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Xu C, Nedergaard M, Fowell DJ, Friedl P, Ji N. Multiphoton fluorescence microscopy for in vivo imaging. Cell 2024; 187:4458-4487. [PMID: 39178829 PMCID: PMC11373887 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/26/2024]
Abstract
Multiphoton fluorescence microscopy (MPFM) has been a game-changer for optical imaging, particularly for studying biological tissues deep within living organisms. MPFM overcomes the strong scattering of light in heterogeneous tissue by utilizing nonlinear excitation that confines fluorescence emission mostly to the microscope focal volume. This enables high-resolution imaging deep within intact tissue and has opened new avenues for structural and functional studies. MPFM has found widespread applications and has led to numerous scientific discoveries and insights into complex biological processes. Today, MPFM is an indispensable tool in many research communities. Its versatility and effectiveness make it a go-to technique for researchers investigating biological phenomena at the cellular and subcellular levels in their native environments. In this Review, the principles, implementations, capabilities, and limitations of MPFM are presented. Three application areas of MPFM, neuroscience, cancer biology, and immunology, are reviewed in detail and serve as examples for applying MPFM to biological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Xu
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Maiken Nedergaard
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Nørre Alle 3B, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; University of Rochester Medical School, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Deborah J Fowell
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Peter Friedl
- Department of Medical BioSciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein 26-28, Nijmegen HB 6500, the Netherlands
| | - Na Ji
- Department of Neuroscience, Department of Physics, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
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Yuste R, Cossart R, Yaksi E. Neuronal ensembles: Building blocks of neural circuits. Neuron 2024; 112:875-892. [PMID: 38262413 PMCID: PMC10957317 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
Neuronal ensembles, defined as groups of neurons displaying recurring patterns of coordinated activity, represent an intermediate functional level between individual neurons and brain areas. Novel methods to measure and optically manipulate the activity of neuronal populations have provided evidence of ensembles in the neocortex and hippocampus. Ensembles can be activated intrinsically or in response to sensory stimuli and play a causal role in perception and behavior. Here we review ensemble phenomenology, developmental origin, biophysical and synaptic mechanisms, and potential functional roles across different brain areas and species, including humans. As modular units of neural circuits, ensembles could provide a mechanistic underpinning of fundamental brain processes, including neural coding, motor planning, decision-making, learning, and adaptability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Yuste
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Rosa Cossart
- Inserm, INMED, Turing Center for Living Systems Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France.
| | - Emre Yaksi
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Koç University Research Center for Translational Medicine, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey.
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3
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Chen Y, Luo C, Wang S, Li Y, Shen B, Hu R, Qu J, Liu L. Rapid, high-contrast, and steady volumetric imaging with Bessel-beam-based two-photon fluorescence microscopy. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2024; 29:016501. [PMID: 38269082 PMCID: PMC10807873 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.29.1.016501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Significance Two-photon fluorescence microscopy (TPFM) excited by Gaussian beams requires axial tomographic scanning for three-dimensional (3D) volumetric imaging, which is a time-consuming process, and the slow imaging speed hinders its application for in vivo brain imaging. The Bessel focus, characterized by an extended depth of focus and constant resolution, facilitates the projection of a 3D volume onto a two-dimensional image, which significantly enhances the speed of volumetric imaging. Aim We aimed to demonstrate the ability of a TPFM with a sidelobe-free Bessel beam to provide a promising tool for research in live biological specimens. Approach Comparative in vivo imaging was conducted in live mouse brains and transgenic zebrafish to evaluate the performance of TPFM and Bessel-beam-based TPFM. Additionally, an image-difference method utilizing zeroth-order and third-order Bessel beams was introduced to effectively suppress background interference introduced by sidelobes. Results In comparison with traditional TPFM, the Bessel-beams-based TPFM demonstrated a 30-fold increase in imaging throughput and speed. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the image-difference method was validated in live biological specimens, resulting in a substantial enhancement of image contrast. Importantly, our TPFM with a sidelobe-free Bessel beam exhibited robustness against axial displacements, a feature of considerable value for in vivo experiments. Conclusions We achieved rapid, high-contrast, and robust volumetric imaging of the vasculature in live mouse brains and transgenic zebrafish using our TPFM with a sidelobe-free Bessel beam.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongqiang Chen
- Shenzhen University, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Education, Shenzhen, China
| | - Chenggui Luo
- Shenzhen University, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Education, Shenzhen, China
| | - Shiqi Wang
- Shenzhen University, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Education, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yanping Li
- Shenzhen University, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Education, Shenzhen, China
| | - Binglin Shen
- Shenzhen University, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Education, Shenzhen, China
| | - Rui Hu
- Shenzhen University, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Education, Shenzhen, China
| | - Junle Qu
- Shenzhen University, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Education, Shenzhen, China
| | - Liwei Liu
- Shenzhen University, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Education, Shenzhen, China
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Petrusevich EF, Głodek M, Antoniak MA, Muzioł T, Plażuk D, Siomra A, Nyk M, Ośmiałowski B, Zaleśny R. Difluoroborate-based bichromophores: Symmetry relaxation and two-photon absorption. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2023; 295:122600. [PMID: 36930837 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2023.122600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Given potential applications of multiphoton absorbers, in the present work we have studied the symmetry-relaxation effects in one- and two-photon absorption spectra in two bichromophore systems based on difluoroborate core linked by biphenylene or bianthracene moieties. We have employed a palette of experimental methods (synthesis, one- and two-photon spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography) and state-of-the-art computational methods to shed light on how symmetry relaxation, a result of twisting of building blocks, affects one- and two-photon absorption of the two studied fluorescent dyes. Electronic-structure calculations revealed that the planarity of central biphenyl moiety, as well as deviations from planarity up to 30-40 deg., ensure maximum values of two-photon transition strengths. Perpendicular arrangement of phenylene units in biphenylene moiety leads to 20% drop in the two-photon transition strengths. More detailed studies demonstrated that equilibrium structures of both compounds in chloroform solution show very different values of two-photon absorption cross sections at absorption band maxima, i.e. 224 GM for and 134 GM for biphenyle and bianthracene linkers, respectively. The latter value is in good agreement with experimental value obtained using Z-scan method. The difference in two-photon absorption cross section between both compounds can be rationalized based on equilibrium geometry differences, i.e. interplanar angle is 35 deg and 91 deg in the case of biphenylene and bianthracene moiety, respectively. It is thus not beneficial to introduce conformationally locked central linker based on bianthracene moiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizaveta F Petrusevich
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, PL-50-370, Poland
| | - Marta Głodek
- Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina Street 7, Toruń, PL-87-100, Poland
| | - Magda A Antoniak
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, PL-50-370, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Muzioł
- Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina Street 7, Toruń, PL-87-100, Poland
| | - Damian Plażuk
- Laboratory of Molecular Spectroscopy, Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, Łódź, PL-90-403, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Siomra
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, PL-50-370, Poland
| | - Marcin Nyk
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, PL-50-370, Poland
| | - Borys Ośmiałowski
- Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina Street 7, Toruń, PL-87-100, Poland.
| | - Robert Zaleśny
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, PL-50-370, Poland.
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Guo Y, Wang L, Luo Z, Zhu Y, Gao X, Weng X, Wang Y, Yan W, Qu J. Dynamic Volumetric Imaging of Mouse Cerebral Blood Vessels In Vivo with an Ultralong Anti-Diffracting Beam. Molecules 2023; 28:4936. [PMID: 37446598 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28134936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Volumetric imaging of a mouse brain in vivo with one-photon and two-photon ultralong anti-diffracting (UAD) beam illumination was performed. The three-dimensional (3D) structure of blood vessels in the mouse brain were mapped to a two-dimensional (2D) image. The speed of volumetric imaging was significantly improved due to the long focal length of the UAD beam. Comparing one-photon and two-photon UAD beam volumetric imaging, we found that the imaging depth of two-photon volumetric imaging (80 μm) is better than that of one-photon volumetric imaging (60 μm), and the signal-to-background ratio (SBR) of two-photon volumetric imaging is two times that of one-photon volumetric imaging. Therefore, we used two-photon UAD volumetric imaging to perform dynamic volumetric imaging of mouse brain blood vessels in vivo, and obtained the blood flow velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration (Shenzhen University), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Luwei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration (Shenzhen University), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Ziyi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration (Shenzhen University), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Yinru Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration (Shenzhen University), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Xinwei Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration (Shenzhen University), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Xiaoyu Weng
- State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration (Shenzhen University), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Yiping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration (Shenzhen University), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Wei Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration (Shenzhen University), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Junle Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration (Shenzhen University), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
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Zhao B, Koyama M, Mertz J. High-resolution multi-z confocal microscopy with a diffractive optical element. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 14:3057-3071. [PMID: 37342696 PMCID: PMC10278611 DOI: 10.1364/boe.491538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
There has been recent interest in the development of fluorescence microscopes that provide high-speed volumetric imaging for life-science applications. For example, multi-z confocal microscopy enables simultaneous optically-sectioned imaging at multiple depths over relatively large fields of view. However, to date, multi-z microscopy has been hampered by limited spatial resolution owing to its initial design. Here we present a variant of multi-z microscopy that recovers the full spatial resolution of a conventional confocal microscope while retaining the simplicity and ease of use of our initial design. By introducing a diffractive optical element in the illumination path of our microscope, we engineer the excitation beam into multiple tightly focused spots that are conjugated to axially distributed confocal pinholes. We discuss the performance of this multi-z microscope in terms of resolution and detectability and demonstrate its versatility by performing in-vivo imaging of beating cardiomyocytes in engineered heart tissues and neuronal activity in c. elegans and zebrafish brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingying Zhao
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Minoru Koyama
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, ON M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Jerome Mertz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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7
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Panahiyan S, Muñoz CS, Chekhova MV, Schlawin F. Nonlinear Interferometry for Quantum-Enhanced Measurements of Multiphoton Absorption. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2023; 130:203604. [PMID: 37267533 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.130.203604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Multiphoton absorption is of vital importance in many spectroscopic, microscopic, or lithographic applications. However, given that it is an inherently weak process, the detection of multiphoton absorption signals typically requires large field intensities, hindering its applicability in many practical situations. In this Letter, we show that placing a multiphoton absorbent inside an imbalanced nonlinear interferometer can enhance the precision of multiphoton cross section estimation with respect to strategies based on photon-number measurements using coherent or even squeezed light directly transmitted through the medium. In particular, the power scaling of the sensitivity with photon flux can be increased by 1 order compared with transmission measurements of the sample with coherent light, such that the measurement precision at any given intensity can be greatly enhanced. Furthermore, we show that this enhanced measurement precision is robust against experimental imperfections leading to photon losses, which usually tend to degrade the detection sensitivity. We trace the origin of this enhancement to an optimal degree of squeezing which has to be generated in a nonlinear SU(1,1) interferometer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahram Panahiyan
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, Luruper Chaussee 149, Hamburg D-22761, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Carlos Sánchez Muñoz
- Departamento de Física Teórica de la Materia Condensada and Condensed Matter Physics Center (IFIMAC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria V Chekhova
- Max-Planck Institute for the Science of Light, Staudtstraße 2, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
- University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Staudtstraße 7/B2, Erlangen D-91058, Germany
| | - Frank Schlawin
- Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, Luruper Chaussee 149, Hamburg D-22761, Germany
- University of Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
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8
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Wang Y, Wang P, Li C. Fluorescence microscopic platforms imaging mitochondrial abnormalities in neurodegenerative diseases. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 197:114841. [PMID: 37088402 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.114841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are progressive disorders that cause the degeneration of neurons. Mitochondrial dysfunction is a common symptom in NDs and plays a crucial role in neuronal loss. Mitochondrial abnormalities can be observed in the early stages of NDs and evolve throughout disease progression. Visualizing mitochondrial abnormalities can help understand ND progression and develop new therapeutic strategies. Fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool for dynamically imaging mitochondria due to its high sensitivity and spatiotemporal resolution. This review discusses the relationship between mitochondrial dysfunction and ND progression, potential biomarkers for imaging dysfunctional mitochondria, advances in fluorescence microscopy for detecting organelles, the performance of fluorescence probes in visualizing ND-associated mitochondria, and the challenges and opportunities for developing new generations of fluorescence imaging platforms for monitoring mitochondria in NDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yicheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Pengwei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cong Li
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University Shanghai 201203, China.
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9
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Xiao Y, Deng P, Zhao Y, Yang S, Li B. Three-photon excited fluorescence imaging in neuroscience: From principles to applications. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1085682. [PMID: 36891460 PMCID: PMC9986337 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1085682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of three-photon microscopy (3PM) has greatly expanded the capability of imaging deep within biological tissues, enabling neuroscientists to visualize the structure and activity of neuronal populations with greater depth than two-photon imaging. In this review, we outline the history and physical principles of 3PM technology. We cover the current techniques for improving the performance of 3PM. Furthermore, we summarize the imaging applications of 3PM for various brain regions and species. Finally, we discuss the future of 3PM applications for neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Bo Li
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Ministry of Education (MOE), Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institute for Translational Brain Research, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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10
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Zhou Y, Sun N, Hu S. Deep Learning-Powered Bessel-Beam Multiparametric Photoacoustic Microscopy. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL IMAGING 2022; 41:3544-3551. [PMID: 35788453 PMCID: PMC9767649 DOI: 10.1109/tmi.2022.3188739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Enabling simultaneous and high-resolution quantification of the total concentration of hemoglobin ( [Formula: see text]), oxygen saturation of hemoglobin (sO2), and cerebral blood flow (CBF), multi-parametric photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) has emerged as a promising tool for functional and metabolic imaging of the live mouse brain. However, due to the limited depth of focus imposed by the Gaussian-beam excitation, the quantitative measurements become inaccurate when the imaging object is out of focus. To address this problem, we have developed a hardware-software combined approach by integrating Bessel-beam excitation and conditional generative adversarial network (cGAN)-based deep learning. Side-by-side comparison of the new cGAN-powered Bessel-beam multi-parametric PAM against the conventional Gaussian-beam multi-parametric PAM shows that the new system enables high-resolution, quantitative imaging of [Formula: see text], sO2, and CBF over a depth range of [Formula: see text] in the live mouse brain, with errors 13-58 times lower than those of the conventional system. Better fulfilling the rigid requirement of light focusing for accurate hemodynamic measurements, the deep learning-powered Bessel-beam multi-parametric PAM may find applications in large-field functional recording across the uneven brain surface and beyond (e.g., tumor imaging).
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Mac KD, Qureshi MM, Na M, Chang S, Eom TJ, Je HS, Kim YR, Kwon HS, Chung E. Fast volumetric imaging with line-scan confocal microscopy by electrically tunable lens at resonant frequency. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:19152-19164. [PMID: 36221700 PMCID: PMC9363030 DOI: 10.1364/oe.450745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In microscopic imaging of biological tissues, particularly real-time visualization of neuronal activities, rapid acquisition of volumetric images poses a prominent challenge. Typically, two-dimensional (2D) microscopy can be devised into an imaging system with 3D capability using any varifocal lens. Despite the conceptual simplicity, such an upgrade yet requires additional, complicated device components and usually suffers from a reduced acquisition rate, which is critical to properly document rapid neurophysiological dynamics. In this study, we implemented an electrically tunable lens (ETL) in the line-scan confocal microscopy (LSCM), enabling the volumetric acquisition at the rate of 20 frames per second with a maximum volume of interest of 315 × 315 × 80 µm3. The axial extent of point-spread-function (PSF) was 17.6 ± 1.6 µm and 90.4 ± 2.1 µm with the ETL operating in either stationary or resonant mode, respectively, revealing significant depth axial penetration by the resonant mode ETL microscopy. We further demonstrated the utilities of the ETL system by volume imaging of both cleared mouse brain ex vivo samples and in vivo brains. The current study showed a successful application of resonant ETL for constructing a high-performance 3D axially scanning LSCM (asLSCM) system. Such advances in rapid volumetric imaging would significantly enhance our understanding of various dynamic biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khuong Duy Mac
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | | | - Myeongsu Na
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 103 Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, 03080 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunghoe Chang
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 103 Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, 03080 Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 103 Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, 03080 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Joong Eom
- Department of Cogno-Mechatronics Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
- Engineering Research Center (ERC) for Color-modulated Extra-sensory Perception Technology, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunsoo Shawn Je
- Signature Program in Neuroscience and Behavioural Disorders, Duke-National University of Singapore (NUS) Medical School, 8 College Road 169857, Singapore
- Advanced Bioimaging Center, Academia, Ngee Ann Kongsi Discovery Tower Level 10, 20 College Road, 169855, Singapore
| | - Young Ro Kim
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, USA
- Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Hyuk-Sang Kwon
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Euiheon Chung
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
- AI Graduate School, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
- Research Center for Photon Science Technology, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
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Rishøj L, Hernández IC, Ramachandran S, Jowett N. Multiphoton microscopy for label-free multicolor imaging of peripheral nerve. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2022; 27:JBO-210327GRR. [PMID: 35568795 PMCID: PMC9109936 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.27.5.056501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Means for quantitation of myelinated fibers in peripheral nerve may guide diagnosis and clinical decision making in management of peripheral nerve disorders. Multiphoton microscopy techniques such as the third-harmonic generation enable label-free in vivo imaging of peripheral nerves. AIM Develop a multiphoton microscope based on a custom high-power infrared fiber laser for label-free imaging of peripheral nerve. APPROACH A cost-effective multiphoton microscope employing a single fiber laser source at 1300 nm was designed and used for stain-free multicolor imaging of murine and human peripheral nerve. RESULTS Second-harmonic generation signal from collagen centered about 650-nm delineated neural connective tissue, whereas third-harmonic general signal centered about 433-nm delineated myelin and other lipids. In sciatic nerve from transgenic reporter mice expressing yellow fluorescent protein within peripheral neurons, three-photon-excitation with emission peak at 527-nm delineated axoplasm. The signal obtained from unlabeled axially sectioned samples was adequate for segmentation of myelinated fibers using commercial image processing software. In unlabeled whole mount specimens, imaging depths over 100-μm were achieved. CONCLUSIONS A multiphoton microscope powered by a fiber laser enables stain-free histomorphometry of mammalian peripheral nerve. The simplicity of the microscope design carries potential for clinical translation to inform decision making in peripheral nerve disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Rishøj
- Boston University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
- Technical University of Denmark, DTU Fotonik, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Iván Coto Hernández
- Mass Eye and Ear and Harvard Medical School, Surgical Photonics and Engineering Laboratory, Boston, United States
| | - Siddharth Ramachandran
- Boston University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Nate Jowett
- Mass Eye and Ear and Harvard Medical School, Surgical Photonics and Engineering Laboratory, Boston, United States
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13
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Ul Alam S, Kumar Soni N, Srinivasa Rao A, He H, Ren YX, Wong KKY. Two-photon microscopy with enhanced resolution and signal-to-background ratio using hollow Gaussian beam excitation. OPTICS LETTERS 2022; 47:2048-2051. [PMID: 35427333 DOI: 10.1364/ol.454140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon microscopy (TPM) offers deeper imaging depth inside the scattering medium, however, it suffers from limited resolution owing to the longer excitation wavelength. We demonstrate the use of a hollow Gaussian beam (HGB) at the therapeutic window to improve the resolution and signal-to-background ratio (SBR). The HGB was produced by omitting the azimuthal phase term from the vortex mode, and the excitation point spread function (PSF) can be readily tuned by the mode order. The performance of the TPM with HGB was evaluated by experimentally imaging 100 nm fluorescent beads to estimate the PSF. The HGB improved the lateral resolution of the TPM by 36% in contrast to the conventional TPM. The HGB also furnishes an improvement of SBR by eliminating the out-of-focus light owing to its ring shape. Furthermore, we have used a translating lens-based module for additional lateral resolution tuning and reduced the resolution further down to 44% with respect to conventional TPM. Finally, we have performed imaging with merely two-dimensional scanning of a 50 µm thick mouse brain slice (Thy-YFP H-line) using the developed TPM with HGB. Our compact, robust, and low-cost design of the HGB generation scheme can easily be integrated into the commercial TPM to accommodate the improvements.
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14
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Chołuj M, Behera R, Petrusevich EF, Bartkowiak W, Alam MM, Zaleśny R. Much of a Muchness: On the Origins of Two- and Three-Photon Absorption Activity of Dipolar Y-Shaped Chromophores. J Phys Chem A 2022; 126:752-759. [PMID: 35084177 PMCID: PMC8842251 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.1c10098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The molecular origin
of two- (2PA) and three-photon absorption
(3PA) activity in three experimentally studied chromophores, prototypical
dipolar systems, is investigated. To that end, a generalized few-state
model (GFSM) formula is derived for the 3PA transition strength for
nonhermitian theories and employed at the coupled-cluster level of
theory. Using various computational techniques such as molecular dynamics,
linear and quadratic response theories, and GFSM, an in-depth analysis
of various optical channels involved in 2PA and 3PA processes is presented.
It is found that the four-state model involving the second and third
excited singlet states as intermediates is the smallest model among
all considered few-state approximations that produces 2PA and 3PA
transition strengths (for S0 → S1 transition)
close to the reference results. By analyzing various optical channels
appearing in these models and involved in studied multiphoton processes,
we found that the 2PA and 3PA activities in all the three chromophores
are dominated and hence controlled by the dipole moment of the final
excited state. The similar origins of the 2PA and the 3PA in these
prototypical dipolar chromophores suggest transferability of structure–property
relations from the 2PA to the 3PA domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Chołuj
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, PL-50370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Rojalini Behera
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bhilai, Sejbahar, Raipur, Chhattisgarh 492015, India
| | - Elizaveta F Petrusevich
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, PL-50370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Wojciech Bartkowiak
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, PL-50370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Md Mehboob Alam
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bhilai, Sejbahar, Raipur, Chhattisgarh 492015, India
| | - Robert Zaleśny
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, PL-50370 Wrocław, Poland
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15
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Intravital three-photon microscopy allows visualization over the entire depth of mouse lymph nodes. Nat Immunol 2022; 23:330-340. [PMID: 35087231 PMCID: PMC9210714 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-021-01101-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Intravital confocal microscopy and two-photon microscopy are powerful tools to explore the dynamic behavior of immune cells in mouse lymph nodes (LNs), with penetration depth of ~100 and ~300 μm, respectively. Here, we used intravital three-photon microscopy to visualize the popliteal LN through its entire depth (600-900 μm). We determined the laser average power and pulse energy that caused measurable perturbation in lymphocyte migration. Long-wavelength three-photon imaging within permissible parameters was able to image the entire LN vasculature in vivo and measure CD8+ T cells and CD4+ T cell motility in the T cell zone over the entire depth of the LN. We observed that the motility of naive CD4+ T cells in the T cell zone during lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation was dependent on depth. As such, intravital three-photon microscopy had the potential to examine immune cell behavior in the deeper regions of the LN in vivo.
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16
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Shi H, Wang K, Yang Z, Liu J. Line imaging of a terahertz zero-order Mathieu-Gauss beam. APPLIED OPTICS 2021; 60:9736-9740. [PMID: 34807158 DOI: 10.1364/ao.438615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Thestudy of terahertz (THz) structured beams has become an interesting subject. Here, we use 3D printed diffractive plates to generate a THz zero-order Mathieu-Gauss beam at a frequency of 0.1 THz and simulate its line-imaging effect. According to the nondiffraction property of the beam, we conduct a transmission imaging test by placing the imaging plate at different positions along the direction of beam propagation. The results show that the THz zero-order Mathieu-Gauss beam has a good imaging effect in the depth of field of about 130-380 mm. This can be used in large depth of field THz line imaging.
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17
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Giampetraglia M, Weigelin B. Recent advances in intravital microscopy for preclinical research. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2021; 63:200-208. [PMID: 34274700 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2021.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Intravital microscopy (IVM) has revolutionized our understanding of single-cell behavior in complex tissues by enabling real-time observation of molecular and cellular processes in their natural environment. In preclinical research, IVM has emerged as a standard tool for mechanistic studies of therapy response and the rational design of new treatment strategies. Technological developments keep expanding the imaging depth and quality that can be achieved in living tissue, and the maturation of imaging modalities such as fluorescence and phosphorescence lifetime imaging facilitates co-registration of individual cell dynamics with metabolic tissue states. Correlation of IVM with mesoscopic and macroscopic imaging modalities further promotes the translation of mechanistic insights gained by IVM into clinically relevant information. This review highlights some of the recent advances in IVM that have made the transition from experimental optical techniques to practical applications in basic and preclinical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Giampetraglia
- David H. Koch Center for Applied Research of Genitourinary Cancers, Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, USA
| | - Bettina Weigelin
- Werner Siemens Imaging Center, Department of Preclinical Imaging and Radiopharmacy, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; Cluster of Excellence iFIT (EXC 2180) "Image-Guided and Functionally Instructed Tumor Therapies", University of Tübingen, Germany.
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18
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Hontani Y, Xia F, Xu C. Multicolor three-photon fluorescence imaging with single-wavelength excitation deep in mouse brain. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabf3531. [PMID: 33731355 PMCID: PMC7968831 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abf3531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Multiphoton fluorescence microscopy is a powerful technique for deep-tissue observation of living cells. In particular, three-photon microscopy is highly beneficial for deep-tissue imaging because of the long excitation wavelength and the high nonlinear confinement in living tissues. Because of the large spectral separation of fluorophores of different color, multicolor three-photon imaging typically requires multiple excitation wavelengths. Here, we report a new three-photon excitation scheme: excitation to a higher-energy electronic excited state instead of the conventional excitation to the lowest-energy excited state, enabling multicolor three-photon fluorescence imaging with deep-tissue penetration in the living mouse brain using single-wavelength excitation. We further demonstrate that our excitation method results in ≥10-fold signal enhancement for some of the common red fluorescent molecules. The multicolor imaging capability and the possibility of enhanced three-photon excitation cross section will open new opportunities for life science applications of three-photon microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusaku Hontani
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Fei Xia
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Chris Xu
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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19
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Daria VR, Castañares ML, Bachor HA. Spatio-temporal parameters for optical probing of neuronal activity. Biophys Rev 2021; 13:13-33. [PMID: 33747244 PMCID: PMC7930150 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-021-00780-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The challenge to understand the complex neuronal circuit functions in the mammalian brain has brought about a revolution in light-based neurotechnologies and optogenetic tools. However, while recent seminal works have shown excellent insights on the processing of basic functions such as sensory perception, memory, and navigation, understanding more complex brain functions is still unattainable with current technologies. We are just scratching the surface, both literally and figuratively. Yet, the path towards fully understanding the brain is not totally uncertain. Recent rapid technological advancements have allowed us to analyze the processing of signals within dendritic arborizations of single neurons and within neuronal circuits. Understanding the circuit dynamics in the brain requires a good appreciation of the spatial and temporal properties of neuronal activity. Here, we assess the spatio-temporal parameters of neuronal responses and match them with suitable light-based neurotechnologies as well as photochemical and optogenetic tools. We focus on the spatial range that includes dendrites and certain brain regions (e.g., cortex and hippocampus) that constitute neuronal circuits. We also review some temporal characteristics of some proteins and ion channels responsible for certain neuronal functions. With the aid of the photochemical and optogenetic markers, we can use light to visualize the circuit dynamics of a functioning brain. The challenge to understand how the brain works continue to excite scientists as research questions begin to link macroscopic and microscopic units of brain circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent R. Daria
- Research School of Physics, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | | | - Hans-A. Bachor
- Research School of Physics, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
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20
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Chan RKY, He H, Ren YX, Lai CSW, Lam EY, Wong KKY. Axially resolved volumetric two-photon microscopy with an extended field of view using depth localization under mirrored Airy beams. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:39563-39573. [PMID: 33379502 DOI: 10.1364/oe.412453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
It is a great challenge in two-photon microscopy (2PM) to have a high volumetric imaging speed without sacrificing the spatial and temporal resolution in three dimensions (3D). The structure in 2PM images could be reconstructed with better spatial and temporal resolution by the proper choice of the data processing algorithm. Here, we propose a method to reconstruct 3D volume from 2D projections imaged by mirrored Airy beams. We verified that our approach can achieve high accuracy in 3D localization over a large axial range and is applicable to continuous and dense sample. The effective field of view after reconstruction is expanded. It is a promising technique for rapid volumetric 2PM with axial localization at high resolution.
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21
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Cheng Z, Ma H, Wang Z, Yang S. In vivo volumetric monitoring of revascularization of traumatized skin using extended depth-of-field photoacoustic microscopy. FRONTIERS OF OPTOELECTRONICS 2020; 13:307-317. [PMID: 36641563 PMCID: PMC9743921 DOI: 10.1007/s12200-020-1040-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Faster and better wound healing is a critical medical issue. Because the repair process of wounds is closely related to revascularization, accurate early assessment and postoperative monitoring are very important for establishing an optimal treatment plan. Herein, we present an extended depth-of-field photoacoustic microscopy system (E-DOF-PAM) that can achieve a constant spatial resolution and relatively uniform excitation efficiency over a long axial range. The superior performance of the system was verified by phantom and in vivo experiments. Furthermore, the system was applied to the imaging of normal and trauma sites of volunteers, and the experimental results accurately revealed the morphological differences between the normal and traumatized skin of the epidermis and dermis. These results demonstrated that the E-DOF-PAM is a powerful tool for observing and understanding the pathophysiology of cutaneous wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongwen Cheng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Haigang Ma
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Zhiyang Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Sihua Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China.
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China.
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22
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Nguyen HD, Sedao X, Mauclair C, Bidron G, Faure N, Moreno E, Colombier JP, Stoian R. Non-Diffractive Bessel Beams for Ultrafast Laser Scanning Platform and Proof-Of-Concept Side-Wall Polishing of Additively Manufactured Parts. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:E974. [PMID: 33143011 PMCID: PMC7693589 DOI: 10.3390/mi11110974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We report the potential use of non-diffractive Bessel beam for ultrafast laser processing in additive manufacturing environments, its integration into a fast scanning platform, and proof-of-concept side-wall polishing of stainless steel-based additively fabricated parts. We demonstrate two key advantages of the zeroth-order Bessel beam: the significantly long non-diffractive length for large tolerance of sample positioning and the unique self-reconstruction property for un-disrupted beam access, despite the obstruction of metallic powders in the additive manufacturing environment. The integration of Bessel beam scanning platform is constructed by finely adapting the Bessel beam into a Galvano scanner. The beam sustained its good profile within the scan field of 35 × 35 mm2. As a proof of concept, the platform showcases its advanced capacity by largely reducing the side-wall surface roughness of an additively as-fabricated workpiece from Ra 10 μm down to 1 μm. Therefore, the demonstrated Bessel-Scanner configuration possesses great potential for integrating in a hybrid additive manufacturing apparatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huu Dat Nguyen
- Laboratoire Hubert Curien, UMR 5516 CNRS, Institute of Optics Graduate School, Université de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, 42000 Saint-Etienne, France; (H.D.N.); (X.S.); (N.F.); (E.M.); (J.-P.C.); (R.S.)
| | - Xxx Sedao
- Laboratoire Hubert Curien, UMR 5516 CNRS, Institute of Optics Graduate School, Université de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, 42000 Saint-Etienne, France; (H.D.N.); (X.S.); (N.F.); (E.M.); (J.-P.C.); (R.S.)
- GIE Manutech-USD, 42000 Saint-Etienne, France;
| | - Cyril Mauclair
- Laboratoire Hubert Curien, UMR 5516 CNRS, Institute of Optics Graduate School, Université de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, 42000 Saint-Etienne, France; (H.D.N.); (X.S.); (N.F.); (E.M.); (J.-P.C.); (R.S.)
- GIE Manutech-USD, 42000 Saint-Etienne, France;
| | | | - Nicolas Faure
- Laboratoire Hubert Curien, UMR 5516 CNRS, Institute of Optics Graduate School, Université de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, 42000 Saint-Etienne, France; (H.D.N.); (X.S.); (N.F.); (E.M.); (J.-P.C.); (R.S.)
| | - Enrique Moreno
- Laboratoire Hubert Curien, UMR 5516 CNRS, Institute of Optics Graduate School, Université de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, 42000 Saint-Etienne, France; (H.D.N.); (X.S.); (N.F.); (E.M.); (J.-P.C.); (R.S.)
| | - Jean-Philippe Colombier
- Laboratoire Hubert Curien, UMR 5516 CNRS, Institute of Optics Graduate School, Université de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, 42000 Saint-Etienne, France; (H.D.N.); (X.S.); (N.F.); (E.M.); (J.-P.C.); (R.S.)
| | - Razvan Stoian
- Laboratoire Hubert Curien, UMR 5516 CNRS, Institute of Optics Graduate School, Université de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, 42000 Saint-Etienne, France; (H.D.N.); (X.S.); (N.F.); (E.M.); (J.-P.C.); (R.S.)
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23
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Li DY, Zheng Z, Yu TT, Tang BZ, Fei P, Qian J, Zhu D. Visible-near infrared-II skull optical clearing window for in vivo cortical vasculature imaging and targeted manipulation. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2020; 13:e202000142. [PMID: 32589789 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202000142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Skull optical clearing window permits us to perform in vivo cortical imaging without craniotomy, but mainly limits to visible (vis)-near infrared (NIR)-I light imaging. If the skull optical clearing window is available for NIR-II, the imaging depth will be further enhanced. Herein, we developed a vis-NIR-II skull optical clearing agents with deuterium oxide instead of water, which could make the skull transparent in the range of visible to NIR-II. Using a NIR-II excited third harmonic generation microscope, the cortical vasculature of mice could be clearly distinguished even at the depth of 650 μm through the vis-NIR-II skull clearing window. The imaging depth after clearing is close to that without skull, and increases by three times through turbid skull. Furthermore, the new skull optical clearing window promises to realize NIR-II laser-induced targeted injury of cortical single vessel. This work enhances the ability of NIR-II excited nonlinear imaging techniques for accessing to cortical neurovasculature in deep tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Yu Li
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentations, Centre for Optical and Electromagnetic Research, College of Optical Science and Engineering, International Research Center for Advanced Photonics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zheng Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration and Reconstruction Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute for Advanced Study, Institute of Molecular Functional Materials, Division of Biomedical Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Ting-Ting Yu
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Ben-Zhong Tang
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration and Reconstruction Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute for Advanced Study, Institute of Molecular Functional Materials, Division of Biomedical Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Peng Fei
- School of Optical and Electronic Information-Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jun Qian
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentations, Centre for Optical and Electromagnetic Research, College of Optical Science and Engineering, International Research Center for Advanced Photonics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Dan Zhu
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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24
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He H, Kong C, Chan KY, So WL, Fok HK, Ren YX, Lai CSW, Tsia KK, Wong KKY. Resolution enhancement in an extended depth of field for volumetric two-photon microscopy. OPTICS LETTERS 2020; 45:3054-3057. [PMID: 32479457 DOI: 10.1364/ol.394282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The resolution enhancement over the extended depth of field (DOF) in the volumetric two-photon microscopy (TPM) is demonstrated by utilizing multiple orders of Bessel beams. Here the conventional method of switching laser modes (SLAM) in 2D is introduced to 3D, denoted as the volumetric SLAM (V-SLAM). The equivalent scanning beam in the TPM is a thin needle-like beam, which is generated from the subtraction between the needle-like 0th-order and the straw-like 1st-order Bessel beams. Compared with the 0th-order Bessel beam, the lateral resolution of the V-SLAM is increased by 28.6% and maintains over the axial depth of 56 µm. The V-SLAM performance is evaluated by employing fluorescent beads and a mouse brain slice. The V-SLAM approach provides a promising solution to improve the lateral resolutions for fast volumetric imaging on sparsely distributed samples.
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25
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High spatiotemporal resolution and low photo-toxicity fluorescence imaging in live cells and in vivo. Biochem Soc Trans 2020; 47:1635-1650. [PMID: 31829403 DOI: 10.1042/bst20190020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Taking advantage of high contrast and molecular specificity, fluorescence microscopy has played a critical role in the visualization of subcellular structures and function, enabling unprecedented exploration from cell biology to neuroscience in living animals. To record and quantitatively analyse complex and dynamic biological processes in real time, fluorescence microscopes must be capable of rapid, targeted access deep within samples at high spatial resolutions, using techniques including super-resolution fluorescence microscopy, light sheet fluorescence microscopy, and multiple photon microscopy. In recent years, tremendous breakthroughs have improved the performance of these fluorescence microscopies in spatial resolution, imaging speed, and penetration. Here, we will review recent advancements of these microscopies in terms of the trade-off among spatial resolution, sampling speed and penetration depth and provide a view of their possible applications.
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26
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Wang T, Wu C, Ouzounov DG, Gu W, Xia F, Kim M, Yang X, Warden MR, Xu C. Quantitative analysis of 1300-nm three-photon calcium imaging in the mouse brain. eLife 2020; 9:53205. [PMID: 31999253 PMCID: PMC7028383 DOI: 10.7554/elife.53205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
1300 nm three-photon calcium imaging has emerged as a useful technique to allow calcium imaging in deep brain regions. Application to large-scale neural activity imaging entails a careful balance between recording fidelity and perturbation to the sample. We calculated and experimentally verified the excitation pulse energy to achieve the minimum photon count required for the detection of calcium transients in GCaMP6s-expressing neurons for 920 nm two-photon and 1320 nm three-photon excitation. By considering the combined effects of in-focus signal attenuation and out-of-focus background generation, we quantified the cross-over depth beyond which three-photon microscopy outpeforms two-photon microscopy in recording fidelity. Brain tissue heating by continuous three-photon imaging was simulated with Monte Carlo method and experimentally validated with immunohistochemistry. Increased immunoreactivity was observed with 150 mW excitation power at 1 and 1.2 mm imaging depths. Our analysis presents a translatable model for the optimization of three-photon calcium imaging based on experimentally tractable parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyu Wang
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Chunyan Wu
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States.,College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Dimitre G Ouzounov
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Wenchao Gu
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Fei Xia
- Meining School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Minsu Kim
- College of Human Ecology, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Xusan Yang
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Melissa R Warden
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Chris Xu
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
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27
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Li X, Zhang Y, Liu K, Xie H, Wang H, Kong L, Dai Q. Adaptive optimization for axial multi-foci generation in multiphoton microscopy. OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 27:35948-35961. [PMID: 31878759 DOI: 10.1364/oe.27.035948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
To improve imaging speed, multifocal excitation is widely adopted as a parallel strategy in laser-scanning microscopy. Specifically, axial multifocal microscopy is popular in neuroscience as it enables functional imaging of neurons in multiple depths simultaneously. However, previous phase searching algorithms for axial multi-foci generation generally generate foci of uniform intensities, which cannot compensate the scattering-induced power loss in deep tissue and causes inhomogeneous excitation. Here, we propose a novel adaptive optimization-based phase-searching method (AdaPS) to generate axial multi-foci with arbitrary intensity modulations for scattering-induced loss compensation. By adopting Adaptive Moment Estimation (Adam) as the searching algorithm, our method could escape from unsatisfactory local minima and stably converge to the optimal phase pattern with errors at least an order of magnitude lower. We validate AdaPS through both numerical simulations and experiments and demonstrate that AdaPS could provide uniform multi-depth imaging in scattering phantom and enable high-fidelity multi-depth recordings of neural network dynamics in mouse brain in vivo.
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Lecoq J, Orlova N, Grewe BF. Wide. Fast. Deep: Recent Advances in Multiphoton Microscopy of In Vivo Neuronal Activity. J Neurosci 2019; 39:9042-9052. [PMID: 31578235 PMCID: PMC6855689 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1527-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiphoton microscopy (MPM) has emerged as one of the most powerful and widespread technologies to monitor the activity of neuronal networks in awake, behaving animals over long periods of time. MPM development spanned across decades and crucially depended on the concurrent improvement of calcium indicators that report neuronal activity as well as surgical protocols, head fixation approaches, and innovations in optics and microscopy technology. Here we review the last decade of MPM development and highlight how in vivo imaging has matured and diversified, making it now possible to concurrently monitor thousands of neurons across connected brain areas or, alternatively, small local networks with sampling rates in the kilohertz range. This review includes different laser scanning approaches, such as multibeam technologies as well as recent developments to image deeper into neuronal tissues using new, long-wavelength laser sources. As future development will critically depend on our ability to resolve and discriminate individual neuronal spikes, we will also describe a simple framework that allows performing quantitative comparisons between the reviewed MPM instruments. Finally, we provide our own opinion on how the most recent MPM developments can be leveraged at scale to enable the next generation of discoveries in brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Lecoq
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle 98109, Washington,
| | - Natalia Orlova
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle 98109, Washington
| | - Benjamin F Grewe
- Institute of Neuroinformatics, UZH and ETH Zurich, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland, and
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
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He H, Kong C, Tan XJ, Chan KY, Ren YX, Tsia KK, Wong KKY. Depth-resolved volumetric two-photon microscopy based on dual Airy beam scanning. OPTICS LETTERS 2019; 44:5238-5241. [PMID: 31674977 DOI: 10.1364/ol.44.005238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate dual-Airy-beam-scanning-based volumetric two-photon microscopy (TPM) with depth-resolving capability. A pair of Airy beams with opposite acceleration is used as the excitation lights to sequentially illuminate the sample, and depth information can be resolved based on the deflection of the Airy beam. The depth-resolving range of the volumetric TPM is up to 32 μm. The advantages of the depth-resolved volumetric TPM are the depth-resolving capability over Bessel-beam-based TPM and less scanning times over traditional Gaussian-beam-based TPM. The depth-resolved volumetric TPM provides a promising fast imaging tool to study the dynamics in neural biology.
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Takasaki KT, Tsyboulski D, Waters J. Dual-plane 3-photon microscopy with remote focusing. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 10:5585-5599. [PMID: 31799032 PMCID: PMC6865092 DOI: 10.1364/boe.10.005585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
3-photon excitation enables in vivo fluorescence microscopy deep in densely labeled and highly scattering samples. To date, 3-photon excitation has been restricted to scanning a single focus, limiting the speed of volume acquisition. Here, for the first time to our knowledge, we implemented and characterized dual-plane 3-photon microscopy with temporal multiplexing and remote focusing, and performed simultaneous in vivo calcium imaging of two planes beyond 600 µm deep in the cortex of a pan-excitatory GCaMP6s transgenic mouse with a per-plane framerate of 7 Hz and an effective 2 MHz laser repetition rate. This method is a straightforward and generalizable modification to single-focus 3PE systems, doubling the rate of volume (column) imaging with off-the-shelf components and minimal technical constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T. Takasaki
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, 615 Westlake Ave N, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Dmitri Tsyboulski
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | - Jack Waters
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, 615 Westlake Ave N, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
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31
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Pernici CD, Kemp BS, Murray TA. Time course images of cellular injury and recovery in murine brain with high-resolution GRIN lens system. Sci Rep 2019; 9:7946. [PMID: 31138885 PMCID: PMC6538613 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44174-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Time course, in vivo imaging of brain cells is crucial to fully understand the progression of secondary cellular damage and recovery in murine models of injury. We have combined high-resolution gradient index lens technology with a model of diffuse axonal injury in rodents to enable repeated visualization of fine features of individual cells in three-dimensional space over several weeks. For example, we recorded changes in morphology in the same axons in the external capsule numerous times over 30 to 60 days, before and after induced traumatic brain injury. We observed the expansion of secondary injury and limited recovery of individual axons in this subcortical white matter tract over time. In another application, changes in microglial activation state were visualized in the penumbra region of mice before and after ischemia induced by middle carotid artery occlusion. The ability to collect a series of high-resolution images of cellular features of the same cells pre- and post-injury enables a unique opportunity to study the progression of damage, spontaneous healing, and effects of therapeutics in mouse models of neurodegenerative disease and brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea D Pernici
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Rehabilitation Sciences, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, Louisiana, USA
| | - Benjamin S Kemp
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Rehabilitation Sciences, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, Louisiana, USA
| | - Teresa A Murray
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Rehabilitation Sciences, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, Louisiana, USA.
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Tan XJ, Kong C, Ren YX, Lai CSW, Tsia KK, Wong KKY. Volumetric two-photon microscopy with a non-diffracting Airy beam. OPTICS LETTERS 2019; 44:391-394. [PMID: 30644908 DOI: 10.1364/ol.44.000391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a volumetric two-photon microscopy (TPM) using the non-diffracting Airy beam as illumination. Direct mapping of the imaging trajectory shows that the Airy beam extends the axial imaging range around six times longer than a traditional Gaussian beam does along the propagation direction, while maintaining a comparable lateral width. Benefiting from its non-diffracting nature, the TPM with Airy beam illumination is able not only to capture a volumetric image within a single frame, but also to acquire image structures behind a strongly scattered medium. The volumetric specimen is mapped layer by layer under Gaussian mode, while the three-dimensional structure is projected to a single two-dimensional image under Airy mode, leading to a significantly increased acquisition speed. The performance of the TPM is evaluated employing a phantom of agarose gel imbedding fluorescent beads as well as a mouse brain slice. Finally, we showcase the penetration ability of the developed Airy TPM by imaging through a scattering environment.
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Ronzitti E, Emiliani V, Papagiakoumou E. Methods for Three-Dimensional All-Optical Manipulation of Neural Circuits. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:469. [PMID: 30618626 PMCID: PMC6304748 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Optical means for modulating and monitoring neuronal activity, have provided substantial insights to neurophysiology and toward our understanding of how the brain works. Optogenetic actuators, calcium or voltage imaging probes and other molecular tools, combined with advanced microscopies have allowed an "all-optical" readout and modulation of neural circuits. Completion of this remarkable work is evolving toward a three-dimensional (3D) manipulation of neural ensembles at a high spatiotemporal resolution. Recently, original optical methods have been proposed for both activating and monitoring neurons in a 3D space, mainly through optogenetic compounds. Here, we review these methods and anticipate possible combinations among them.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Eirini Papagiakoumou
- Wavefront Engineering Microscopy Group, Photonics Department, Institut de la Vision, Sorbonne Université, Inserm S968, CNRS UMR7210, Paris, France
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Escobet-Montalbán A, Gasparoli FM, Nylk J, Liu P, Yang Z, Dholakia K. Three-photon light-sheet fluorescence microscopy. OPTICS LETTERS 2018; 43:5484-5487. [PMID: 30383037 DOI: 10.1364/ol.43.005484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We present the first demonstration of three-photon excitation light-sheet fluorescence microscopy. Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy in single- and two-photon modes has emerged as a powerful wide-field, low-photodamage technique for fast volumetric imaging of biological samples. We extend this imaging modality to the three-photon regime, enhancing its penetration depth. Our present study uses a conventional femtosecond pulsed laser at 1000 nm wavelength for the imaging of 450 μm diameter cellular spheroids. In addition, we show, experimentally and through numerical simulations, the potential advantages in three-photon light-sheet microscopy of using propagation-invariant Bessel beams in preference to Gaussian beams.
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Hu Q, Li P, Xiong Y, Wang Y, Lv X, Zeng S. Simultaneous two-plane, two-photon imaging based on spatial multiplexing. OPTICS LETTERS 2018; 43:4598-4601. [PMID: 30272692 DOI: 10.1364/ol.43.004598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The two-photon microscope is a powerful tool in life science. Conventional two-photon microscopy can image only a plane of a particular axial position at a time. Axial scanning can get the volumetric information, but it gets signals from different axial positions serially, which means that the exposure time at every plane is limited. Here we demonstrate a novel method, to the best of our knowledge, that can simultaneously record images from two planes at different xyz positions. The demultiplexing of the signal is realized using a confocal strategy. The experimental results show that it can be used for simultaneous two-photon imaging at two focal planes with little cross talk.
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