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Zhou Y, Meng Y, Cheng Y, Guan M, Liu X. High performances of cellulose nanocrystal based bicomponent supramolecular hydrogel lubricant. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 344:122542. [PMID: 39218559 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2024] [Revised: 07/20/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
To improve the limitations of water-based lubricants, a novel cellulose nanocrystal based supramolecular hydrogel (CNC/x-DG/y) was prepared by mixing cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) and diglycerol (DG) into deionized water (DW). The hydrogel was characterized to determine its material ratio and gelation mechanism. When DW was fixed at 1 mL, CNC content should be no <2.4 wt% and DG content 0.1-1.3 mL. The gelification was driven by the multiple H-bond network between CNC and DG, which immobilized water molecules. The rheological performances, the anti-rust property and the volatilization behaviour of the hydrogel were further studied. The results showed that the hydrogel had satisfactory viscoelasticity, excellent thermal stability, strong creep recovery, high anti-rust performance and low volatilization rate, which were exactly its advantages for use as lubricant. A typical representative of the hydrogel, namely CNC/2.4-DG/0.1, was selected to evaluate the tribological performances, and the resulting worn surfaces were analyzed. CNC/2.4-DG/0.1 exhibited a lower friction coefficient of 0.059 and a smaller wear volume of 0.81 × 10-3 mm3, compared to DW(1 mL) + CNC(2.4 wt%) and DW(1 mL) + DG(0.1 mL). The outstanding tribological performances of CNC/2.4-DG/0.1 were reasonably attributed to the synergistic mending effect of CNC and DG and the dissipative effect of H-bonds between the two.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulong Zhou
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410000, China
| | - Yuan Meng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410000, China; Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Materials Surface, Interface Science and Technology, Changsha 410000, China.
| | - Yu Cheng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410000, China
| | - Minghang Guan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410000, China
| | - Xiubo Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410000, China; Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Materials Surface, Interface Science and Technology, Changsha 410000, China
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2
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Benini KCCDC, Arantes V. Evaluating the reinforcing potential of enzymatic cellulose nanocrystals in polypropylene nanocomposite. Carbohydr Res 2024; 542:109171. [PMID: 38875904 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2024.109171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) produced through enzymatic hydrolysis exhibit physicochemical properties that make them attractive as eco-friendly reinforcing agents in polymer composites. However, the extent of their efficacy within a polymeric matrix is yet to be fully established. This study investigated the reinforcing capabilities of enzymatic CNC (approximately 3 nm in diameter) isolated from bleached eucalyptus Kraft pulp (BEKP), focusing on its application in polypropylene (PP) nanocomposites produced by injection molding. The study compared the performance of this enzymatic CNC (1-5 % wt) with PP composites reinforced with micro-sized cellulose fibers (BEKP at 10-30 % wt, approximately 13 μm) and additionally with commercial CNC produced by sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Despite enzymatic CNC experiencing agglomeration during spray-drying, leading to an average diameter increase to 3 μm, it still significantly increased the crystallization and glass transition temperature of the PP matrix. However, this agglomeration likely hindered the improvement of the mechanical properties within the nanocomposites. The results also showed that enzymatic CNC provided higher thermal stability at lower reinforcement levels compared to BEKP, but this came with a reduction in stiffness, posing a significant consideration in composite design. The addition of a coupling agent greatly enhanced the dispersion of reinforcements and the interfacial adhesion within the matrix, contributing to the enhanced performance of the composite properties. Additionally, enzymatic CNC demonstrated potential for superior reinforcement efficacy compared to commercially available CNC produced by sulfuric acid hydrolysis. In conclusion, enzymatic CNC exhibited a promising role as nano-reinforcement for thermoplastic polymer nanocomposites, exhibiting higher thermal properties at lower reinforcing loads than traditional micro-sized fiber reinforcements. The absence of sulfur, coupled with its higher thermal stability and sustainable potential, positions enzymatic CNC as a particularly favorable choice for applications involving direct contact with food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and biomedical materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Cristina Coelho de Carvalho Benini
- Laboratory of Applied Bionanotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, 12602-810, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Valdeir Arantes
- Laboratory of Applied Bionanotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, 12602-810, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Li Z, Zhu G, Lin N. Dispersibility Characterization of Cellulose Nanocrystals in Polymeric-Based Composites. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:4439-4468. [PMID: 36195577 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.2c00987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are hydrophilic nanoparticles extracted from biomass with properties and functions different from cellulose and are being developed for property-oriented applications such as high stiffness, abundant active groups, and biocompatibility. It has broad application prospects in the field of composite materials, while the dispersibility of the CNC in polymers is the key to its application performance. Many reviews have discussed in-depth the modification strategies to improve the dispersibility of the CNC and summarized all characterization for the CNC, but there are no reviews on the in-depth exploration of dispersion characterization. This review is a comprehensive summary of the characterization of CNC dispersion in the matrix in terms of direct observation, indirect evaluation, and quantified evaluation, summarizing how and why different characterization tools reveal dispersibility. In addition, "decision tree" flowcharts are presented to provide the reader with a reference for selecting the appropriate characterization method for a specific composite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zikang Li
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Luoshi Road #122, Wuhan430070, P. R. China
| | - Ge Zhu
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Luoshi Road #122, Wuhan430070, P. R. China
| | - Ning Lin
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Luoshi Road #122, Wuhan430070, P. R. China
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Wang Y, Yu Z, Dufresne A, Ye Z, Lin N, Zhou J. Quantitative Analysis of Compatibility and Dispersibility in Nanocellulose-Reinforced Composites: Hansen Solubility and Raman Mapping. ACS NANO 2021; 15:20148-20163. [PMID: 34788992 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c08100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Considering its high specific modulus, nanocellulose, including rigid cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and semiflexible cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs), is widely used as a nano-reinforcing filler for polymeric-based composites, which is regarded as the most promising application of these biomass nanoparticles. The quantitative evaluation of the compatibility and dispersion/aggregation state of nanocellulose in polymeric matrices is a critical issue, as it conditions the efficient stress transfer from the matrix to the filler and effective mechanical reinforcement effect. This study reports a comprehensive set of theories and methods to directly evaluate the compatibility and dispersibility of CNCs and CNFs in four polymer matrices with different polarities, where the compatibility was assessing by Hansen solubility and dispersibility by Raman mapping and cluster analysis. Triple-bond modification on the surface of nanocellulose is a promising approach for accurate recognition in composites, exhibiting the individual signal located in the Raman-silent regions of various polymeric matrices. Based on the discussion of the quantitative dispersion factor, a multiscale percolation model is proposed to better predict the mechanical properties of nanocellulose-reinforced composites based on Raman mapping results, in order to update traditional percolation models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxia Wang
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, People's Republic of China
| | - Zechuan Yu
- School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, People's Republic of China
| | - Alain Dufresne
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP (Institute of Engineering University Grenoble Alpes), LGP2, F-38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Zelin Ye
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, People's Republic of China
| | - Ning Lin
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, People's Republic of China
| | - Ji Zhou
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, People's Republic of China
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Zielińska D, Szentner K, Waśkiewicz A, Borysiak S. Production of Nanocellulose by Enzymatic Treatment for Application in Polymer Composites. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14092124. [PMID: 33922118 PMCID: PMC8122419 DOI: 10.3390/ma14092124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In the last few years, the scientific community around the world has devoted a lot of attention to the search for the best methods of obtaining nanocellulose. In this work, nanocellulose was obtained in enzymatic reactions with strictly defined dispersion and structural parameters in order to use it as a filler for polymers. The controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of the polysaccharide was carried out in the presence of cellulolytic enzymes from microscopic fungi-Trichoderma reesei and Aspergillus sp. It has been shown that the efficiency of bioconversion of cellulose material depends on the type of enzymes used. The use of a complex of cellulases obtained from a fungus of the genus Trichoderma turned out to be an effective method of obtaining cellulose of nanometric dimensions with a very low polydispersity. The effect of cellulose enzymatic reactions was assessed using the technique of high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a refractometric detector, X-ray diffraction, dynamic light scattering and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. In the second stage, polypropylene composites with nanometric cellulose were obtained by extrusion and injection. It was found by means of X-ray diffraction, hot stage optical microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry that nanocellulose had a significant effect on the supermolecular structure, nucleation activity and the course of phase transitions of the obtained polymer nanocomposites. Moreover, the obtained nanocomposites are characterized by very good strength properties. This paper describes for the first time that the obtained cellulose nanofillers with defined parameters can be used for the production of polymer composites with a strictly defined polymorphic structure, which in turn may influence future decision making about obtaining materials with controllable properties, e.g., high flexibility, enabling the thermoforming process of packaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Zielińska
- Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, 60965 Poznan, Poland;
| | - Kinga Szentner
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, 60625 Poznan, Poland; (K.S.); (A.W.)
| | - Agnieszka Waśkiewicz
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, 60625 Poznan, Poland; (K.S.); (A.W.)
| | - Sławomir Borysiak
- Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, 60965 Poznan, Poland;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-616-653-549
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Alam KM, Kumar P, Gusarov S, Kobryn AE, Kalra AP, Zeng S, Goswami A, Thundat T, Shankar K. Synthesis and Characterization of Zinc Phthalocyanine-Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC) Conjugates: Toward Highly Functional CNCs. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:43992-44006. [PMID: 32530267 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c07179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We report highly fluorescent cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) formed by conjugating a carboxylated zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) to two different types of CNCs. The conjugated nanocrystals (henceforth called ZnPc@CNCs) were bright green in color and exhibited absorption and emission maxima at ∼690 and ∼715 nm, respectively. The esterification protocol employed to covalently bind carboxylated ZnPc to surface hydroxyl group rich CNCs was expected to result in a monolayer of ZnPc on the surface of the CNCs. However, dynamic light scattering (DLS) studies indicated a large increase in the hydrodynamic radius of CNCs following conjugation to ZnPc, which suggests the binding of multiple ZnPc molecular layers on the CNC surface. This binding could be through co-facial π-stacking of ZnPc, where ZnPc metallophthalocyanine rings are horizontal to the CNC surface. The other possible binding mode would give rise to conjugated systems where ZnPc metallophthalocyanine rings are oriented vertically on the CNC surface. Density functional theory based calculations showed stable geometry following the conjugation protocol that involved covalently attached ester bond formation. The conjugates demonstrated superior performance for potential sensing applications through higher photoluminescence quenching capabilities compared to pristine ZnPc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazi M Alam
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 St., Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Pawan Kumar
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 St., Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Sergey Gusarov
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 11421 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, AB T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Alexander E Kobryn
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 11421 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, AB T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Aarat P Kalra
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 St., Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Sheng Zeng
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 St., Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Ankur Goswami
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 St., Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 11016, India
| | - Thomas Thundat
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 1H9, Canada
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14260, United States
| | - Karthik Shankar
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 St., Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
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7
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A review on nanocellulose as a lightweight filler of polyolefin composites. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 243:116466. [PMID: 32532395 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Nanocellulose (NC) possesses low density, high aspect ratio, impressive mechanical properties, nanoscale dimensions, which shows huge potential applications as a reinforced filler. Polyolefin (PO), represented by polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), has been widely used in industries. Recently nanocellulose/polyolefin nanocomposites (NC/PO nanocomposites) have caught more attention from the application of automotive components, aerospace, furniture, building, home appliances, and sport. In this review, the surface modifications of nanocellulose and polyolefin are summarized respectively, such as surface adsorption modification, small molecule modification, and graft copolymerization modification. The common preparations of NC/PO nanocomposites are discussed, including the melting compounding, the solvent casting, and the in-situ polymerization. The lightweight, mechanical properties, and aging-resistant properties of NC/PO nanocomposites are highlighted. Finally, the potentials and challenges for industrial production development of NC/PO nanocomposites are discussed.
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8
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Redondo A, Chatterjee S, Brodard P, Korley LTJ, Weder C, Gunkel I, Steiner U. Melt-Spun Nanocomposite Fibers Reinforced with Aligned Tunicate Nanocrystals. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:E1912. [PMID: 31757006 PMCID: PMC6960881 DOI: 10.3390/polym11121912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The fabrication of nanocomposite films and fibers based on cellulose nanocrystals (P-tCNCs) and a thermoplastic polyurethane (PU) elastomer is reported. High-aspect-ratio P-tCNCs were isolated from tunicates using phosphoric acid hydrolysis, which is a process that affords nanocrystals displaying high thermal stability. Nanocomposites were produced by solvent casting (films) or melt-mixing in a twin-screw extruder and subsequent melt-spinning (fibers). The processing protocols were found to affect the orientation of both PU hard segments and the P-tCNCs within the PU matrix and therefore the mechanical properties. While the films were isotropic, both the polymer matrix and the P-tCNCs proved to be aligned along the fiber direction in the fibers, as shown using SAXS/WAXS, angle-dependent Raman spectroscopy, and birefringence analysis. Tensile tests reveal that fibers and films, at similar P-tCNC contents, display Young's moduli and strain-at-break that are within the same order of magnitude, but the stress-at-break was found to be ten-times higher for fibers, conferring them a superior toughness over films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Redondo
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (A.R.); (C.W.)
| | - Sourav Chatterjee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA; (S.C.); (L.T.J.K.)
| | - Pierre Brodard
- College of Engineering and Architecture of Fribourg, University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland, Boulevard de Pérolles 80, CH-1705 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - LaShanda T. J. Korley
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA; (S.C.); (L.T.J.K.)
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Christoph Weder
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (A.R.); (C.W.)
| | - Ilja Gunkel
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (A.R.); (C.W.)
| | - Ullrich Steiner
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (A.R.); (C.W.)
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Fujii MY, Yamamoto Y, Koide T, Hamaguchi M, Onuki Y, Suzuki N, Suzuki T, Fukami T. Imaging Analysis Enables Differentiation of the Distribution of Pharmaceutical Ingredients in Tacrolimus Ointments. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2019; 73:1183-1192. [PMID: 31271295 DOI: 10.1177/0003702819863441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrated the difference in the distribution state of pharmaceutical ingredients between tacrolimus (TCR) original ointment and six kinds of generic medicines. Two-dimensional imaging and depth analysis using attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR FT-IR) spectroscopy and confocal Raman microscopy were used, in addition to the evaluation of pharmaceutical properties, including spreading properties, rheological properties, and amount of solvent. The solvents, such as propylene carbonate and triacetin, in TCR ointments formed liquid droplets and dispersed in hydrocarbon oils. Waxes, white beeswax and beeswax, formed other domains. Confocal Raman microscopy could detect liquid droplet size without coalescence of that on germanium or glass surfaces. The combination of ATR FT-IR and confocal Raman imaging would be a powerful tool to reveal the size and shape of liquid droplets of pharmaceutical ingredients in semisolid formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yoshihisa Yamamoto
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Teikyo Heisei University, Nakano, Japan
| | - Tatsuo Koide
- Division of Drugs, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Masashi Hamaguchi
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Onuki
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan
| | - Naoto Suzuki
- School of Pharmacy, Nihon University, Funabashi, Japan
| | | | - Toshiro Fukami
- Department of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Kiyose, Japan
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Huang S, Wu MB, Zhu CY, Ma MQ, Yang J, Wu J, Xu ZK. Polyamide Nanofiltration Membranes Incorporated with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Enhanced Water Flux and Chlorine Resistance. ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b01651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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11
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Li L, Liu RH, Yang B, Zhou ZH, Xu L, Huang HD, Zhong GJ, Li ZM. Interconnected Microdomain Structure of a Cross-Linked Cellulose Nanocomposite Revealed by Micro-Raman Imaging and Its Influence on Water Permeability of a Film. Biomacromolecules 2019; 20:2754-2762. [PMID: 31125205 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.9b00508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Substantial adsorption of water vapor triggered by hydrogen-bonding interactions between water molecules and cellulose chains (or nanoplates) is hard to avoid in nanocomposite films, although the addition of nanoplates can improve the oxygen (or carbon dioxide) barrier property. In the present work, an effective strategy is raised to decline adsorption by weakening hydrogen-bonding interactions via chemical cross-linking by epichlorohydrin (ECH) without sacrificing the homogeneous dispersion of nanoplates. The generated microdomain structure of the chemical cross-linking reaction via ECH is explicitly revealed by micro-Raman imaging. Unambiguously, Raman maps of scanning elucidate the distribution and morphology of physical and chemical cross-linking domains quantitatively. The chemical cross-linking domains are nearly uniformly located in the matrix at a low degree of cross-linking, while the interconnected and assembled networks are formed at a high degree of cross-linking. ECH boosts the formation of chemical cross-linking microdomains, bringing out the terrific water vapor barrier property and alleviating the interfacial interactions in penetration, consequently magnifying the water contact angle and holding back the water vapor permeability. Our methodology confers an effective and convenient strategy to obtain remarkable water vapor-resistant cellulose-based films that meet the practical application in the packaging fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Li
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , P. R. China
| | - Run-Hua Liu
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , P. R. China
| | - Biao Yang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , P. R. China
| | - Zi-Han Zhou
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , P. R. China
| | - Ling Xu
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , P. R. China
| | - Hua-Dong Huang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , P. R. China
| | - Gan-Ji Zhong
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , P. R. China
| | - Zhong-Ming Li
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , P. R. China
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Johns MA, Lewandowska AE, Eichhorn SJ. Rapid Determination of the Distribution of Cellulose Nanomaterial Aggregates in Composites Enabled by Multi-Channel Spectral Confocal Microscopy. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2019; 25:682-689. [PMID: 31057144 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927619000527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
There is increased interest in the use of cellulose nanomaterials for the mechanical reinforcement of composites due to their high stiffness and strength. However, challenges remain in accurately determining their distribution within composite microstructures. We report the use of a range of techniques used to image aggregates of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) greater than 10 µm2 within a model thermoplastic polymer. While Raman imaging accurately determines CNC aggregate size, it requires extended periods of analysis and the limited observable area results in poor reproducibility. In contrast, staining the CNCs with a fluorophore enables rapid acquisition with high reproducibility, but overestimates the aggregate size as CNC content increases. Multi-channel spectral confocal laser scanning microscopy is presented as an alternative technique that combines the accuracy of Raman imaging with the speed and reproducibility of conventional confocal laser scanning microscopy, enabling the rapid determination of CNC aggregate distribution within composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus A Johns
- Department of Aerospace Engineering,Bristol Composites Institute (ACCIS), University of Bristol,Queens Building,University Walk,Bristol BS8 1TR,UK
| | - Anna E Lewandowska
- Department of Aerospace Engineering,Bristol Composites Institute (ACCIS), University of Bristol,Queens Building,University Walk,Bristol BS8 1TR,UK
| | - Stephen J Eichhorn
- Department of Aerospace Engineering,Bristol Composites Institute (ACCIS), University of Bristol,Queens Building,University Walk,Bristol BS8 1TR,UK
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Zhang J, Zhang X, Li MC, Dong J, Lee S, Cheng HN, Lei T, Wu Q. Cellulose nanocrystal driven microphase separated nanocomposites: Enhanced mechanical performance and nanostructured morphology. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 130:685-694. [PMID: 30826401 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.02.159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The interest in the modification of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) lies in the potential to homogenously disperse CNCs in hydrophobic polymer matrices and to promote interfacial adhesion. In this work, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and poly(butyl acrylate) (PBA) were grafted onto CNCs, thereby imparting their hydrophobic traits. The successful grafting modification led to the increased thermal stability of modified CNCs (MCNCs), and the hydrophobic surface modification was integrated with crystalline structure and morphology of CNCs. The nanocomposites with 7 wt% MCNCs/PBA-co-PMMA had an increase in Young's modulus of >25-fold and in tensile strength at about 3 times compared to these of neat PBA-co-PMMA copolymer. In addition, a micro-phase separated morphology (PBA soft domains, and PMMA and CNC hard domains) of MCNCs/PBA-co-PMMA nanocomposites was observed. The large increase in the storage moduli (glass transition temperatures) and organized morphology of MCNCs/PBA-co-PMMA nanocomposites also elucidated the relationship between mechanical properties and micro-phase separated morphology. Therefore, the MCNCs are effective reinforcing agents for the PBA-co-PMMA thermoplastic elastomers, opening up opportunities for their wide-spread applications in polymer composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlong Zhang
- School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Xiuqiang Zhang
- Key Biomass Energy Laboratory of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450008, Henan, China
| | - Mei-Chun Li
- School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Ju Dong
- School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Sunyoung Lee
- Department of Forest Products, National Institute of Forest Research, Seoul 130-712, Republic of Korea
| | - H N Cheng
- US Department of Agriculture, Southern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, 1100 Robert E Lee Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, United States
| | - Tingzhou Lei
- Key Biomass Energy Laboratory of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450008, Henan, China.
| | - Qinglin Wu
- School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
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14
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Wang J, Liu X, Jin T, He H, Liu L. Preparation of nanocellulose and its potential in reinforced composites: A review. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2019; 30:919-946. [DOI: 10.1080/09205063.2019.1612726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Xin Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Tao Jin
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Haifeng He
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Lei Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
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15
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Agarwal UP. Analysis of Cellulose and Lignocellulose Materials by Raman Spectroscopy: A Review of the Current Status. Molecules 2019; 24:E1659. [PMID: 31035593 PMCID: PMC6539102 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24091659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This review is a summary of the Raman spectroscopy applications made over the last 10 years in the field of cellulose and lignocellulose materials. This paper functions as a status report on the kinds of information that can be generated by applying Raman spectroscopy. The information in the review is taken from the published papers and author's own research-most of which is in print. Although, at the molecular level, focus of the investigations has been on cellulose and lignin, hemicelluloses have also received some attention. The progress over the last decade in applying Raman spectroscopy is a direct consequence of the technical advances in the field of Raman spectroscopy, in particular, the application of new Raman techniques (e.g., Raman imaging and coherent anti-Stokes Raman or CARS), novel ways of spectral analysis, and quantum chemical calculations. On the basis of this analysis, it is clear that Raman spectroscopy continues to play an important role in the field of cellulose and lignocellulose research across a wide range of areas and applications, and thereby provides useful information at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umesh P Agarwal
- USDA, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI 53726, USA.
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16
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Li K, Huang J, Xu D, Zhong Y, Zhang L, Cai J. Mechanically strong polystyrene nanocomposites by peroxide-induced grafting of styrene monomers within nanoporous cellulose gels. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 199:473-481. [PMID: 30143152 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.07.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Nanocellulose is a promising candidate as a "green" reinforcing nanofiller for polymer nanocomposites. Three-dimensionally nanoporous cellulose gels (NCGs) have been demonstrated to exhibit significant dispersibility and compatibilization with hydrophobic polymers. We report a simple and versatile process for the fabrication of NCG/polystyrene (PS) nanocomposites by the in situ free radical polymerization of styrene monomers within the NCG. The volume fraction of the NCG in the NCG/PS nanocomposites could be controlled from 10% to 60%. The interconnected nanofibrillar cellulose networks of the NCG were finely distributed and well preserved in the PS matrix after polymerization. Dynamic mechanical analysis revealed a remarkable reinforcement in the tensile storage modulus of the NCG/PS nanocomposites, especially above the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the PS matrix. The modified percolation model was in good agreement with the mechanical properties of the NCG/PS nanocomposites. The introduction of the NCG into the PS matrix significantly improved the flexural and tension properties of the NCG/PS nanocomposites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Li
- College of Chemistry & Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Junchao Huang
- College of Chemistry & Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Duoduo Xu
- College of Chemistry & Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Zhong
- College of Chemistry & Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Lina Zhang
- College of Chemistry & Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Cai
- College of Chemistry & Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China; Research Institute of Shenzhen, Wuhan University, Shenzhen, 518057, People's Republic of China.
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17
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Low LE, Tey BT, Ong BH, Tang SY. A facile and rapid sonochemical synthesis of monodispersed Fe3
O4
@cellulose nanocrystal nanocomposites without inert gas protection. ASIA-PAC J CHEM ENG 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/apj.2209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Ee Low
- Chemical Engineering; Monash University Malaysia; Jalan Lagoon Selatan 47500 Bandar Sunway Selangor Malaysia
| | - Beng Ti Tey
- Chemical Engineering; Monash University Malaysia; Jalan Lagoon Selatan 47500 Bandar Sunway Selangor Malaysia
- Advanced Engineering Platform; Monash University Malaysia; Jalan Lagoon Selatan 47500 Bandar Sunway Selangor Malaysia
| | - Boon Hoong Ong
- Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre; University of Malaya; Jalan Universiti 50603 Kuala Lumpur Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
| | - Siah Ying Tang
- Chemical Engineering; Monash University Malaysia; Jalan Lagoon Selatan 47500 Bandar Sunway Selangor Malaysia
- Advanced Engineering Platform; Monash University Malaysia; Jalan Lagoon Selatan 47500 Bandar Sunway Selangor Malaysia
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18
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Lewandowska AE, Inai NH, Ghita OR, Eichhorn SJ. Quantitative analysis of the distribution and mixing of cellulose nanocrystals in thermoplastic composites using Raman chemical imaging. RSC Adv 2018; 8:35831-35839. [PMID: 35547896 PMCID: PMC9088214 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra06674d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Raman chemical imaging is presented to both quantify the dispersion and the degree of mixing in a cellulose nanocrystal composite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E. Lewandowska
- College of Engineering
- Mathematics & Physical Sciences
- University of Exeter
- Exeter
- UK
| | - Nor H. Inai
- College of Engineering
- Mathematics & Physical Sciences
- University of Exeter
- Exeter
- UK
| | - Oana R. Ghita
- College of Engineering
- Mathematics & Physical Sciences
- University of Exeter
- Exeter
- UK
| | - Stephen J. Eichhorn
- Bristol Composites Institute (ACCIS)
- Department of Aerospace Engineering
- University of Bristol
- Bristol BS8 1TR
- UK
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19
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Orr MP, Shofner ML. Processing strategies for cellulose nanocrystal/polyethylene-co-vinyl alcohol composites. POLYMER 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2017.08.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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21
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Lewandowska AE, Eichhorn SJ. Raman imaging as a tool for assessing the degree of mixing and the interface between polyethylene and cellulose nanocrystals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1088/1757-899x/139/1/012030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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22
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Dhar P, Kumar A, Katiyar V. Magnetic Cellulose Nanocrystal Based Anisotropic Polylactic Acid Nanocomposite Films: Influence on Electrical, Magnetic, Thermal, and Mechanical Properties. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:18393-18409. [PMID: 27331248 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b02828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports a single-step co-precipitation method for the fabrication of magnetic cellulose nanocrystals (MGCNCs) with high iron oxide nanoparticle content (∼51 wt % loading) adsorbed onto cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and Raman spectroscopic studies confirmed that the hydroxyl groups on the surface of CNCs (derived from the bamboo pulp) acted as anchor points for the adsorption of Fe3O4 nanoparticles. The fabricated MGCNCs have a high magnetic moment, which is utilized to orient the magnetoresponsive nanofillers in parallel or perpendicular orientations inside the polylactic acid (PLA) matrix. Magnetic-field-assisted directional alignment of MGCNCs led to the incorporation of anisotropic mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties in the fabricated PLA-MGCNC nanocomposites. Thermomechanical studies showed significant improvement in the elastic modulus and glass-transition temperature for the magnetically oriented samples. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and XRD studies confirmed that the alignment of MGCNCs led to the improvement in the percentage crystallinity and, with the absence of the cold-crystallization phenomenon, finds a potential application in polymer processing in the presence of magnetic field. The tensile strength and percentage elongation for the parallel-oriented samples improved by ∼70 and 240%, respectively, and for perpendicular-oriented samples, by ∼58 and 172%, respectively, in comparison to the unoriented samples. Furthermore, its anisotropically induced electrical and magnetic properties are desirable for fabricating self-biased electronics products. We also demonstrate that the fabricated anisotropic PLA-MGCNC nanocomposites could be laminated into films with the incorporation of directionally tunable mechanical properties. Therefore, the current study provides a novel noninvasive approach of orienting nontoxic bioderived CNCs in the presence of low magnetic fields, with potential applications in the manufacturing of three-dimensional composites with microstructural features comparable to biological materials for high-performance engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prodyut Dhar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati , Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Amit Kumar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati , Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Vimal Katiyar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati , Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
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23
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A Review on Grafting of Biofibers for Biocomposites. MATERIALS 2016; 9:ma9040303. [PMID: 28773429 PMCID: PMC5502996 DOI: 10.3390/ma9040303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
A recent increase in the use of biofibers as low-cost and renewable reinforcement for the polymer biocomposites has been seen globally. Biofibers are classified into: lignocellulosic fibers (i.e., cellulose, wood and natural fibers), nanocellulose (i.e., cellulose nanocrystals and cellulose nanofibrils), and bacterial cellulose, while polymer matrix materials can be petroleum based or bio-based. Green biocomposites can be produced using both biobased fibers and polymers. Incompatibility between the hydrophilic biofibers and hydrophobic polymer matrix can cause performance failure of resulting biocomposites. Diverse efforts have focused on the modification of biofibers in order to improve the performances of biocomposites. “Grafting” copolymerization strategy can render the advantages of biofiber and impart polymer properties onto it and the performance of biocomposites can be tuned through changing grafting parameters. This review presents a short overview of various “grafting” methods which can be directly or potentially employed to enhance the interaction between biofibers and a polymer matrix for biocomposites. Major grafting techniques, including ring opening polymerization, grafting via coupling agent and free radical induced grafting, have been discussed. Improved properties such as mechanical, thermal, and water resistance have provided grafted biocomposites with new opportunities for applications in specific industries.
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24
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Kiziltas A, Nazari B, Kiziltas EE, Gardner DJS, Han Y, Rushing TS. Cellulose NANOFIBER‐polyethylene nanocomposites modified by polyvinyl alcohol. J Appl Polym Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/app.42933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alper Kiziltas
- Advanced Structures and Composites Center (AEWC), University of MaineOrono Maine04469
- Department of Forest Industry Engineering, Faculty of ForestryUniversity of BartinBartin74100 Turkey
| | - Behzad Nazari
- Department of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of MaineOrono Maine04469
| | - Esra Erbas Kiziltas
- Advanced Structures and Composites Center (AEWC), University of MaineOrono Maine04469
- The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBİTAK)Tunus Cad, KavaklıdereAnkara06100 Turkey
| | - Douglas J. S. Gardner
- Advanced Structures and Composites Center (AEWC), University of MaineOrono Maine04469
- The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBİTAK)Tunus Cad, KavaklıdereAnkara06100 Turkey
| | - Yousoo Han
- Advanced Structures and Composites Center (AEWC), University of MaineOrono Maine04469
| | - Todd S. Rushing
- U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center3909 Halls Ferry RoadVicksburg Mississippi39180
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25
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Lupoi JS, Gjersing E, Davis MF. Evaluating lignocellulosic biomass, its derivatives, and downstream products with Raman spectroscopy. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2015; 3:50. [PMID: 25941674 PMCID: PMC4403602 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2015.00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The creation of fuels, chemicals, and materials from plants can aid in replacing products fabricated from non-renewable energy sources. Before using biomass in downstream applications, it must be characterized to assess chemical traits, such as cellulose, lignin, or lignin monomer content, or the sugars released following an acid or enzymatic hydrolysis. The measurement of these traits allows researchers to gage the recalcitrance of the plants and develop efficient deconstruction strategies to maximize yields. Standard methods for assessing biomass phenotypes often have experimental protocols that limit their use for screening sizeable numbers of plant species. Raman spectroscopy, a non-destructive, non-invasive vibrational spectroscopy technique, is capable of providing qualitative, structural information and quantitative measurements. Applications of Raman spectroscopy have aided in alleviating the constraints of standard methods by coupling spectral data with multivariate analysis to construct models capable of predicting analytes. Hydrolysis and fermentation products, such as glucose and ethanol, can be quantified off-, at-, or on-line. Raman imaging has enabled researchers to develop a visual understanding of reactions, such as different pretreatment strategies, in real-time, while also providing integral chemical information. This review provides an overview of what Raman spectroscopy is, and how it has been applied to the analysis of whole lignocellulosic biomass, its derivatives, and downstream process monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason S Lupoi
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory, BioEnergy Science Center , Oak Ridge, TN , USA ; National Renewable Energy Laboratory, National Bioenergy Center , Golden, CO , USA
| | - Erica Gjersing
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory, BioEnergy Science Center , Oak Ridge, TN , USA ; National Renewable Energy Laboratory, National Bioenergy Center , Golden, CO , USA
| | - Mark F Davis
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory, BioEnergy Science Center , Oak Ridge, TN , USA ; National Renewable Energy Laboratory, National Bioenergy Center , Golden, CO , USA
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26
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Iyer KA, Schueneman GT, Torkelson JM. Cellulose nanocrystal/polyolefin biocomposites prepared by solid-state shear pulverization: Superior dispersion leading to synergistic property enhancements. POLYMER 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2014.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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