2), while BCP can reverse the effects of inflammation activated by ferroptosis. Further molecular mechanism studies revealed that BCP activated the type 2 cannabinoid receptor (CB2R) to inhibit macrophage ferroptosis and its induced inflammatory response both in vivo and in vitro. Taken together, BCP potentially ameliorated experimental colitis inflammation by inhibiting macrophage ferroptosis. These results revealed that macrophage ferroptosis is a potential therapeutic target for UC and identified a novel mechanism of BCP in ameliorating experimental colitis.

A Critical Appraisal of the Most Recent Investigations on the Hepatoprotective Action of Brazilian Plants

Conventional treatments for liver diseases are often burdened by side effects caused by chemicals. For minimizing this problem, the search for medicines based on natural products has increased. The objective of this review was to collect data on the potential hepatoprotective activity of plants of the Brazilian native flora. Special attention was given to the modes of extraction, activity indicators, and identification of the active compounds. The databases were Science direct, Pubmed, and Google Academic. Inclusion criteria were: (a) plants native to Brazil; (b) studies carried out during the last 15 years; (c) high-quality research. A fair number of communications met these criteria. Various parts of plants can be used, e.g., fruit peels, seeds, stem barks, and leaves. An outstanding characteristic of the active extracts is that they were mostly obtained from plant parts with low commercial potential, i.e., by-products or bio-residues. The hepatoprotective activities are exerted by constituents such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, vitamin C, phytosterols, and fructose poly- and oligosaccharides. Several Brazilian plants present excellent perspectives for the obtainment of hepatoprotective formulations. Very important is the economical perspective for the rural producers which may eventually increase their revenue by selling increasingly valued raw materials which otherwise would be wasted.

Enhanced Oral Bioavailability of β-Caryophyllene in Healthy Subjects Using the VESIsorb® Formulation Technology, a Novel Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SEDDS)

β-Caryophyllene (BCP), a common constituent of many spice and food plants, is gaining increased attention due to recent research identifying numerous potential health benefits. Due to limited oral bioavailability observed in preclinical models, the described benefits of BCP may be maximized by using a suitable delivery system. Additionally, human pharmacokinetics (PK) remain unknown. This study evaluates the relative oral bioavailability of BCP formulated in a self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) based on VESIsorb® formulation technology (BCP-SEDDS) compared to BCP neat oil. Hence, a randomized, double-blind, cross-over design, single oral dose study (100 mg BCP) in 24 healthy subjects (12 men/12 women) was performed under fasting conditions. Pharmacokinetic parameters were analyzed from individual concentration-time curves. The data show that BCP-SEDDS resulted in a 2.2/2.0-fold increase in AUC0–12h/AUC0–24h and a 3.6-fold increase in Cmax compared to BCP neat oil. Moreover, BCP was absorbed faster from BCP-SEDDS (Tmax: 1.43 h) compared to BCP neat oil (Tmax: 3.07 h). Gender analysis revealed that there is no significant difference between men and women for both the investigated formulations and all investigated PK endpoints. In conclusion, BCP-SEDDS offers a well-tolerated and effective oral delivery system to significantly enhance the oral bioavailability of BCP in humans.

β-Caryophyllene, A Natural Dietary CB2 Receptor Selective Cannabinoid can be a Candidate to Target the Trinity of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation in COVID-19

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), caused by novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is an ongoing pandemic and presents a public health emergency. It has affected millions of people and continues to affect more, despite tremendous social preventive measures. Identifying candidate drugs for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 is crucial. The pathogenesis and the complications with advanced infection mainly involve an immune-inflammatory cascade. Therefore, therapeutic strategy relies on suppressing infectivity and inflammation, along with immune modulation. One of the most promising therapeutic targets for the modulation of immune-inflammatory responses is the endocannabinoid system, particularly the activation of cannabinoid type 2 receptors (CB2R), a G-protein coupled receptor which mediates the anti-inflammatory properties by modulating numerous signaling pathways. To pharmacologically activate the CB2 receptors, a naturally occurring cannabinoid ligand, beta-caryophyllene (BCP), received attention due to its potent anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and immunomodulatory properties. BCP is recognized as a full selective functional agonist on CB2 receptors and produces therapeutic effects by activating CB2 and the nuclear receptors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). BCP is regarded as the first dietary cannabinoid with abundant presence across cannabis and non-cannabis plants, including spices and other edible plants. BCP showed tissue protective properties and favorably modulates numerous signaling pathways and inhibits inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, prostanoids, and eicosanoids. Based on its pharmacological properties, molecular mechanisms, and the therapeutic potential of BCP as an immunomodulator, anti-inflammatory, organ-protective, and antiviral, we hypothesize that BCP could be a promising therapeutic and/or preventive candidate to target the triad of infection, immunity, and inflammation in COVID-19. In line with numerous studies that proposed the potential of cannabinoids in COVID-19, BCP may be a novel candidate compound for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical development due to its unique functional receptor selectivity, wide availability and accessibility, dietary bioavailability, nonpsychoactivity, and negligible toxicity along with druggable properties, including favorable pharmacokinetic and physicochemical properties. Based on reasonable pharmacological mechanisms and therapeutic properties, we speculate that BCP has potential to be investigated against COVID-19 and will inspire further preclinical and clinical studies.

Protective Effects of (E)-β-Caryophyllene (BCP) in Chronic Inflammation

(E)-β-caryophyllene (BCP) is a bicyclic sesquiterpene widely distributed in the plant kingdom, where it contributes a unique aroma to essential oils and has a pivotal role in the survival and evolution of higher plants. Recent studies provided evidence for protective roles of BCP in animal cells, highlighting its possible use as a novel therapeutic tool. Experimental results show the ability of BCP to reduce pro-inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor-alfa (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), thus ameliorating chronic pathologies characterized by inflammation and oxidative stress, in particular metabolic and neurological diseases. Through the binding to CB2 cannabinoid receptors and the interaction with members of the family of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), BCP shows beneficial effects on obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease/nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NAFLD/NASH) liver diseases, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, pain and other nervous system disorders. This review describes the current knowledge on the biosynthesis and natural sources of BCP, and reviews its role and mechanisms of action in different inflammation-related metabolic and neurologic disorders.

Therapeutic Potential of β-Caryophyllene: A Dietary Cannabinoid in Diabetes and Associated Complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM), a metabolic disorder is one of the most prevalent chronic diseases worldwide across developed as well as developing nations. Hyperglycemia is the core feature of the type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), following insulin deficiency and impaired insulin secretion or sensitivity leads insulin resistance (IR), respectively. Genetic and environmental factors attributed to the pathogenesis of DM and various therapeutic strategies are available for the prevention and treatment of T2DM. Among the numerous therapeutic approaches, the health effects of dietary/nutraceutical approach due to the presence of bioactive constituents, popularly termed phytochemicals are receiving special interest for pharmacological effects and therapeutic benefits. The phytochemicals classes, in particular sesquiterpenes received attention because of potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antihyperglycemic effects and health benefits mediating modulation of enzymes, receptors, and signaling pathways deranged in DM and its complications. One of the terpene compounds, β-caryophyllene (BCP), received enormous attention because of its abundant occurrence, non-psychoactive nature, and dietary availability through consumption of edible plants including spices. BCP exhibit selective full agonism on cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2R), an important component of endocannabinoid system, and plays a role in glucose and lipid metabolism and represents the newest drug target for chronic inflammatory diseases. BCP also showed agonist action on peroxisome proliferated activated receptor subtypes, PPAR-α and PPAR-γ, the main target of currently used fibrates and imidazolidinones for dyslipidemia and IR, respectively. Many studies demonstrated its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, organoprotective, and antihyperglycemic properties. In the present review, the plausible therapeutic potential of BCP in diabetes and associated complications has been comprehensively elaborated based on experimental and a few clinical studies available. Further, the pharmacological and molecular mechanisms of BCP in diabetes and its complications have been represented using synoptic tables and schemes. Given the safe status, abundant natural occurrence, oral bioavailability, dietary use and pleiotropic properties modulating receptors and enzymes, BCP appears as a promising molecule for diabetes and its complications.

Potential use of C-phycocyanin in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

C-phycocyanin (C-PC) is a kind of photosynthetically assisted pigment, which is ubiquitous in cyanobacteria cells. We investigated the effect of C-PC on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and its mechanism. Through oil red O staining, TC/TG detection, liver SOD/MDA detection and liver H&E staining, we found that C-PC could significantly reduce the lipid accumulation in the steatosis L02 cells and the liver of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) mice, and improve the antioxidant capacity of liver. The results of Western Blotting showed that C-PC upregulated the expression of AMPK phosphorylation and downregulated SREBP-1c and its target genes ACC and FAS expression levels. Furthermore, C-PC also upregulated the expression of transcription factor PPARα, which was regulated by AMPK, and its target genes CPT1 level. In addition, C-PC could promote AMPK phosphorylation in hepatocytes while increasing the phosphorylation level of ACC in vivo and in vitro. Besides, C-PC could also improve the liver inflammatory infiltration by upregulated the expression of PPARγ and downregulated the expression of CD36, IL6 and TNFα. These results indicate that C-PC may improve hepatic lipid accumulation and inflammation in the non-alcoholic fatty liver mice by activating AMPK pathway of hepatocytes. The finding provides important help for the research and development of C-PC in the nutraceuticals and therapeutics of NAFLD.

β-Caryophyllene: A Sesquiterpene with Countless Biological Properties

β-Caryophyllene (BCP), a natural bicyclic sesquiterpene, is a selective phytocannabinoid agonist of type 2 receptors (CB2-R). It isn’t psychogenic due to the absence of an affinity to cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1). Among the various biological activities, BCP exerts anti-inflammatory action via inhibiting the main inflammatory mediators, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), Interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alfa (TNF-α), nuclear factor kapp a-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), cyclooxygenase 1 (COX-1), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors alpha (PPAR-α) effects are also mediated by the activation of PPAR-α and PPAR-γ receptors. In detail, many studies, in vitro and in vivo, suggest that the treatment with β-caryophyllene improves the phenotype of animals used to model various inflammatory pathologies, such as nervous system diseases (Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, stroke), atherosclerosis, and tumours (colon, breast, pancreas, lymphoma, melanoma and glioma cancer). Furthermore, pre-clinical data have highlighted that BCP is potentially useful in Streptococcus infections, osteoporosis, steatohepatitis, and exerts anticonvulsant, analgesic, myorelaxing, sedative, and antidepressive effects. BCP is non-toxic in rodents, with a Lethal dose, 50% (LD50) greater than 5000 mg/kg. Nevertheless, it inhibits various cytochrome P450 isoforms (above all, CYP3A4), which metabolise xenobiotics, leading to adverse effects, due to drug levels over therapeutic window. All the reported data have highlighted that both pharmacological and toxicological aspects need to be further investigated with clinical trials.

PipeNig®-FL, a Fluid Extract of Black Pepper (Piper Nigrum L.) with a High Standardized Content of Trans-β-Caryophyllene, Reduces Lipid Accumulation in 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes and Improves Glucose Uptake in C2C12 Myotubes

Trans-β-caryophyllene (BCP) is a natural sesquiterpene hydrocarbon with several important pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and cardioprotective functions. These properties are mainly due to its selective interaction with the peripherally expressed cannabinoid receptor 2. In addition, BCP activates peroxisome proliferated activator receptors α and γ and inhibits the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway. Given the growing scientific interest in BCP, the aim of our study was to investigate the metabolic effects of a black pepper extract (PipeNig^®-FL), containing a high standardized content of BCP. In particular our interest was focused on its potential activity on lipid accumulation and glucose uptake. The extract PipeNig^®-FL was chemically characterized by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and gas chromatography with flame-ionization detection (GC–FID), confirming a high content (814 mg/g) of BCP. Experiments were performed on 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and on C2C12 myotubes. Lipid content following 3T3-L1 adipogenic differentiation was quantified with AdipoRed fluorescence staining. Glucose uptake and GLUT4 membrane translocation were studied in C2C12 myotubes with the fluorescent glucose analog 2-NBDG and by immunofluorescence analysis. Here we show that PipeNig^®-FL reduces 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation and lipid accumulation. Moreover, acute exposure of C2C12 myotubes to PipeNig^®-FL improves glucose uptake activity and GLUT4 migration. Taken together, these results reveal interesting and novel properties of BCP, suggesting potential applications in the prevention of lipid accumulation and in the improvement of glucose uptake.