Refractive index of air. 2. Group index

Development of a Mercury Bromide Birefringence Measurement System Based on Brewster's Angle

Mercury bromide (Hg2Br2) has been used to develop acousto-optic tunable filters (AOTFs) because it has several advantages, including a high refractive index, a broad optical bandwidth, and a relatively high figure of merit. Therefore, the measurement of its birefringence is a highly important factor for ensuring AOTF quality. However, for single crystals, it is difficult (at the millimeter scale) to quantify the birefringence using an ellipsometer, as this equipment is only designed to conduct measurements on thin films. In this study, a simple birefringence measurement system for Hg2Br2 was developed based on Brewster's angle at the millimeter scale. The planar distributions of the Hg2Br2 crystal along the (100), (010), and (001) planes were used in the experiments. The developed measurement system can measure the reflected light intensity of the Hg2Br2 crystal depending on the incidence angles (rotations at 0.01125° steps) and can calculate the ordinary and extraordinary refractive indices and birefringence. The calculated birefringence of the Hg2Br2 crystal was 0.8548; this value exhibits an error of 0.64% compared with a value of 0.86 reported in the literature. The developed measurement system demonstrates the ability to be used to evaluate the quality of birefringent single crystals.

High-precision intermode beating electro-optic distance measurement for mitigation of atmospheric delays

High-precision electro-optic distance measurement (EDM) is essential for deformation monitoring. Although sub-ppm instrumental accuracy is already feasible with state-of-the-art commercial technology, the practically attainable accuracy on distances over more than a few hundred meters is limited by uncertainties in estimating the integral refractive index along the propagation path, which often results in measurement errors of several ppm. This paper presents a new instrumental basis for high-accuracy multispectral EDM using an optical supercontinuum to enable dispersion-based inline refractivity compensation. Initial experiments performed on two spectrally filtered bands of 590 and 890 nm from the supercontinuum show measurement precision better than 0.05 mm over 50 m for an acquisition time of around 3 ms on the individual bands. This represents a comparable performance to our previously reported results on 5 cm by over a range of 3 orders of magnitude longer, which can still be improved by increasing the acquisition time. The preliminary results indicate a relative accuracy of about 0.1 mm at 50 m on each wavelength. Improvement is possible by calibration and by implementing a self-reference scheme that mitigates slow drifts caused by power-to-phase coupling. The results reported herein thus indicate that the presented approach can be further developed for achieving sub-ppm accuracy of refractivity compensated distance measurements on practically useful ranges and under outdoor conditions.

Robotic Total Station Monitoring in High Alpine Paraglacial Environments: Challenges and Solutions from the Great Aletsch Region (Valais, Switzerland)

Investigating surface displacements in high alpine environments is often subject to challenges due to the difficult accessibility or harsh climatic conditions. Measurement systems have improved greatly in recent years regarding accuracy, range, or energy consumption. Continuously receiving high-precision, real-time monitoring data from a remote location can still support a better understanding of slope dynamics and risk. We present the design, construction, operation, and performance of a complex surface displacement monitoring system installed in the surroundings of the Great Aletsch Glacier in the Swiss Alps, based on two robotic total stations to continuously measure 3D displacements with high accuracies. In addition, GNSS stations are also considered in order to pass from a local to a geographic reference system, as well as to improve the measurement accuracy. The monitoring network is aimed at studying several types of deformation processes, i.e., (i) gravitationally driven and irreversible rockslide movements around the tongue of the Great Aletsch Glacier, (ii) reversible rock slope deformations caused by annual cycles of groundwater recharge and depletion, and (iii) small irreversible deformations of stable rock slopes resulting from progressive rock damage driven by glacier retreat and cyclic hydraulic and thermal loading. We describe the technical details of the monitoring system, which has been in operation successfully for 6 years, and discuss the system performance in terms of its robustness and accuracy.

Development of a Submillimetric GNSS-Based Distance Meter for Length Metrology

Absolute distance determination in the open air with an uncertainty of a few tenths of a millimetre is increasingly required in many applications that involve high precision geodetic metrology. No matter the technique used to measure, the resulting distances must be proven consistent with the unit of length (SI-metre) as realized in the outdoor facilities traditionally used in length metrology, which are also known as calibration baselines of reference. The current calibration baselines of reference have distances in the range of 10 to 1000 m, but at present there is no solution on the market to provide distances with submillimetric precision in that range. Consequently, new techniques such as multi-wave interferometry, two-wave laser telemeters or laser trackers are being developed. A possible alternative to those sophisticated and expensive techniques is the use of widely used Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) in order to provide a GNSS-Based Distance Meter (GBDM). The use of a GBDM as a potential technique for length metrology has been thoroughly analysed in several European research projects by using the state-of-the-art geodetic software, such as Bernese 5.2, but no definite conclusions have been drawn and some metrological questions are considered still open. In this paper, we describe a dedicated approach to build up a submillimetric GBDM able to be applied in the current calibration baselines of reference, as well as possible methods to cope with the multipath error of the GNSS signals which is the major limitation for the practical uptaking of the technique in metrology. The accuracy of the proposed approach has been tested following the length metrology standards in four experiments carried out in the Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV). The results demonstrate that the proposed GBDM can provide an accuracy of a few tenths of a millimetre in the current calibration baselines of reference.

Refractive index of air. 2. Group index: comment

Philip E. Ciddor and Reginald J. Hill published an analytical expression and a detailed procedure in 1999 on how to compute the group refractive index of air [Appl. Opt.38, 1663 (1999).APOPAI0003-693510.1364/AO.38.001663]. The International Association of Geodesy (IAG) has been referring to this procedure in its official recommendations for the compensation of the index of refraction in geodetic observations since then. Equation (B2) of the published procedure, however, contains a sign error. For proper application, this error must be corrected accordingly.

Evaluation of Long-Range Mobile Mapping System (MMS) and Close-Range Photogrammetry for Deformation Monitoring. A Case Study of Cortes de Pallás in Valencia (Spain)

This contribution describes the methodology applied to evaluate the suitability of a Long-Range Mobile Mapping System to be integrated with other techniques that are currently used in a large and complex landslide deformation monitoring project carried out in Cortes de Pallás, in Valencia (Spain). Periodical geodetic surveys provide a reference frame realized by 10 pillars and 15 additional check points placed in specific points of interest, all with millimetric accuracy. The combined use of Close-Range Photogrammetry provides a well-controlled 3D model with 1–3 cm accuracy, making the area ideal for testing new technologies. Since some zones of interest are usually obstructed by construction, trees, or lamp posts, a possible solution might be the supplementary use of dynamic scanning instruments with the mobile mapping solution Kaarta Stencil 2 to collect the missing data. However, the reliability of this technology has to be assessed and validated before being integrated into the existing 3D models in the well-controlled area of Cortes de Pallás. The results of the experiment show that the accuracy achieved are compatible with those obtained from Close-Range Photogrammetry and can also be safely used to supplement image-based information for monitoring with 3–8 cm overall accuracy.

An Improved Approach for the Control Measurements of a Ski-Flying Hill Inrun: A Case Study of Planica

Ski jumping hills should be prepared for competitions in accordance with project documentation in order to ensure safe and fair conditions for competitors. Geodesy/surveying is essential for guiding preparations and controlling the actual shape of the hill. In this article, we present a methodology for the control measurements and preparation of an inrun for a ski-flying hill in Planica. On each side of the track, there is metal tube that guides the trolley, which mills tracks into the ice. A special platform containing three measuring prisms was designed to control the position of the tubes. The proposed method was thoroughly analyzed in terms of its measurement quality and compared to previously used methodologies. The empirical results suggest that our proposed platform provides inrun geometry with a higher quality than previously used methods.

Beam drift reduction by straightness measurement based on a digital optical phase conjugation

One of the greatest challenges of long distance measurement is the beam drift caused by the air refractive index gradient. It has been established in many researches that optical phase conjugation (OPC) can be used to compensate for the beam bending. However, this method is limited to responding speed, phase conjugate reflectivity, flexibility, and specific source and medium. To reduce beam drift, instead of OPC, this study applies a digital OPC (DOPC) method, which is also creatively applied to collimation and flatness measurements. The main devices in the wavefront correction unit are the spatial light modulator and the Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor. For the straightness measurement unit, the collimation and flatness of the optical rail are measured through the prism system and a position-sensing detector. After wavefront compensation, the root mean square is decreased from 0.0029λ to 0.0005λ. The beam drift is decreased from 1.22 mm to 0.70 mm in the x direction and from 2.49 mm to 1.55 mm in the y direction. The experimental data indicate that the straightness measurement system based on DOPC can effectively decrease the beam drift.

Humidity-insensitive temperature sensor based on a quartz capillary anti-resonant reflection optical waveguide

A compact, humidity-insensitive, fiber optic temperature sensor based on a quartz capillary, antiresonant reflecting optical waveguide was proposed and experimentally demonstrated. The transmission spectral responses of the proposed sensor were experimentally investigated regarding temperature variation and environmental humidity. Resonant dips exhibited temperature sensitivity as large as 201 pm/°C from -30 to 45 °C in a humid environment. By coating a sufficiently thick gold film onto the sensor surface, the humidity cross-sensitivity issue was effectively resolved. This proposed sensor was anticipated to find potential applications in humid environments, and moreover, immunity to humidity-sensitivity ensures its applicability in marine environments.

Optimizing the analysis of dental enamel microstructure in intact teeth

In most mammalian species enamel prisms are regularly arranged in layers of alternating directions forming an angle of approximately 90°. These successive layers of prisms are known as Hunter-Schreger bands (HSBs). The analysis of HSBs may provide valuable information regarding the species life history, taxon and personal identification, with evident applicability in physical anthropology and forensics. Obtaining good quality digital images of HSBs in intact specimens is not always a feasible task. The major problems are the low contrast of images; the reflection of incident light, which may create areas of intense shine in digital images; and the abrupt decrease in the degree of illumination that occurs after light crosses the vertical cracks, frequently present in enamel. We show here that the area of intense shine can be minimized by a polarizing filter coupled to the camera objective, and the filling of enamel cracks with corn oil can reduce refraction of light in enamel cracks. These procedures can significantly increase the quality and the area of HSBs that can be recorded in intact teeth.

Remote THz generation from two-color filamentation: long distance dependence

Remote terahertz (THz) generation from two-color filamentation is investigated as a function of the onset position of filaments. THz signals emitted by filaments produced at distances up to 55 m from the laser source were measured. However, from 9 m to 55 m, the THz signal decayed monotonically for increasing onset positions. With a simple calculation, the dominant factors associated to this decay were identified as group velocity mismatch of the two-color pulses and linear diffraction induced by focusing and propagating the second harmonic pulse.

Sub-micron absolute distance measurements in sub-millisecond times with dual free-running femtosecond Er fiber-lasers

We demonstrate a simplified dual-comb LIDAR setup for precision absolute ranging that can achieve a ranging precision of 2 μm in 140 μs acquisition time. With averaging, the precision drops below 1 μm at 0.8 ms and below 200 nm at 20 ms. The system can measure the distance to multiple targets with negligible dead zones and a ranging ambiguity of 1 meter. The system is much simpler than a previous coherent dual-comb LIDAR because the two combs are replaced by free-running, saturable-absorber-based femtosecond Er fiber lasers, rather than tightly phase-locked combs, with the entire time base provided by a single 10-digit frequency counter. Despite the simpler design, the system provides a factor of three improved performance over the previous coherent dual comb LIDAR system.

Phase-sensitive swept-source interferometry for absolute ranging with application to measurements of group refractive index and thickness

Interferometric range measurements using a wavelength-tunable source form the basis of several measurement techniques, including optical frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR), swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT), and frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) lidar. We present a phase-sensitive and self-referenced approach to swept-source interferometry that yields absolute range measurements with axial precision three orders of magnitude better than the transform-limited axial resolution of the system. As an example application, we implement the proposed method for a simultaneous measurement of group refractive index and thickness of an optical glass sample.

Active compensation of large dispersion of femtosecond pulses for precision laser ranging

We describe an active way of compensation for large dispersion induced in the femtosecond light pulses travelling in air for laser ranging. The pulse duration is consistently regulated at 250 fs by dispersion control, allowing sub-micrometer resolution in measuring long distances by means of time-of-flight measurement. This method could facilitate more reliable applications of femtosecond pulses for satellite laser ranging, laser altimetry and active LIDAR applications.

Transportable distance measurement system based on superheterodyne interferometry using two phase-locked frequency-doubled Nd:YAG lasers

We describe a transportable distance measurement system based on synthetic wavelength interferometry. Two frequency-doubled Nd:yttrium aluminum garnet lasers at 532 nm are used to generate a synthetic wavelength of approximately 2.5 cm. A nonpolarizing interferometric system has been set up to eliminate polarization cross-talk issue. A superheterodyne detection was performed to measure the synthetic phase and to determine absolute distances. The capability to achieve fringe interpolation of 2pi/5600 has been demonstrated and an agreement in distance measurement at the 4 microm level has been achieved, compared to an optical interferometric 3 m long displacement bench.

High precision refraction measurements by solar imaging during occultation: results from SOFIE

A new method for measuring atmospheric refraction angles is presented, with in-orbit measurements demonstrating a precision of +/-0.02 arcsec (+/-0.1 microrad). Key advantages of the method are the following: (1) Simultaneous observation of two celestial points during occultation (i.e., top and bottom edges of the solar image) eliminates error from instrument attitude uncertainty. (2) The refraction angle is primarily a normalized difference measurement, causing only scale error, not absolute error. (3) A large number of detector pixels are used in the edge location by fitting to a known edge shape. The resulting refraction angle measurements allow temperature sounding up to the lower mesosphere.

Use of terrestrial laser scanning technology for long term high precision deformation monitoring

The paper presents a new methodology for high precision monitoring of deformations with a long term perspective using terrestrial laser scanning technology. In order to solve the problem of a stable reference system and to assure the high quality of possible position changes of point clouds, scanning is integrated with two complementary surveying techniques, i.e., high quality static GNSS positioning and precise tacheometry. The case study object where the proposed methodology was tested is a high pressure underground pipeline situated in an area which is geologically unstable.

Spectral analysis of Cu(2+): B(2)O(3)--ZnO--PbO glasses

A new series of heavy metal oxide (PbO) based zinc borate glasses in the chemical composition of (95-x)B(2)O(3)-5ZnO-xPbO (x=10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 mol%) have been prepared to verify their UV filtering performance. Both direct and indirect optical band gaps (E(opt)) have been evaluated for these glasses. For a reference glass of 45B(2)O(3)-5ZnO-50PbO, refractive indices at different wavelengths are measured and found the results satisfactorily correlated with the theoretical data upon the computation of Cauchy's constants of A=1.766029949, B=159531.024 nm(2) and C=-1.078 x 10(10) nm(4). Measurements concerning X-ray diffraction (XRD), FT-IR, differential scanning colorimeter (DSC) profiles have been carried out for this glass. The FT-IR profile has revealed that the glass has both BO(3) and BO(4) units. From DSC thermogram, glass transition temperature (T(g)), crystallization temperature (T(c)) and melting temperature (T(m)) have been located and from them, other related parameters of the glass have also been calculated. Visible absorption spectra of 45B(2)O(3)-5ZnO-(50-x)PbO-xCuO (x=0. 1, 0.2, 0.5 and 1.0 mol%) have revealed two absorption bands at around 400 nm ((2)B(1g)-->(2)E(g)) and 780 nm ((2)B(1g)-->(2)B(2g)) of Cu(2+) ions, respectively. Emission bands at 422 and 512 nm are found for the 1 mol % CuO doped glass with excitations at 306 and 332 nm.

In situ and on-line monitoring of CO in an industrial glass furnace by mid-infrared difference-frequency generation laser spectroscopy

A compact mid-infrared (MIR) laser spectrometer based on difference-frequency generation (DFG) is applied as a portable and sensitive gas sensor for industrial process control and pollutant monitoring. We demonstrate the performance of such a MIR DFG gas sensor by recording the absorption spectra of the carbon monoxide (CO) P(28) absorption line in the atmosphere of a gas-fired glass melting furnace. For a gas temperature of approximately 1100 degrees C, the CO concentration in the recuperator channel is measured to be 400 parts per million.

Direct measurement of the group refractive index of air with interferometry between adjacent femtosecond pulses

The group refractive index of air in laboratory conditions is measured directly between adjacent femtosecond laser pulses by a new interferometry technique. Measurement of the repetition rate of the mode-locked pulse train that gives the maximum amplitude of the interference-signal envelope enables us to determine the group refractive index of air within a standard deviation of 2 x 10(-7). This simple method without vacuum reference is attractive for measuring the group refractive index needed for precise distance measurements in open fields.

Refractive index of air: 3. The roles of CO2, H2O, and refractivity virials

The author's recent studies of the refractive index of air are extended, and several assumptions made therein are further examined. It is shown that the alternative dispersion equations for CO2, which are due to Edlen [Metrologia 2, 71 (1966)] and Old et al. [J. Opt. Soc. Am. 61, 89 (1971)] result in differences of less than 2 x 10(-9) in the phase refractive index and less than 3 x 10(-9) in the group refractive index for current and predicted concentrations of CO2. However, because the dispersion equation given by Old et al. is consistent with experimental data in the near infrared, it is preferable to the equation used by Edlen, which is valid only in the ultraviolet and the visible. The classical measurement by Barrell and Sears [Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. A 238, 1 (1939)] on the refractivity of moist air is shown to have some procedural errors in addition to the one discussed by Birch and Downs [Metrologia 30, 155 (1993)]. It is shown that for normal atmospheric conditions the higher refractivity virial coefficients related to the Lorentz-Lorenz relation are adequately incorporated into the empirically determined first refractivity virial. As a guide to users the practical limits to the calculation of the refractive index of the atmosphere that result from the uncertainties in the measurement of the various atmospheric parameters are summarized.