1
|
Michálek O, King GF, Pekár S. Prey specificity of predatory venoms. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024. [PMID: 38991997 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 07/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Venom represents a key adaptation of many venomous predators, allowing them to immobilise prey quickly through chemical rather than physical warfare. Evolutionary arms races between prey and a predator are believed to be the main factor influencing the potency and composition of predatory venoms. Predators with narrowly restricted diets are expected to evolve specifically potent venom towards their focal prey, with lower efficacy on alternative prey. Here, we evaluate hypotheses on the evolution of prey-specific venom, focusing on the effect of restricted diet, prey defences, and prey resistance. Prey specificity as a potential evolutionary dead end is also discussed. We then provide an overview of the current knowledge on venom prey specificity, with emphasis on snakes, cone snails, and spiders. As the current evidence for venom prey specificity is still quite limited, we also overview the best approaches and methods for its investigation and provide a brief summary of potential model groups. Finally, possible applications of prey-specific toxins are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Michálek
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Schendel V, Müller CHG, Kenning M, Maxwell M, Jenner RA, Undheim EAB, Sombke A. The venom and telopodal defence systems of the centipede Lithobius forficatus are functionally convergent serial homologues. BMC Biol 2024; 22:135. [PMID: 38867210 PMCID: PMC11170834 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-024-01925-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evolution of novelty is a central theme in evolutionary biology, yet studying the origins of traits with an apparently discontinuous origin remains a major challenge. Venom systems are a well-suited model for the study of this phenomenon because they capture several aspects of novelty across multiple levels of biological complexity. However, while there is some knowledge on the evolution of individual toxins, not much is known about the evolution of venom systems as a whole. One way of shedding light on the evolution of new traits is to investigate less specialised serial homologues, i.e. repeated traits in an organism that share a developmental origin. This approach can be particularly informative in animals with repetitive body segments, such as centipedes. RESULTS Here, we investigate morphological and biochemical aspects of the defensive telopodal glandular organs borne on the posterior legs of venomous stone centipedes (Lithobiomorpha), using a multimethod approach, including behavioural observations, comparative morphology, proteomics, comparative transcriptomics and molecular phylogenetics. We show that the anterior venom system and posterior telopodal defence system are functionally convergent serial homologues, where one (telopodal defence) represents a model for the putative early evolutionary state of the other (venom). Venom glands and telopodal glandular organs appear to have evolved from the same type of epidermal gland (four-cell recto-canal type) and while the telopodal defensive secretion shares a great degree of compositional overlap with centipede venoms in general, these similarities arose predominantly through convergent recruitment of distantly related toxin-like components. Both systems are composed of elements predisposed to functional innovation across levels of biological complexity that range from proteins to glands, demonstrating clear parallels between molecular and morphological traits in the properties that facilitate the evolution of novelty. CONCLUSIONS The evolution of the lithobiomorph telopodal defence system provides indirect empirical support for the plausibility of the hypothesised evolutionary origin of the centipede venom system, which occurred through functional innovation and gradual specialisation of existing epidermal glands. Our results thus exemplify how continuous transformation and functional innovation can drive the apparent discontinuous emergence of novelties on higher levels of biological complexity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Schendel
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Carsten H G Müller
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, Greifswald, 17489, Germany
| | - Matthes Kenning
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, Greifswald, 17489, Germany
| | - Michael Maxwell
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | | | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0316, Norway.
| | - Andy Sombke
- Centre for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Cell and Developmental Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Schwarzspanierstrasse 17, Vienna, 1090, Austria.
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kalapothakis Y, Miranda K, Aragão M, Larangote D, Braga-Pereira G, Noetzold M, Molina D, Langer R, Conceição IM, Guerra-Duarte C, Chávez-Olórtegui C, Kalapothakis E, Borges A. Divergence in toxin antigenicity and venom enzymes in Tityus melici, a medically important scorpion, despite transcriptomic and phylogenetic affinities with problematic Brazilian species. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 263:130311. [PMID: 38403220 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
The Brazilian scorpion Tityus melici, native to Minas Gerais and Bahia, is morphologically related to Tityus serrulatus, the most medically significant species in Brazil. Despite inhabiting scorpion-envenomation endemic regions, T. melici venom remains unexplored. This work evaluates T. melici venom composition and function using transcriptomics, enzymatic activities, and in vivo and in vitro immunological analyses. Next-Generation Sequencing unveiled 86 components putatively involved in venom toxicity: 39 toxins, 28 metalloproteases, seven disulfide isomerases, six hyaluronidases, three phospholipases and three amidating enzymes. T. serrulatus showed the highest number of toxin matches with 80-100 % sequence similarity. T. melici is of medical importance as it has a venom LD50 of 0.85 mg/kg in mice. We demonstrated venom phospholipase A2 activity, and elevated hyaluronidase and metalloprotease activities compared to T. serrulatus, paralleling our transcriptomic findings. Comparison of transcriptional levels for T. serrulatus and T. melici venom metalloenzymes suggests species-specific expression patterns in Tityus. Despite close phylogenetic association with T. serrulatus inferred from COI sequences and toxin similarities, partial neutralization of T. melici venom toxicity was achieved when using the anti-T. serrulatus antivenom, implying antigenic divergence among their toxins. We suggest that the Brazilian therapeutic scorpion antivenom could be improved to effectively neutralize T. melici venom.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Kalapothakis
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Kelton Miranda
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Matheus Aragão
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Débora Larangote
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Gracielle Braga-Pereira
- Departamento de Zoologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, CEP 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marina Noetzold
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Denis Molina
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Rafael Langer
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Izabela Mamede Conceição
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Clara Guerra-Duarte
- Serviço de Toxinologia Molecular, Diretoria de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, Fundação Ezequiel Dias, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Carlos Chávez-Olórtegui
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Evanguedes Kalapothakis
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, CEP: 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Adolfo Borges
- Instituto de Medicina Experimental, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela; Centro para el Desarrollo de la Investigación Científica, CEDIC, Asunción 1255, Paraguay.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Balchan NR, Smith CF, Mackessy SP. A plethora of rodents: Rattlesnake predators generate unanticipated patterns of venom resistance in a grassland ecosystem. Toxicon X 2024; 21:100179. [PMID: 38144228 PMCID: PMC10746501 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2023.100179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Predation has the potential to impart strong selective pressures on organisms within their environments, resulting in adaptive changes in prey that minimize risk of predation. Pressures from venomous snakes present an exceptional challenge to prey, as venom represents a unique chemical arsenal evolutionarily tailored to incapacitate prey. In response, venom resistance has been detected in various snake prey species, and to varying degrees. This study analyzes venom resistance in an eastern Colorado grassland habitat, where the Prairie Rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) and Desert Massasauga Rattlesnake (Sistrurus tergeminus edwardsii) co-occur with a suite of grassland rodents. We test for venom resistance across rodent and snake pairings using two geographically distant field sites to determine the role of 1) predation pressure and trophic ecology, and 2) sympatric and allopatric patterns of venom resistance. Resistance was measured using serum-based metalloproteinase inhibition assays to determine potential inhibition of proteolytic activity, augmented by median lethal dose (LD50) assays on rodent species to assess toxicity of crude venoms. Resistance is present in several rodent species, with strong resistance present in populations of Eastern Woodrat (Neotoma floridana), Ord's Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys ordii), and Northern Grasshopper Mouse (Onychomys leucogaster). Resistance is less developed in other species, including the House Mouse (Mus musculus) and Plains Pocket Mouse (Perognathus flavescens). An unexpected differential is present, where Lincoln County Kangaroo Rats are highly resistant to venom of co-occurring Prairie Rattlesnakes yet are sensitive to an allopatric population of Prairie Rattlesnakes in Weld County. Lincoln Co. Northern Grasshopper Mice also demonstrate extremely elevated resistance to Weld Co. Prairie Rattlesnake venoms, and they may possess resistance mechanisms for myotoxin a, an abundant component of Weld Co. C. v viridis venoms. This study illustrates the complexity of venom resistance in biological communities that can exist when incorporating multiple species interactions. Future studies aimed at characterizing resistance mechanisms at the molecular level will provide a more detailed physiological context for understanding mechanisms by which resistance to venoms occurs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil R. Balchan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Cara F. Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, 12801 East 17th Avenue, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Stephen P. Mackessy
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Khalek IS, Senji Laxme RR, Nguyen YTK, Khochare S, Patel RN, Woehl J, Smith JM, Saye-Francisco K, Kim Y, Misson Mindrebo L, Tran Q, Kędzior M, Boré E, Limbo O, Verma M, Stanfield RL, Menzies SK, Ainsworth S, Harrison RA, Burton DR, Sok D, Wilson IA, Casewell NR, Sunagar K, Jardine JG. Synthetic development of a broadly neutralizing antibody against snake venom long-chain α-neurotoxins. Sci Transl Med 2024; 16:eadk1867. [PMID: 38381847 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adk1867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a major global public health concern for which improved therapies are urgently needed. The antigenic diversity present in snake venom toxins from various species presents a considerable challenge to the development of a universal antivenom. Here, we used a synthetic human antibody library to find and develop an antibody that neutralizes long-chain three-finger α-neurotoxins produced by numerous medically relevant snakes. Our antibody bound diverse toxin variants with high affinity, blocked toxin binding to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in vitro, and protected mice from lethal venom challenge. Structural analysis of the antibody-toxin complex revealed a binding mode that mimics the receptor-toxin interaction. The overall workflow presented is generalizable for the development of antibodies that target conserved epitopes among antigenically diverse targets, and it offers a promising framework for the creation of a monoclonal antibody-based universal antivenom to treat snakebite envenoming.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene S Khalek
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - R R Senji Laxme
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
| | - Yen Thi Kim Nguyen
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Suyog Khochare
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
| | - Rohit N Patel
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Jordan Woehl
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - Jessica M Smith
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - Karen Saye-Francisco
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Yoojin Kim
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - Laetitia Misson Mindrebo
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - Quoc Tran
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - Mateusz Kędzior
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - Evy Boré
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Oliver Limbo
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - Megan Verma
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - Robyn L Stanfield
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Stefanie K Menzies
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Stuart Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Dennis R Burton
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Consortium for HIV/AIDS Vaccine Development (CHAVD), Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Devin Sok
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
- Consortium for HIV/AIDS Vaccine Development (CHAVD), Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Ian A Wilson
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
| | - Joseph G Jardine
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- IAVI, New York, NY 10004, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hoepner CM, Stewart ZK, Qiao R, Fobert EK, Prentis PJ, Colella A, Chataway T, Burke da Silva K, Abbott CA. Proteotransciptomics of the Most Popular Host Sea Anemone Entacmaea quadricolor Reveals Not All Toxin Genes Expressed by Tentacles Are Recruited into Its Venom Arsenal. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:85. [PMID: 38393163 PMCID: PMC10893224 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
While the unique symbiotic relationship between anemonefishes and sea anemones is iconic, it is still not fully understood how anemonefishes can withstand and thrive within the venomous environment of their host sea anemone. In this study, we used a proteotranscriptomics approach to elucidate the proteinaceous toxin repertoire from the most common host sea anemone, Entacmaea quadricolor. Although 1251 different toxin or toxin-like RNA transcripts were expressed in E. quadricolor tentacles (0.05% of gene clusters, 1.8% of expression) and 5375 proteins were detected in milked venom, only 4% of proteins detected in venom were putative toxins (230), and they only represent on average 14% of the normalised protein expression in the milked venom samples. Thus, most proteins in milked venom do not appear to have a toxin function. This work raises the perils of defining a dominant venom phenotype based on transcriptomics data alone in sea anemones, as we found that the dominant venom phenotype differs between the transcriptome and proteome abundance data. E. quadricolor venom contains a mixture of toxin-like proteins of unknown and known function. A newly identified toxin protein family, Z3, rich in conserved cysteines of unknown function, was the most abundant at the RNA transcript and protein levels. The venom was also rich in toxins from the Protease S1, Kunitz-type and PLA2 toxin protein families and contains toxins from eight venom categories. Exploring the intricate venom toxin components in other host sea anemones will be crucial for improving our understanding of how anemonefish adapt to the venomous environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cassie M. Hoepner
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Zachary K. Stewart
- Centre for Agriculture and Bioeconomy, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Robert Qiao
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Emily K. Fobert
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Peter J. Prentis
- Centre for Agriculture and Bioeconomy, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Alex Colella
- Flinders Proteomics Facility, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Tim Chataway
- Flinders Proteomics Facility, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Karen Burke da Silva
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Catherine A. Abbott
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Barroso RA, Ramos L, Moreno H, Antunes A. Evolutionary Analysis of Cnidaria Small Cysteine-Rich Proteins (SCRiPs), an Enigmatic Neurotoxin Family from Stony Corals and Sea Anemones (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia). Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:75. [PMID: 38393153 PMCID: PMC10892658 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 01/13/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Cnidarians (corals, sea anemones, and jellyfish) produce toxins that play central roles in key ecological processes, including predation, defense, and competition, being the oldest extant venomous animal lineage. Cnidaria small cysteine-rich proteins (SCRiPs) were the first family of neurotoxins detected in stony corals, one of the ocean's most crucial foundation species. Yet, their molecular evolution remains poorly understood. Moreover, the lack of a clear classification system has hindered the establishment of an accurate and phylogenetically informed nomenclature. In this study, we extensively surveyed 117 genomes and 103 transcriptomes of cnidarians to identify orthologous SCRiP gene sequences. We annotated a total of 168 novel putative SCRiPs from over 36 species of stony corals and 12 species of sea anemones. Phylogenetic reconstruction identified four distinct SCRiP subfamilies, according to strict discrimination criteria based on well-supported monophyly with a high percentage of nucleotide and amino acids' identity. Although there is a high prevalence of purifying selection for most SCRiP subfamilies, with few positively selected sites detected, a subset of Acroporidae sequences is influenced by diversifying positive selection, suggesting potential neofunctionalizations related to the fine-tuning of toxin potency. We propose a new nomenclature classification system relying on the phylogenetic distribution and evolution of SCRiPs across Anthozoa, which will further assist future proteomic and functional research efforts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Alexandre Barroso
- CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (R.A.B.); (L.R.); (H.M.)
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Luana Ramos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (R.A.B.); (L.R.); (H.M.)
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Hugo Moreno
- CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (R.A.B.); (L.R.); (H.M.)
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Antunes
- CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (R.A.B.); (L.R.); (H.M.)
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Nystrom GS, Ellsworth SA, Ward MJ, Rokyta DR. Varying Modes of Selection Among Toxin Families in the Venoms of the Giant Desert Hairy Scorpions (Hadrurus). J Mol Evol 2023; 91:935-962. [PMID: 38091038 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-023-10148-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Venoms are primarily believed to evolve under strong diversifying selection resulting from persistent coevolution between predator and prey. Recent research has challenged this hypothesis, proposing that venoms from younger venomous lineages (e.g., snakes and cone snails) are governed predominantly by diversifying selection, while venoms from older venomous lineages (e.g., centipedes, scorpions, and spiders) are under stronger purifying selection. However, most research in older lineages has tested selection at more diverse phylogenetic scales. Although these tests are important for evaluating broad macroevolutionary trends underlying venom evolution, they are less equipped to detect species-level evolutionary trends, which likely have large impacts on venom variation seen at more diverse phylogenetic scales. To test for selection among closely related species from an older venomous lineage, we generated high-throughput venom-gland transcriptomes and venom proteomes for four populations of Giant Desert Hairy Scorpions (Hadrurus), including three Hadrurus arizonensis populations and one Hadrurus spadix population. We detected significant episodic and pervasive diversifying selection across a highly abundant toxin family that likely has a major role in venom function ([Formula: see text]KTxs), providing a contrast to the stronger purifying selection identified from other studies on scorpion venoms. Conversely, we detected weak episodic diversifying and/or stronger purifying selection in four toxin families (non-disulfide bridged peptides, phospholipase A2s, scorpine-like antimicrobial peptides, and serine proteases), most of which were less abundant and likely have ancillary functional roles. Finally, although we detected several major toxin families at disproportionate transcriptomic and/or proteomic abundances, we did not identify significant sex-based variation in Hadrurus venoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar S Nystrom
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Dr., Tallahassee, FL, 32306-4295, USA
| | - Schyler A Ellsworth
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Dr., Tallahassee, FL, 32306-4295, USA
| | - Micaiah J Ward
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Dr., Tallahassee, FL, 32306-4295, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Dr., Tallahassee, FL, 32306-4295, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Lane AN, Nash PD, Ellsworth SA, Nystrom GS, Rokyta DR. The arylsulfatase- and phospholipase-rich venom of the plutoniumid centipede Theatops posticus. Toxicon 2023; 233:107231. [PMID: 37517595 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Research on centipede venoms has led to the discovery of a diverse array of novel proteins and peptides, including those with homology to previously discovered toxin families (e.g., phospholipase A2s and pM12a metalloproteases) and novel toxin families not previously detected in venoms (e.g., β-pore forming toxins and scoloptoxins). Most of this research has focused on centipedes in the order Scolopendromorpha, particularly those in the families Scolopendridae, Cryptopidae, and Scolopocryptopidae. To generate the first high-throughput venom characterization for a centipede in the scolopendromorph family Plutoniumidae, we performed venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics on two Theatops posticus. We identified a total of 64 venom toxins, 60 of which were detected in both the venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome and four of which were only detected transcriptomically. We detected a single highly abundant arylsulfatase B (ARSB) toxin, the first ARSB toxin identified from centipede venoms. As ARSBs have been detected in other venomous species (e.g., scorpions), ARSBs in T. posticus highlights a new case of convergent evolution across venoms. Theatops posticus venom also contained a much higher abundance and diversity of phospholipase A2 toxins compared to other characterized centipede venoms. Conversely, we detected other common centipedes toxins, such as CAPs and scoloptoxins, at relatively low abundances and diversities. Our observation of a diverse set of toxins from T. posticus venom, including those from novel toxin families, emphasizes the importance of studying unexplored centipede taxonomic groups and the continued potential of centipede venoms for novel toxin discovery and unraveling the molecular mechanisms underlying trait evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaliyah N Lane
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Pauline D Nash
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Schyler A Ellsworth
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Gunnar S Nystrom
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Walker AA, Robinson SD, Merritt DJ, Cardoso FC, Goudarzi MH, Mercedes RS, Eagles DA, Cooper P, Zdenek CN, Fry BG, Hall DW, Vetter I, King GF. Horizontal gene transfer underlies the painful stings of asp caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Megalopygidae). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2305871120. [PMID: 37428925 PMCID: PMC10629529 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2305871120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Larvae of the genus Megalopyge (Lepidoptera: Zygaenoidea: Megalopygidae), known as asp or puss caterpillars, produce defensive venoms that cause severe pain. Here, we present the anatomy, chemistry, and mode of action of the venom systems of caterpillars of two megalopygid species, the Southern flannel moth Megalopyge opercularis and the black-waved flannel moth Megalopyge crispata. We show that megalopygid venom is produced in secretory cells that lie beneath the cuticle and are connected to the venom spines by canals. Megalopygid venoms consist of large aerolysin-like pore-forming toxins, which we have named megalysins, and a small number of peptides. The venom system differs markedly from those of previously studied venomous zygaenoids of the family Limacodidae, suggestive of an independent origin. Megalopygid venom potently activates mammalian sensory neurons via membrane permeabilization and induces sustained spontaneous pain behavior and paw swelling in mice. These bioactivities are ablated by treatment with heat, organic solvents, or proteases, indicating that they are mediated by larger proteins such as the megalysins. We show that the megalysins were recruited as venom toxins in the Megalopygidae following horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to the ancestors of ditrysian Lepidoptera. Megalopygids have recruited aerolysin-like proteins as venom toxins convergently with centipedes, cnidarians, and fish. This study highlights the role of horizontal gene transfer in venom evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A. Walker
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
- Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| | - Samuel D. Robinson
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| | - David J. Merritt
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| | - Fernanda C. Cardoso
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
- Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| | - Mohaddeseh Hedayati Goudarzi
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
- Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| | - Raine S. Mercedes
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
- Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| | - David A. Eagles
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
- Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| | - Paul Cooper
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT2601, Australia
| | - Christina N. Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| | - Donald W. Hall
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL32608
| | - Irina Vetter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4102, Australia
| | - Glenn F. King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
- Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD4072, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Goudarzi MH, Eagles DA, Lim J, Biggs KA, Kotze AC, Ruffell AP, Fairlie DP, King GF, Walker AA. Venom composition and bioactive RF-amide peptide toxins of the saddleback caterpillar, Acharia stimulea (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae). Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 213:115598. [PMID: 37201876 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Limacodidae is a family of lepidopteran insects comprising >1500 species. More than half of these species produce pain-inducing defensive venoms in the larval stage, but little is known about their venom toxins. Recently, we characterised proteinaceous toxins from the Australian limacodid caterpillar Doratifera vulnerans, but it is unknown if the venom of this species is typical of other Limacodidae. Here, we use single animal transcriptomics and venom proteomics to investigate the venom of an iconic limacodid, the North American saddleback caterpillar Acharia stimulea. We identified 65 venom polypeptides, grouped into 31 different families. Neurohormones, knottins, and homologues of the immune signaller Diedel make up the majority of A.stimulea venom, indicating strong similarities to D. vulnerans venom, despite the large geographic separation of these caterpillars. One notable difference is the presence of RF-amide peptide toxins in A. stimulea venom. Synthetic versions of one of these RF-amide toxins potently activated the human neuropeptide FF1 receptor, displayed insecticidal activity when injected into Drosophila melanogaster, and moderately inhibited larval development of the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus. This study provides insights into the evolution and activity of venom toxins in Limacodidae, and provides a platform for future structure-function characterisation of A.stimulea peptide toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohaddeseh H Goudarzi
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - David A Eagles
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Junxian Lim
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Centre for Inflammation and Disease Research, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Kimberley A Biggs
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Andrew C Kotze
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Angela P Ruffell
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - David P Fairlie
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Centre for Inflammation and Disease Research, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - Andrew A Walker
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Protein and Peptide Science, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Ramírez DS, Alzate JF, Simone Y, van der Meijden A, Guevara G, Franco Pérez LM, González-Gómez JC, Prada Quiroga CF. Intersexual Differences in the Gene Expression of Phoneutria depilata (Araneae, Ctenidae) Toxins Revealed by Venom Gland Transcriptome Analyses. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:429. [PMID: 37505698 PMCID: PMC10467060 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The wandering spider, Phoneutria depilata, is one of Colombia's most active nocturnal arthropod predators of vertebrates and invertebrates. Its venom has been a relevant subject of study in the last two decades. However, the scarcity of transcriptomic data for the species limits our knowledge of the distinct components present in its venom for linking the mainly neurotoxic effects of the spider venom to a particular molecular target. The transcriptome of the P. depilata venom gland was analyzed to understand the effect of different diets or sex and the impact of these variables on the composition of the venom. We sequenced venom glands obtained from ten males and ten females from three diet treatments: (i) invertebrate: Tenebrio molitor, (ii) vertebrate: Hemidactylus frenatus, and (iii) mixed (T. molitor + H. frenatus). Of 17,354 assembled transcripts from all samples, 65 transcripts relating to venom production differed between males and females. Among them, 36 were classified as neurotoxins, 14 as serine endopeptidases, 11 as other proteins related to venom production, three as metalloprotease toxins, and one as a venom potentiator. There were no differences in transcripts across the analyzed diets, but when considering the effect of diets on differences between the sexes, 59 transcripts were differentially expressed. Our findings provide essential information on toxins differentially expressed that can be related to sex and the plasticity of the diet of P. depilata and thus can be used as a reference for venomics of other wandering spider species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Sierra Ramírez
- Grupo de Investigación Biología y Ecología de Artrópodos (BEA), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Tolima, Altos de Santa Helena, Ibagué 730001, Colombia; (D.S.R.); (J.C.G.-G.)
| | - Juan F. Alzate
- Centro Nacional de Secuenciación Genómica (CNSG), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 050010, Colombia
| | - Yuri Simone
- CIBIO/InBIO/Biopolis, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas 7, 4485-661 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (Y.S.); (A.v.d.M.)
| | - Arie van der Meijden
- CIBIO/InBIO/Biopolis, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas 7, 4485-661 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (Y.S.); (A.v.d.M.)
| | - Giovany Guevara
- Grupo de Investigación en Zoología (GIZ), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Tolima, Altos de Santa Helena, Ibagué 730001, Colombia;
| | - Lida Marcela Franco Pérez
- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas, Universidad de Ibagué, Carrera 22 Calle 67, Ibagué 730001, Colombia;
| | - Julio César González-Gómez
- Grupo de Investigación Biología y Ecología de Artrópodos (BEA), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Tolima, Altos de Santa Helena, Ibagué 730001, Colombia; (D.S.R.); (J.C.G.-G.)
| | - Carlos F. Prada Quiroga
- Grupo de Investigación Biología y Ecología de Artrópodos (BEA), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Tolima, Altos de Santa Helena, Ibagué 730001, Colombia; (D.S.R.); (J.C.G.-G.)
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Dashevsky D, Baumann K, Undheim EAB, Nouwens A, Ikonomopoulou MP, Schmidt JO, Ge L, Kwok HF, Rodriguez J, Fry BG. Functional and Proteomic Insights into Aculeata Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15030224. [PMID: 36977115 PMCID: PMC10053895 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15030224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Aculeate hymenopterans use their venom for a variety of different purposes. The venom of solitary aculeates paralyze and preserve prey without killing it, whereas social aculeates utilize their venom in defence of their colony. These distinct applications of venom suggest that its components and their functions are also likely to differ. This study investigates a range of solitary and social species across Aculeata. We combined electrophoretic, mass spectrometric, and transcriptomic techniques to characterize the compositions of venoms from an incredibly diverse taxon. In addition, in vitro assays shed light on their biological activities. Although there were many common components identified in the venoms of species with different social behavior, there were also significant variations in the presence and activity of enzymes such as phospholipase A2s and serine proteases and the cytotoxicity of the venoms. Social aculeate venom showed higher presence of peptides that cause damage and pain in victims. The venom-gland transcriptome from the European honeybee (Apis mellifera) contained highly conserved toxins which match those identified by previous investigations. In contrast, venoms from less-studied taxa returned limited results from our proteomic databases, suggesting that they contain unique toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dashevsky
- Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
- Correspondence: (D.D.); (B.G.F.)
| | - Kate Baumann
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Eivind A. B. Undheim
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Bioscience, University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Maria P. Ikonomopoulou
- Translational Venomics Group, Madrid Institute for Advanced Studies in Food, 4075 Madrid, Spain
| | - Justin O. Schmidt
- Southwestern Biological Institute, 1961 W. Brichta Dr., Tucson, AZ 85745, USA
| | - Lilin Ge
- State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base for TCM Quality and Efficacy, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Qixia District, Nanjing 210046, China
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau
| | - Hang Fai Kwok
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau
| | - Juanita Rodriguez
- Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Correspondence: (D.D.); (B.G.F.)
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Shaikh NY, Sunagar K. The deep-rooted origin of disulfide-rich spider venom toxins. eLife 2023; 12:83761. [PMID: 36757362 PMCID: PMC10017107 DOI: 10.7554/elife.83761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Spider venoms are a complex concoction of enzymes, polyamines, inorganic salts, and disulfide-rich peptides (DRPs). Although DRPs are widely distributed and abundant, their bevolutionary origin has remained elusive. This knowledge gap stems from the extensive molecular divergence of DRPs and a lack of sequence and structural data from diverse lineages. By evaluating DRPs under a comprehensive phylogenetic, structural and evolutionary framework, we have not only identified 78 novel spider toxin superfamilies but also provided the first evidence for their common origin. We trace the origin of these toxin superfamilies to a primordial knot - which we name 'Adi Shakti', after the creator of the Universe according to Hindu mythology - 375 MYA in the common ancestor of Araneomorphae and Mygalomorphae. As the lineages under evaluation constitute nearly 60% of extant spiders, our findings provide fascinating insights into the early evolution and diversification of the spider venom arsenal. Reliance on a single molecular toxin scaffold by nearly all spiders is in complete contrast to most other venomous animals that have recruited into their venoms diverse toxins with independent origins. By comparatively evaluating the molecular evolutionary histories of araneomorph and mygalomorph spider venom toxins, we highlight their contrasting evolutionary diversification rates. Our results also suggest that venom deployment (e.g. prey capture or self-defense) influences evolutionary diversification of DRP toxin superfamilies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naeem Yusuf Shaikh
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science BangaloreBengaluruIndia
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science BangaloreBengaluruIndia
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Brewer MS, Cole TJ. Killer Knots: Molecular Evolution of Inhibitor Cystine Knot Toxins in Wandering Spiders (Araneae: Ctenidae). Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15020112. [PMID: 36828426 PMCID: PMC9958548 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15020112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Venom expressed by the nearly 50,000 species of spiders on Earth largely remains an untapped reservoir of a diverse array of biomolecules with potential for pharmacological and agricultural applications. A large fraction of the noxious components of spider venoms are a functionally diverse family of structurally related polypeptides with an inhibitor cystine knot (ICK) motif. The cysteine-rich nature of these toxins makes structural elucidation difficult, and most studies have focused on venom components from the small handful of medically relevant spider species such as the highly aggressive Brazilian wandering spider Phoneutria nigriventer. To alleviate difficulties associated with the study of ICK toxins in spiders, we devised a comprehensive approach to explore the evolutionary patterns that have shaped ICK functional diversification using venom gland transcriptomes and proteomes from phylogenetically distinct lineages of wandering spiders and their close relatives. We identified 626 unique ICK toxins belonging to seven topological elaborations. Phylogenetic tests of episodic diversification revealed distinct regions between cysteine residues that demonstrated differential evidence of positive or negative selection, which may have structural implications towards the specificity and efficacy of these toxins. Increased taxon sampling and whole genome sequencing will provide invaluable insights to further understand the evolutionary processes that have given rise to this diverse class of toxins.
Collapse
|
16
|
Robinson SD, Schendel V, Schroeder CI, Moen S, Mueller A, Walker AA, McKinnon N, Neely GG, Vetter I, King GF, Undheim EAB. Intra-colony venom diversity contributes to maintaining eusociality in a cooperatively breeding ant. BMC Biol 2023; 21:5. [PMID: 36617555 PMCID: PMC9827630 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-022-01507-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eusociality is widely considered to evolve through kin selection, where the reproductive success of an individual's close relative is favored at the expense of its own. High genetic relatedness is thus considered a prerequisite for eusociality. While ants are textbook examples of eusocial animals, not all ants form colonies of closely related individuals. One such example is the ectatommine ant Rhytidoponera metallica, which predominantly forms queen-less colonies that have such a low intra-colony relatedness that they have been proposed to represent a transient, unstable form of eusociality. However, R. metallica is among the most abundant and widespread ants on the Australian continent. This apparent contradiction provides an example of how inclusive fitness may not by itself explain the maintenance of eusociality and raises the question of what other selective advantages maintain the eusocial lifestyle of this species. RESULTS We provide a comprehensive portrait of the venom of R. metallica and show that the colony-wide venom consists of an exceptionally high diversity of functionally distinct toxins for an ant. These toxins have evolved under strong positive selection, which is normally expected to reduce genetic variance. Yet, R. metallica exhibits remarkable intra-colony variation, with workers sharing only a relatively small proportion of toxins in their venoms. This variation is not due to the presence of chemical castes, but has a genetic foundation that is at least in part explained by toxin allelic diversity. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, our results suggest that the toxin diversity contained in R. metallica colonies may be maintained by a form of group selection that selects for colonies that can exploit more resources and defend against a wider range of predators. We propose that increased intra-colony genetic variance resulting from low kinship may itself provide a selective advantage in the form of an expanded pharmacological venom repertoire. These findings provide an example of how group selection on adaptive phenotypes may contribute to maintaining eusociality where a prerequisite for kin selection is diminished.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D. Robinson
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia ,grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Vanessa Schendel
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia ,grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Christina I. Schroeder
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia ,Present Address: Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080 USA
| | - Sarah Moen
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Alexander Mueller
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Andrew A. Walker
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Naomi McKinnon
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XDr. John and Anne Chong Lab for Functional Genomics, Charles Perkins Centre, Centenary Institute, and School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - G. Gregory Neely
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XDr. John and Anne Chong Lab for Functional Genomics, Charles Perkins Centre, Centenary Institute, and School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Irina Vetter
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia ,grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102 Australia
| | - Glenn F. King
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Eivind A. B. Undheim
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia ,grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia ,grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Sunagar K, Khochare S, Jaglan A, Senthil S, Suranse V. Stings on wings: Proteotranscriptomic and biochemical profiling of the lesser banded hornet ( Vespa affinis) venom. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:1066793. [PMID: 36601583 PMCID: PMC9806352 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1066793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Distinct animal lineages have convergently recruited venoms as weaponry for prey capture, anti-predator defence, conspecific competition, or a combination thereof. Most studies, however, have been primarily confined to a narrow taxonomic breadth. The venoms of cone snails, snakes, spiders and scorpions remain particularly well-investigated. Much less explored are the venoms of wasps (Order: Hymenoptera) that are infamous for causing excruciating and throbbing pain, justifying their apex position on Schmidt's pain index, including some that are rated four on four. For example, the lesser banded wasp (V. affinis) is clinically important yet has only been the subject of a few studies, despite being commonly found across tropical and subtropical Asia. Stings from these wasps, especially from multiple individuals of a nest, often lead to clinically severe manifestations, including mastocytosis, myasthenia gravis, optic neuropathy, and life-threatening pathologies such as myocardial infarction and organ failure. However, their venom composition and activity remain unexplored in the Indian subcontinent. Here, we report the proteomic composition, transcriptomic profile, and biochemical and pharmacological activities of V. affinis venom from southern India. Our findings suggest that wasp venoms are rich in diverse toxins that facilitate antipredator defence. Biochemical and pharmacological assessments reveal that these toxins can exhibit significantly higher activities than their homologues in medically important snakes. Their ability to exert potent effects on diverse molecular targets makes them a treasure trove for discovering life-saving therapeutics. Fascinatingly, wasp venoms, being evolutionarily ancient, exhibit a greater degree of compositional and sequence conservation across very distant populations/species, which contrasts with the patterns of venom evolution observed in evolutionarily younger lineages, such as advanced snakes and cone snails.
Collapse
|
18
|
Fitzpatrick LLJ, Nijman V, Ligabue-Braun R, Nekaris KAI. The Fast and the Furriest: Investigating the Rate of Selection on Mammalian Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120842. [PMID: 36548740 PMCID: PMC9782207 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of venom and the selection pressures that act on toxins have been increasingly researched within toxinology in the last two decades, in part due to the exceptionally high rates of diversifying selection observed in animal toxins. In 2015, Sungar and Moran proposed the 'two-speed' model of toxin evolution linking evolutionary age of a group to the rates of selection acting on toxins but due to a lack of data, mammals were not included as less than 30 species of venomous mammal have been recorded, represented by elusive species which produce small amounts of venom. Due to advances in genomics and transcriptomics, the availability of toxin sequences from venomous mammals has been increasing. Using branch- and site-specific selection models, we present the rates of both episodic and pervasive selection acting upon venomous mammal toxins as a group for the first time. We identified seven toxin groups present within venomous mammals, representing Chiroptera, Eulipotyphla and Monotremata: KLK1, Plasminogen Activator, Desmallipins, PACAP, CRiSP, Kunitz Domain One and Kunitz Domain Two. All but one group (KLK1) was identified by our results to be evolving under both episodic and pervasive diversifying selection with four toxin groups having sites that were implicated in the fitness of the animal by TreeSAAP (Selection on Amino Acid Properties). Our results suggest that venomous mammal ecology, behaviour or genomic evolution are the main drivers of selection, although evolutionary age may still be a factor. Our conclusion from these results indicates that mammalian toxins are following the two-speed model of selection, evolving predominately under diversifying selection, fitting in with other younger venomous taxa like snakes and cone snails-with high amounts of accumulating mutations, leading to more novel adaptions in their toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leah Lucy Joscelyne Fitzpatrick
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - Vincent Nijman
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun
- Department of Pharmacosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Avenida Sarmento Leite 245, Porto Alegre 90050-130, Brazil
| | - K. Anne-Isola Nekaris
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Suranse V, Jackson TNW, Sunagar K. Contextual Constraints: Dynamic Evolution of Snake Venom Phospholipase A 2. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14060420. [PMID: 35737081 PMCID: PMC9231074 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14060420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom is a dynamic trait that has contributed to the success of numerous organismal lineages. Predominantly composed of proteins, these complex cocktails are deployed for predation and/or self-defence. Many non-toxic physiological proteins have been convergently and recurrently recruited by venomous animals into their toxin arsenal. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is one such protein and features in the venoms of many organisms across the animal kingdom, including snakes of the families Elapidae and Viperidae. Understanding the evolutionary history of this superfamily would therefore provide insight into the origin and diversification of venom toxins and the evolution of novelty more broadly. The literature is replete with studies that have identified diversifying selection as the sole influence on PLA2 evolution. However, these studies have largely neglected the structural/functional constraints on PLA2s, and the ecology and evolutionary histories of the diverse snake lineages that produce them. By considering these crucial factors and employing evolutionary analyses integrated with a schema for the classification of PLA2s, we uncovered lineage-specific differences in selection regimes. Thus, our work provides novel insights into the evolution of this major snake venom toxin superfamily and underscores the importance of considering the influence of evolutionary and ecological contexts on molecular evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Suranse
- Evolutionary Venomics Laboratory, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India;
| | - Timothy N. W. Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia;
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Laboratory, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +91-080-2293-2895
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Xiao B, Guo Q, Zhai Y, Gu Z. Transcriptomic Insights into the Diversity and Evolution of Myxozoa (Cnidaria, Endocnidozoa) Toxin-like Proteins. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20050291. [PMID: 35621942 PMCID: PMC9144971 DOI: 10.3390/md20050291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Myxozoa is a speciose group of endoparasitic cnidarians that can cause severe ecological and economic effects. Their cnidarian affinity is affirmed by genetic relatedness and the presence of nematocysts, historically called “polar capsules”. Previous studies have revealed the presence of toxin-like proteins in myxozoans; however, the diversity and evolution of venom in Myxozoa are not fully understood. Here, we performed a comparative analysis using the newly sequenced transcriptomes of five Myxobolidae species as well as some public datasets. Toxin mining revealed that myxozoans have lost most of their toxin families, while most species retained Kunitz, M12B, and CRISP, which may play a role in endoparasitism. The venom composition of Endocnidozoa (Myxozoa + Polypodium) differs from that of free-living cnidarians and may be influenced by ecological and environmental factors. Phylogenetic analyses showed that toxin families of myxozoans and free-living cnidarians were clustered into different clades. Selection analyses showed that purifying selection was the dominant evolutionary pressure in toxins, while they were still influenced by episodic adaptive selection. This suggests that the potency or specificity of a particular toxin or species might increase. Overall, our findings provide a more comprehensive framework for understanding the diversity and evolution of Myxozoa venoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bin Xiao
- Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine, College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (B.X.); (Q.G.); (Y.Z.)
- Hubei Engineering Technology Research Center for Aquatic Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430070, China
- Engineering Research Center of Green Development for Conventional Aquatic Biological Industry in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Qingxiang Guo
- Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine, College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (B.X.); (Q.G.); (Y.Z.)
- Hubei Engineering Technology Research Center for Aquatic Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430070, China
- Engineering Research Center of Green Development for Conventional Aquatic Biological Industry in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yanhua Zhai
- Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine, College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (B.X.); (Q.G.); (Y.Z.)
- Hubei Engineering Technology Research Center for Aquatic Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430070, China
- Engineering Research Center of Green Development for Conventional Aquatic Biological Industry in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zemao Gu
- Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine, College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (B.X.); (Q.G.); (Y.Z.)
- Hubei Engineering Technology Research Center for Aquatic Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430070, China
- Engineering Research Center of Green Development for Conventional Aquatic Biological Industry in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-027-8728-2114
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Mason AJ, Holding ML, Rautsaw RM, Rokyta DR, Parkinson CL, Gibbs HL. Venom gene sequence diversity and expression jointly shape diet adaptation in pitvipers. Mol Biol Evol 2022; 39:6567549. [PMID: 35413123 PMCID: PMC9040050 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msac082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the joint roles of protein sequence variation and differential expression during adaptive evolution is a fundamental, yet largely unrealized goal of evolutionary biology. Here, we use phylogenetic path analysis to analyze a comprehensive venom-gland transcriptome dataset spanning three genera of pitvipers to identify the functional genetic basis of a key adaptation (venom complexity) linked to diet breadth (DB). The analysis of gene-family-specific patterns reveals that, for genes encoding two of the most important venom proteins (snake venom metalloproteases and snake venom serine proteases), there are direct, positive relationships between sequence diversity (SD), expression diversity (ED), and increased DB. Further analysis of gene-family diversification for these proteins showed no constraint on how individual lineages achieved toxin gene SD in terms of the patterns of paralog diversification. In contrast, another major venom protein family (PLA2s) showed no relationship between venom molecular diversity and DB. Additional analyses suggest that other molecular mechanisms—such as higher absolute levels of expression—are responsible for diet adaptation involving these venom proteins. Broadly, our findings argue that functional diversity generated through sequence and expression variations jointly determine adaptation in the key components of pitviper venoms, which mediate complex molecular interactions between the snakes and their prey.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Mason
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.,Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - H Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Guo Q, Whipps CM, Zhai Y, Li D, Gu Z. Quantitative Insights into the Contribution of Nematocysts to the Adaptive Success of Cnidarians Based on Proteomic Analysis. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:91. [PMID: 35053089 PMCID: PMC8773148 DOI: 10.3390/biology11010091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Nematocysts are secretory organelles in cnidarians that play important roles in predation, defense, locomotion, and host invasion. However, the extent to which nematocysts contribute to adaptation and the mechanisms underlying nematocyst evolution are unclear. Here, we investigated the role of the nematocyst in cnidarian evolution based on eight nematocyst proteomes and 110 cnidarian transcriptomes/genomes. We detected extensive species-specific adaptive mutations in nematocyst proteins (NEMs) and evidence for decentralized evolution, in which most evolutionary events involved non-core NEMs, reflecting the rapid diversification of NEMs in cnidarians. Moreover, there was a 33-55 million year macroevolutionary lag between nematocyst evolution and the main phases of cnidarian diversification, suggesting that the nematocyst can act as a driving force in evolution. Quantitative analysis revealed an excess of adaptive changes in NEMs and enrichment for positively selected conserved NEMs. Together, these findings suggest that nematocysts may be key to the adaptive success of cnidarians and provide a reference for quantitative analyses of the roles of phenotypic novelties in adaptation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingxiang Guo
- Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine, College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Engineering Technology Research Center for Aquatic Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430070, China
- Engineering Research Center of Green Development for Conventional Aquatic Biological Industry in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Christopher M Whipps
- SUNY-ESF, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, 246 Illick Hall, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Yanhua Zhai
- Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine, College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Engineering Technology Research Center for Aquatic Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430070, China
- Engineering Research Center of Green Development for Conventional Aquatic Biological Industry in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine, College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Engineering Technology Research Center for Aquatic Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430070, China
- Engineering Research Center of Green Development for Conventional Aquatic Biological Industry in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zemao Gu
- Department of Aquatic Animal Medicine, College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Engineering Technology Research Center for Aquatic Animal Diseases Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430070, China
- Engineering Research Center of Green Development for Conventional Aquatic Biological Industry in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Barua A, Koludarov I, Mikheyev AS. Co-option of the same ancestral gene family gave rise to mammalian and reptilian toxins. BMC Biol 2021; 19:268. [PMID: 34949191 PMCID: PMC8705180 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01191-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Evolution can occur with surprising predictability when organisms face similar ecological challenges. For most traits, it is difficult to ascertain whether this occurs due to constraints imposed by the number of possible phenotypic solutions or because of parallel responses by shared genetic and regulatory architecture. Exceptionally, oral venoms are a tractable model of trait evolution, being largely composed of proteinaceous toxins that have evolved in many tetrapods, ranging from reptiles to mammals. Given the diversity of venomous lineages, they are believed to have evolved convergently, even though biochemically similar toxins occur in all taxa. Results Here, we investigate whether ancestral genes harbouring similar biochemical activity may have primed venom evolution, focusing on the origins of kallikrein-like serine proteases that form the core of most vertebrate oral venoms. Using syntenic relationships between genes flanking known toxins, we traced the origin of kallikreins to a single locus containing one or more nearby paralogous kallikrein-like clusters. Additionally, phylogenetic analysis of vertebrate serine proteases revealed that kallikrein-like toxins in mammals and reptiles are genetically distinct from non-toxin ones. Conclusions Given the shared regulatory and genetic machinery, these findings suggest that tetrapod venoms evolved by co-option of proteins that were likely already present in saliva. We term such genes ‘toxipotent’—in the case of salivary kallikreins they already had potent vasodilatory activity that was weaponized by venomous lineages. Furthermore, the ubiquitous distribution of kallikreins across vertebrates suggests that the evolution of envenomation may be more common than previously recognized, blurring the line between venomous and non-venomous animals. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12915-021-01191-1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agneesh Barua
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan.
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Animal Venomics Group, Justus Leibig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Alexander S Mikheyev
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Pintor AF, Ray N, Longbottom J, Bravo-Vega CA, Yousefi M, Murray KA, Ediriweera DS, Diggle PJ. Addressing the global snakebite crisis with geo-spatial analyses - Recent advances and future direction. Toxicon X 2021; 11:100076. [PMID: 34401744 PMCID: PMC8350508 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2021.100076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomous snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that annually leads to hundreds of thousands of deaths or long-term physical and mental ailments across the developing world. Insufficient data on spatial variation in snakebite risk, incidence, human vulnerability, and accessibility of medical treatment contribute substantially to ineffective on-ground management. There is an urgent need to collect data, fill knowledge gaps and address on-ground management problems. The use of novel, and transdisciplinary approaches that take advantage of recent advances in spatio-temporal models, 'big data', high performance computing, and fine-scale spatial information can add value to snakebite management by strategically improving our understanding and mitigation capacity of snakebite. We review the background and recent advances on the topic of snakebite related geospatial analyses and suggest avenues for priority research that will have practical on-ground applications for snakebite management and mitigation. These include streamlined, targeted data collection on snake distributions, snakebites, envenomings, venom composition, health infrastructure, and antivenom accessibility along with fine-scale models of spatio-temporal variation in snakebite risk and incidence, intraspecific venom variation, and environmental change modifying human exposure. These measures could improve and 'future-proof' antivenom production methods, antivenom distribution and stockpiling systems, and human-wildlife conflict management practices, while simultaneously feeding into research on venom evolution, snake taxonomy, ecology, biogeography, and conservation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna F.V. Pintor
- Division of Data, Analytics and Delivery for Impact (DDI), World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, Division of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, Australia
| | - Nicolas Ray
- GeoHealth Group, Institute of Global Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Joshua Longbottom
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Carlos A. Bravo-Vega
- Research Group in Mathematical and Computational Biology (BIOMAC), Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Masoud Yousefi
- School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Iran
| | - Kris A. Murray
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, UK
- MRC Unit the Gambia at London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Blvd, Fajara, Gambia
| | - Dileepa S. Ediriweera
- Health Data Science Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, Ragama, Sri Lanka
| | - Peter J. Diggle
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Lüddecke T, Herzig V, von Reumont BM, Vilcinskas A. The biology and evolution of spider venoms. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 97:163-178. [PMID: 34453398 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Spiders are diverse, predatory arthropods that have inhabited Earth for around 400 million years. They are well known for their complex venom systems that are used to overpower their prey. Spider venoms contain many proteins and peptides with highly specific and potent activities suitable for biomedical or agrochemical applications, but the key role of venoms as an evolutionary innovation is often overlooked, even though this has enabled spiders to emerge as one of the most successful animal lineages. In this review, we discuss these neglected biological aspects of spider venoms. We focus on the morphology of spider venom systems, their major components, biochemical and chemical plasticity, as well as ecological and evolutionary trends. We argue that the effectiveness of spider venoms is due to their unprecedented complexity, with diverse components working synergistically to increase the overall potency. The analysis of spider venoms is difficult to standardize because they are dynamic systems, fine-tuned and modified by factors such as sex, life-history stage and biological role. Finally, we summarize the mechanisms that drive spider venom evolution and highlight the need for genome-based studies to reconstruct the evolutionary history and physiological networks of spider venom compounds with more certainty.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Lüddecke
- Department for Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Ohlebergsweg 12, Gießen, 35392, Germany.,LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics (TBG), Senckenberganlage 25, Frankfurt am Main, 60325, Germany
| | - Volker Herzig
- GeneCology Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, 4556, Australia.,School of Science, Technology and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, 4556, Australia
| | - Björn M von Reumont
- LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics (TBG), Senckenberganlage 25, Frankfurt am Main, 60325, Germany.,Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, Gießen, 35392, Germany
| | - Andreas Vilcinskas
- Department for Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Ohlebergsweg 12, Gießen, 35392, Germany.,LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics (TBG), Senckenberganlage 25, Frankfurt am Main, 60325, Germany.,Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, Gießen, 35392, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Arbuckle K, Harris RJ. Radiating pain: venom has contributed to the diversification of the largest radiations of vertebrate and invertebrate animals. BMC Ecol Evol 2021; 21:150. [PMID: 34344322 PMCID: PMC8336261 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-021-01880-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Understanding drivers of animal biodiversity has been a longstanding aim in evolutionary biology. Insects and fishes represent the largest lineages of invertebrates and vertebrates respectively, and consequently many ideas have been proposed to explain this diversity. Natural enemy interactions are often important in diversification dynamics, and key traits that mediate such interactions may therefore have an important role in explaining organismal diversity. Venom is one such trait which is intricately bound in antagonistic coevolution and has recently been shown to be associated with increased diversification rates in tetrapods. Despite ~ 10% of fish families and ~ 16% of insect families containing venomous species, the role that venom may play in these two superradiations remains unknown. Results In this paper we take a broad family-level phylogenetic perspective and show that variation in diversification rates are the main cause of variations in species richness in both insects and fishes, and that venomous families have diversification rates twice as high as non-venomous families. Furthermore, we estimate that venom was present in ~ 10% and ~ 14% of the evolutionary history of fishes and insects respectively. Conclusions Consequently, we provide evidence that venom has played a role in generating the remarkable diversity in the largest vertebrate and invertebrate radiations. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12862-021-01880-z.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK.
| | - Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Zhao HY, Wen L, Miao YF, Du Y, Sun Y, Yin Y, Lin CX, Lin LH, Ji X, Gao JF. Venom-gland transcriptomic, venomic, and antivenomic profiles of the spine-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis curtus) from the South China Sea. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:520. [PMID: 34238212 PMCID: PMC8268360 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07824-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A comprehensive evaluation of the -omic profiles of venom is important for understanding the potential function and evolution of snake venom. Here, we conducted an integrated multi-omics-analysis to unveil the venom-transcriptomic and venomic profiles in a same group of spine-bellied sea snakes (Hydrophis curtus) from the South China Sea, where the snake is a widespread species and might generate regionally-specific venom potentially harmful to human activities. The capacity of two heterologous antivenoms to immunocapture the H. curtus venom was determined for an in-depth evaluation of their rationality in treatment of H. curtus envenomation. In addition, a phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood was used to detect the adaptive molecular evolution of full-length toxin-coding unigenes. Results A total of 90,909,384 pairs of clean reads were generated via Illumina sequencing from a pooled cDNA library of six specimens, and yielding 148,121 unigenes through de novo assembly. Sequence similarity searching harvested 63,845 valid annotations, including 63,789 non-toxin-coding and 56 toxin-coding unigenes belonging to 22 protein families. Three protein families, three-finger toxins (3-FTx), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and cysteine-rich secretory protein, were detected in the venom proteome. 3-FTx (27.15% in the transcriptome/41.94% in the proteome) and PLA2 (59.71%/49.36%) were identified as the most abundant families in the venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome. In addition, 24 unigenes from 11 protein families were shown to have experienced positive selection in their evolutionary history, whereas four were relatively conserved throughout evolution. Commercial Naja atra antivenom exhibited a stronger capacity than Bungarus multicinctus antivenom to immunocapture H. curtus venom components, especially short neurotoxins, with the capacity of both antivenoms to immunocapture short neurotoxins being weaker than that for PLA2s. Conclusions Our study clarified the venom-gland transcriptomic and venomic profiles along with the within-group divergence of a H. curtus population from the South China Sea. Adaptive evolution of most venom components driven by natural selection appeared to occur rapidly during evolutionary history. Notably, the utility of commercial N. atra and B. multicinctus antivenoms against H. curtus toxins was not comprehensive; thus, the development of species-specific antivenom is urgently needed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-07824-7.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Yan Zhao
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lin Wen
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yu-Feng Miao
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yu Du
- Hainan Key Laboratory of Herpetological Research, College of Fisheries and Life Science, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China.,MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yin Yin
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Chi-Xian Lin
- Hainan Key Laboratory of Herpetological Research, College of Fisheries and Life Science, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China.,MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China
| | - Long-Hui Lin
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiang Ji
- MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China. .,Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China. .,College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Jian-Fang Gao
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Calvete JJ, Lomonte B, Saviola AJ, Bonilla F, Sasa M, Williams DJ, Undheim EA, Sunagar K, Jackson TN. Mutual enlightenment: A toolbox of concepts and methods for integrating evolutionary and clinical toxinology via snake venomics and the contextual stance. Toxicon X 2021; 9-10:100070. [PMID: 34195606 PMCID: PMC8234350 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2021.100070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that may claim over 100,000 human lives annually worldwide. Snakebite occurs as the result of an interaction between a human and a snake that elicits either a defensive response from the snake or, more rarely, a feeding response as the result of mistaken identity. Snakebite envenoming is therefore a biological and, more specifically, an ecological problem. Snake venom itself is often described as a "cocktail", as it is a heterogenous mixture of molecules including the toxins (which are typically proteinaceous) responsible for the pathophysiological consequences of envenoming. The primary function of venom in snake ecology is pre-subjugation, with defensive deployment of the secretion typically considered a secondary function. The particular composition of any given venom cocktail is shaped by evolutionary forces that include phylogenetic constraints associated with the snake's lineage and adaptive responses to the snake's ecological context, including the taxa it preys upon and by which it is predated upon. In the present article, we describe how conceptual frameworks from ecology and evolutionary biology can enter into a mutually enlightening relationship with clinical toxinology by enabling the consideration of snakebite envenoming from an "ecological stance". We detail the insights that may emerge from such a perspective and highlight the ways in which the high-fidelity descriptive knowledge emerging from applications of -omics era technologies - "venomics" and "antivenomics" - can combine with evolutionary explanations to deliver a detailed understanding of this multifactorial health crisis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan J. Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Unidad de Proteómica, Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Anthony J. Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Fabián Bonilla
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Animales Peligrosos (LIAP), Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mahmood Sasa
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Animales Peligrosos (LIAP), Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Museo de Zoología, Centro de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Ecología Tropical, Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica
| | | | - Eivind A.B. Undheim
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Timothy N.W. Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Himaya SWA, Jin AH, Hamilton B, Rai SK, Alewood P, Lewis RJ. Venom duct origins of prey capture and defensive conotoxins in piscivorous Conus striatus. Sci Rep 2021; 11:13282. [PMID: 34168165 PMCID: PMC8225645 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91919-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The venom duct origins of predatory and defensive venoms has not been studied for hook-and-line fish hunting cone snails despite the pharmacological importance of their venoms. To better understand the biochemistry and evolution of injected predatory and defensive venoms, we compared distal, central and proximal venom duct sections across three specimens of C. striatus (Pionoconus) using proteomic and transcriptomic approaches. A total of 370 conotoxin precursors were identified from the whole venom duct transcriptome. Milked defensive venom was enriched with a potent cocktail of proximally expressed inhibitory α-, ω- and μ-conotoxins compared to milked predatory venom. In contrast, excitatory κA-conotoxins dominated both the predatory and defensive venoms despite their distal expression, suggesting this class of conotoxin can be selectively expressed from the same duct segment in response to either a predatory or defensive stimuli. Given the high abundance of κA-conotoxins in the Pionoconus clade, we hypothesise that the κA-conotoxins have evolved through adaptive evolution following their repurposing from ancestral inhibitory A superfamily conotoxins to facilitate the dietary shift to fish hunting and species radiation in this clade.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S. W. A. Himaya
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Ai-Hua Jin
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Brett Hamilton
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Subash K. Rai
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia ,grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Present Address: Genome Innovation Hub, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Paul Alewood
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Richard J. Lewis
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
The evolutionary dynamics of venom toxins made by insects and other animals. Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 48:1353-1365. [PMID: 32756910 DOI: 10.1042/bst20190820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Animal venoms are recognised as unique biological systems in which to study molecular evolution. Venom use has evolved numerous times among the insects, and insects today use venom to capture prey, defend themselves from predators, or to subdue and modulate host responses during parasitism. However, little is known about most insect venom toxins or the mode and tempo by which they evolve. Here, I review the evolutionary dynamics of insect venom toxins, and argue that insects offer many opportunities to examine novel aspects of toxin evolution. The key questions addressed are: How do venomous animals evolve from non-venomous animals, and how does this path effect the composition and pharmacology of the venom? What genetic processes (gene duplication, co-option, neofunctionalisation) are most important in toxin evolution? What kinds of selection pressures are acting on toxin-encoding genes and their cognate targets in envenomated animals? The emerging evidence highlights that venom composition and pharmacology adapts quickly in response to changing selection pressures resulting from new ecological interactions, and that such evolution occurs through a stunning variety of genetic mechanisms. Insects offer many opportunities to investigate the evolutionary dynamics of venom toxins due to their evolutionary history rich in venom-related adaptations, and their quick generation time and suitability for culture in the laboratory.
Collapse
|
31
|
Remarkable intrapopulation venom variability in the monocellate cobra (Naja kaouthia) unveils neglected aspects of India's snakebite problem. J Proteomics 2021; 242:104256. [PMID: 33957314 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Interpopulation venom variation has been widely documented in snakes across large geographical distances. This variability is known to markedly influence the effectiveness of snakebite therapy, as antivenoms manufactured against one population may not be effective against others. In contrast, the extent of intrapopulation venom variability, especially at finer geographical scales, remains largely uninvestigated. Moreover, given the historical focus on the 'big four' Indian snakes, our understanding of venom variation in medically important yet neglected snakes, such as the monocellate cobra (Naja kaouthia), remains unclear. To address this shortcoming, we investigated N. kaouthia venoms sampled across a small spatial scale (<50 km) in Eastern India. An interdisciplinary approach employed in this study unveiled considerable intrapopulation differences in the venom proteomic composition, pharmacological and biochemical activities, and toxicity profiles. Documentation of stark differences in venoms at such a finer geographical scale, despite the influence of similar ecological and environmental conditions, is intriguing. Furthermore, evaluation of in vitro and in vivo venom recognition and neutralisation potential of Indian polyvalent 'big four' antivenoms and Thai monovalent N. kaouthia antivenom revealed concerning deficiencies. These results highlight the negative impact of phylogenetic divergence and intrapopulation snake venom variation on the effectiveness of conventional antivenom therapy. SIGNIFICANCE: In contrast to our understanding of snake venom variation across large distances, which is theorised to be shaped by disparities in ecology and environment, intrapopulation variation at finer geographic scales remains scarcely investigated. Assessment of intrapopulation venom variability in Naja kaouthia at a small spatial scale (<50 km) in Eastern India unravelled considerable differences in venom compositions, activities and potencies. While the influence of subtle differences in prey preference and local adaptations cannot be ruled out, these findings, perhaps, also emphasise the role of accelerated molecular evolutionary regimes that rapidly introduce variations in evolutionarily younger lineages, such as advanced snakes. The inability of 'big four' Indian antivenoms and Thai N. kaouthia monovalent antivenom in countering these variations highlights the importance of phylogenetic considerations for the development of efficacious snakebite therapy. Thus, we provide valuable insights into the venoms of one of the most medically important yet neglected Indian snakes.
Collapse
|
32
|
Identification of Novel Toxin Genes from the Stinging Nettle Caterpillar Parasa lepida (Cramer, 1799): Insights into the Evolution of Lepidoptera Toxins. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12050396. [PMID: 33946702 PMCID: PMC8145965 DOI: 10.3390/insects12050396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Many caterpillar species can produce toxins that cause harmful reactions to humans, varying from mild irritation to death. Currently, there is very limited knowledge about caterpillar toxin diversity, because only a few species have been investigated. We used the transcriptome technique to identify candidate toxin genes from the nettle caterpillar Parasa lepida (Cramer, 1799). It is a common pest of oil palm, coconut, and mango in South and South-East Asia, which can cause severe pain and allergic responses to those in contact with them. We reported 168 candidate toxin genes. Most of them are members of the toxin genes families commonly recruited in animal venoms such as serine protease and serine protease inhibitors. However, we identified 21 novel genes encoding knottin-like peptides expressed at a high level in the transcriptome. Their predicted 3D structures are similar to neurotoxins in scorpion and tarantula. Our study suggests that P. lepida venom contains diverse toxin proteins that potentially cause allergic reactions and pain. This study sheds light on the hidden diversity of toxin proteins in caterpillar lineage, which could be future fruitful new drug sources. Abstract Many animal species can produce venom for defense, predation, and competition. The venom usually contains diverse peptide and protein toxins, including neurotoxins, proteolytic enzymes, protease inhibitors, and allergens. Some drugs for cancer, neurological disorders, and analgesics were developed based on animal toxin structures and functions. Several caterpillar species possess venoms that cause varying effects on humans both locally and systemically. However, toxins from only a few species have been investigated, limiting the full understanding of the Lepidoptera toxin diversity and evolution. We used the RNA-seq technique to identify toxin genes from the stinging nettle caterpillar, Parasa lepida (Cramer, 1799). We constructed a transcriptome from caterpillar urticating hairs and reported 34,968 unique transcripts. Using our toxin gene annotation pipeline, we identified 168 candidate toxin genes, including protease inhibitors, proteolytic enzymes, and allergens. The 21 P. lepida novel Knottin-like peptides, which do not show sequence similarity to any known peptide, have predicted 3D structures similar to tarantula, scorpion, and cone snail neurotoxins. We highlighted the importance of convergent evolution in the Lepidoptera toxin evolution and the possible mechanisms. This study opens a new path to understanding the hidden diversity of Lepidoptera toxins, which could be a fruitful source for developing new drugs.
Collapse
|
33
|
Klompen AML, Kayal E, Collins AG, Cartwright P. Phylogenetic and Selection Analysis of an Expanded Family of Putatively Pore-Forming Jellyfish Toxins (Cnidaria: Medusozoa). Genome Biol Evol 2021; 13:6248095. [PMID: 33892512 PMCID: PMC8214413 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evab081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Many jellyfish species are known to cause a painful sting, but box jellyfish (class Cubozoa) are a well-known danger to humans due to exceptionally potent venoms. Cubozoan toxicity has been attributed to the presence and abundance of cnidarian-specific pore-forming toxins called jellyfish toxins (JFTs), which are highly hemolytic and cardiotoxic. However, JFTs have also been found in other cnidarians outside of Cubozoa, and no comprehensive analysis of their phylogenetic distribution has been conducted to date. Here, we present a thorough annotation of JFTs from 147 cnidarian transcriptomes and document 111 novel putative JFTs from over 20 species within Medusozoa. Phylogenetic analyses show that JFTs form two distinct clades, which we call JFT-1 and JFT-2. JFT-1 includes all known potent cubozoan toxins, as well as hydrozoan and scyphozoan representatives, some of which were derived from medically relevant species. JFT-2 contains primarily uncharacterized JFTs. Although our analyses detected broad purifying selection across JFTs, we found that a subset of cubozoan JFT-1 sequences are influenced by gene-wide episodic positive selection compared with homologous toxins from other taxonomic groups. This suggests that duplication followed by neofunctionalization or subfunctionalization as a potential mechanism for the highly potent venom in cubozoans. Additionally, published RNA-seq data from several medusozoan species indicate that JFTs are differentially expressed, spatially and temporally, between functionally distinct tissues. Overall, our findings suggest a complex evolutionary history of JFTs involving duplication and selection that may have led to functional diversification, including variability in toxin potency and specificity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna M L Klompen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA
| | - Ehsan Kayal
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, District of Columbia, USA.,Sorbonne Université, CNRS, FR2424, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Place Georges Teissier, 29680, Roscoff, France
| | - Allen G Collins
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, District of Columbia, USA.,National Systematics Laboratory of NOAA's Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Paulyn Cartwright
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Saikia C, Ben-Nissan G, Reuveny E, Karbat I. Production of recombinant venom peptides as tools for ion channel research. Methods Enzymol 2021; 654:169-201. [PMID: 34120712 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2021.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Animal venom is a rich source for peptide toxins that bind and modulate the function of ion channels. Owing to their ability to bind receptor sites on the channel protein with high affinity and specificity, peptide neurotoxins have become an indispensable tool for ion channel research. Recent breakthroughs in structural biology and advances in computer simulations of biomolecules have sparked a new interest in animal toxins as probes of channel protein structure and function. Here, we focus on methods used to produce animal toxins for research purposes using recombinant expression. The specific challenges associated with heterologous production of venom peptides are discussed, and several methods targeting these issues are presented with an emphasis on E. coli based systems. An efficient protocol for the bacterial expression, folding, and purification of recombinant venom peptides is described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chandamita Saikia
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Gili Ben-Nissan
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Eitan Reuveny
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
| | - Izhar Karbat
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Rodrigo AP, Grosso AR, Baptista PV, Fernandes AR, Costa PM. A Transcriptomic Approach to the Recruitment of Venom Proteins in a Marine Annelid. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020097. [PMID: 33525375 PMCID: PMC7911839 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing number of known venomous marine invertebrates indicates that chemical warfare plays an important role in adapting to diversified ecological niches, even though it remains unclear how toxins fit into the evolutionary history of these animals. Our case study, the Polychaeta Eulalia sp., is an intertidal predator that secretes toxins. Whole-transcriptome sequencing revealed proteinaceous toxins secreted by cells in the proboscis and delivered by mucus. Toxins and accompanying enzymes promote permeabilization, coagulation impairment and the blocking of the neuromuscular activity of prey upon which the worm feeds by sucking pieces of live flesh. The main neurotoxins ("phyllotoxins") were found to be cysteine-rich proteins, a class of substances ubiquitous among venomous animals. Some toxins were phylogenetically related to Polychaeta, Mollusca or more ancient groups, such as Cnidaria. Some toxins may have evolved from non-toxin homologs that were recruited without the reduction in molecular mass and increased specificity of other invertebrate toxins. By analyzing the phylogeny of toxin mixtures, we show that Polychaeta is uniquely positioned in the evolution of animal venoms. Indeed, the phylogenetic models of mixed or individual toxins do not follow the expected eumetazoan tree-of-life and highlight that the recruitment of gene products for a role in venom systems is complex.
Collapse
|
36
|
Insights into how development and life-history dynamics shape the evolution of venom. EvoDevo 2021; 12:1. [PMID: 33413660 PMCID: PMC7791878 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-020-00171-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomous animals are a striking example of the convergent evolution of a complex trait. These animals have independently evolved an apparatus that synthesizes, stores, and secretes a mixture of toxic compounds to the target animal through the infliction of a wound. Among these distantly related animals, some can modulate and compartmentalize functionally distinct venoms related to predation and defense. A process to separate distinct venoms can occur within and across complex life cycles as well as more streamlined ontogenies, depending on their life-history requirements. Moreover, the morphological and cellular complexity of the venom apparatus likely facilitates the functional diversity of venom deployed within a given life stage. Intersexual variation of venoms has also evolved further contributing to the massive diversity of toxic compounds characterized in these animals. These changes in the biochemical phenotype of venom can directly affect the fitness of these animals, having important implications in their diet, behavior, and mating biology. In this review, we explore the current literature that is unraveling the temporal dynamics of the venom system that are required by these animals to meet their ecological functions. These recent findings have important consequences in understanding the evolution and development of a convergent complex trait and its organismal and ecological implications.
Collapse
|
37
|
Minutti-Zanella C, Gil-Leyva EJ, Vergara I. Immunomodulatory properties of molecules from animal venoms. Toxicon 2021; 191:54-68. [PMID: 33417946 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The immune system can amplify or decrease the strength of its response when it is stimulated by chemical or biological substances that act as immunostimulators, immunosuppressants, or immunoadjuvants. Immunomodulation is a progressive approach to treat a diversity of pathologies with promising results, including autoimmune disorders and cancer. Animal venoms are a mixture of chemical compounds that include proteins, peptides, amines, salts, polypeptides, enzymes, among others, which produce the toxic effect. Since the discovery of captopril in the early 1980s, other components from snakes, spiders, scorpions, and marine animal venoms have been demonstrated to be useful for treating several human diseases. The valuable progress in fields such as venomics, molecular biology, biotechnology, immunology, and others has been crucial to understanding the interaction of toxins with the immune system and its application on immune pathologies. More in-depth knowledge of venoms' components and multi-disciplinary studies could facilitate their transformation into effective novel immunotherapies. This review addresses advances and research of molecules from venoms that have immunomodulatory properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Minutti-Zanella
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Universidad de Las Américas Puebla, ExHda. Sta. Catarina Mártir s/n, San Andrés Cholula, 72820, Puebla, Mexico
| | - E J Gil-Leyva
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Universidad de Las Américas Puebla, ExHda. Sta. Catarina Mártir s/n, San Andrés Cholula, 72820, Puebla, Mexico
| | - I Vergara
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Universidad de Las Américas Puebla, ExHda. Sta. Catarina Mártir s/n, San Andrés Cholula, 72820, Puebla, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Pick Your Poison: Molecular Evolution of Venom Proteins in Asilidae (Insecta: Diptera). Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120738. [PMID: 33255268 PMCID: PMC7761131 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Robber flies are an understudied family of venomous, predatory Diptera. With the recent characterization of venom from three asilid species, it is possible, for the first time, to study the molecular evolution of venom genes in this unique lineage. To accomplish this, a novel whole-body transcriptome of Eudioctria media was combined with 10 other publicly available asiloid thoracic or salivary gland transcriptomes to identify putative venom gene families and assess evidence of pervasive positive selection. A total of 348 gene families of sufficient size were analyzed, and 33 of these were predicted to contain venom genes. We recovered 151 families containing homologs to previously described venom proteins, and 40 of these were uniquely gained in Asilidae. Our gene family clustering suggests that many asilidin venom gene families are not natural groupings, as delimited by previous authors, but instead form multiple discrete gene families. Additionally, robber fly venoms have relatively few sites under positive selection, consistent with the hypothesis that the venoms of older lineages are dominated by negative selection acting to maintain toxic function.
Collapse
|
39
|
Hanf ZR, Chavez AS. A Comprehensive Multi-Omic Approach Reveals a Relatively Simple Venom in a Diet Generalist, the Northern Short-Tailed Shrew, Blarina brevicauda. Genome Biol Evol 2020; 12:1148-1166. [PMID: 32520994 PMCID: PMC7486961 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evaa115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals that use venom to feed on a wide diversity of prey may evolve a complex mixture of toxins to target a variety of physiological processes and prey-defense mechanisms. Blarina brevicauda, the northern short-tailed shrew, is one of few venomous mammals, and is also known to eat evolutionarily divergent prey. Despite their complex diet, earlier proteomic and transcriptomic studies of this shrew's venom have only identified two venom proteins. Here, we investigated with comprehensive molecular approaches whether B. brevicauda venom is more complex than previously understood. We generated de novo assemblies of a B. brevicauda genome and submaxillary-gland transcriptome, as well as sequenced the salivary proteome. Our findings show that B. brevicauda's venom composition is simple relative to their broad diet and is likely limited to seven proteins from six gene families. Additionally, we explored expression levels and rate of evolution of these venom genes and the origins of key duplications that led to toxin neofunctionalization. We also found three proteins that may be involved in endogenous self-defense. The possible synergism of the toxins suggests that vertebrate prey may be the main target of the venom. Further functional assays for all venom proteins on both vertebrate and invertebrate prey would provide further insight into the ecological relevance of venom in this species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zachery R Hanf
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University
| | - Andreas S Chavez
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University
- Translational Data Analytics Institute, The Ohio State University
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Esteves FG, Dos Santos-Pinto JRA, Ferro M, Sialana FJ, Smidak R, Rares LC, Nussbaumer T, Rattei T, Bilban M, Bacci Júnior M, Lubec G, Palma MS. Revealing the Venomous Secrets of the Spider's Web. J Proteome Res 2020; 19:3044-3059. [PMID: 32538095 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Orb-weaving spiders use a highly strong, sticky and elastic web to catch their prey. These web properties alone would be enough for the entrapment of prey; however, these spiders may be hiding venomous secrets in the web, which current research is revealing. Here, we provide strong proteotranscriptomic evidence for the presence of toxin/neurotoxin-like proteins, defensins, and proteolytic enzymes on the web silk from Nephila clavipes spider. The results from quantitative-based transcriptomic and proteomic approaches showed that silk-producing glands produce an extensive repertoire of toxin/neurotoxin-like proteins, similar to those already reported in spider venoms. Meanwhile, the insect toxicity results demonstrated that these toxic components can be lethal and/or paralytic chemical weapons used for prey capture on the web, and the presence of fatty acids in the web may be a responsible mechanism opening the way to the web toxins for accessing the interior of prey's body, as shown here. Comparative phylogenomic-level evolutionary analyses revealed orthologous genes among two spider groups, Araneomorphae and Mygalomorphae, and the findings showed protein sequences similar to toxins found in the taxa Scorpiones and Hymenoptera in addition to Araneae. Overall, these data represent a valuable resource to further investigate other spider web toxin systems and also suggest that N. clavipes web is not a passive mechanical trap for prey capture, but it exerts an active role in prey paralysis/killing using a series of neurotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franciele Grego Esteves
- Center of the Study of Social Insects, Department of General and Applied Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Rio Claro, University of São Paulo State (UNESP), Rio Claro, SP 13506-900, Brazil
| | - José Roberto Aparecido Dos Santos-Pinto
- Center of the Study of Social Insects, Department of General and Applied Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Rio Claro, University of São Paulo State (UNESP), Rio Claro, SP 13506-900, Brazil
| | - Milene Ferro
- Center of the Study of Social Insects, Department of General and Applied Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Rio Claro, University of São Paulo State (UNESP), Rio Claro, SP 13506-900, Brazil
| | - Fernando J Sialana
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - Roman Smidak
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - Lucaciu Calin Rares
- Division of Computational System Biology, Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Nussbaumer
- Division of Computational System Biology, Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Rattei
- Division of Computational System Biology, Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Bilban
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Core Facility Genomics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Mauricio Bacci Júnior
- Center of the Study of Social Insects, Department of General and Applied Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Rio Claro, University of São Paulo State (UNESP), Rio Claro, SP 13506-900, Brazil
| | - Gert Lubec
- Paracelsus Medical University, A 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Mario Sergio Palma
- Center of the Study of Social Insects, Department of General and Applied Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Rio Claro, University of São Paulo State (UNESP), Rio Claro, SP 13506-900, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Casewell NR, Jackson TNW, Laustsen AH, Sunagar K. Causes and Consequences of Snake Venom Variation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2020; 41:570-581. [PMID: 32564899 PMCID: PMC7116101 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2020.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms are mixtures of toxins that vary extensively between and within snake species. This variability has serious consequences for the management of the world’s 1.8 million annual snakebite victims. Advances in ‘omic’ technologies have empowered toxinologists to comprehensively characterize snake venom compositions, unravel the molecular mechanisms that underpin venom variation, and elucidate the ensuing functional consequences. In this review, we describe how such mechanistic processes have resulted in suites of toxin isoforms that cause diverse pathologies in human snakebite victims and we detail how variation in venom composition can result in treatment failure. Finally, we outline current therapeutic approaches designed to circumvent venom variation and deliver next-generation treatments for the world’s most lethal neglected tropical disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Laboratory, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Modahl CM, Roointan A, Rogers J, Currier K, Mackessy SP. Interspecific and intraspecific venom enzymatic variation among cobras (Naja sp. and Ophiophagus hannah). Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 232:108743. [PMID: 32194156 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The genera Ophiophagus and Naja comprise part of a clade of snakes referred to as cobras, dangerously venomous front-fanged snakes in the family Elapidae responsible for significant human mortality and morbidity throughout Asia and Africa. We evaluated venom enzyme variation for eleven cobra species and three N. kaouthia populations using SDS-PAGE venom fingerprinting and numerous enzyme assays. Acetylcholinesterase and PLA2 activities were the most variable between species, and PLA2 activity was significantly different between Malaysian and Thailand N. kaouthia populations. Venom metalloproteinase activity was low and significantly different among most species, but levels were identical for N. kaouthia populations; minor variation in venom L-amino acid oxidase and phosphodiesterase activities were seen between cobra species. Naja siamensis venom lacked the α-fibrinogenolytic activity common to other cobra venoms. In addition, venom from N. siamensis had no detectable metalloproteinase activity and exhibited an SDS-PAGE profile with reduced abundance of higher mass proteins. Venom profiles from spitting cobras (N. siamensis, N. pallida, and N. mossambica) exhibited similar reductions in higher mass proteins, suggesting the evolution of venoms of reduced complexity and decreased enzymatic activity among spitting cobras. Generally, the venom proteomes of cobras show highly abundant three-finger toxin diversity, followed by large quantities of PLA2s. However, PLA2 bands and activity were very reduced for N. haje, N. annulifera and N. nivea. Venom compositionalenzy analysis provides insight into the evolution, diversification and distribution of different venom phenotypes that complements venomic data, and this information is critical for the development of effective antivenoms and snakebite treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra M Modahl
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
| | - Amir Roointan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore; Regenerative Medicine Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Jessica Rogers
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
| | - Katelyn Currier
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Zancolli G, Casewell NR. Venom Systems as Models for Studying the Origin and Regulation of Evolutionary Novelties. Mol Biol Evol 2020; 37:2777-2790. [DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
A central goal in biology is to determine the ways in which evolution repeats itself. One of the most remarkable examples in nature of convergent evolutionary novelty is animal venom. Across diverse animal phyla, various specialized organs and anatomical structures have evolved from disparate developmental tissues to perform the same function, that is, produce and deliver a cocktail of potent molecules to subdue prey or predators. Venomous organisms therefore offer unique opportunities to investigate the evolutionary processes of convergence of key adaptive traits, and the molecular mechanisms underlying the emergence of novel genes, cells, and tissues. Indeed, some venomous species have already proven to be highly amenable as models for developmental studies, and recent work with venom gland organoids provides manipulatable systems for directly testing important evolutionary questions. Here, we provide a synthesis of the current knowledge that could serve as a starting point for the establishment of venom systems as new models for evolutionary and molecular biology. In particular, we highlight the potential of various venomous species for the study of cell differentiation and cell identity, and the regulatory dynamics of rapidly evolving, highly expressed, tissue-specific, gene paralogs. We hope that this review will encourage researchers to look beyond traditional study organisms and consider venom systems as useful tools to explore evolutionary novelties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Zancolli
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Barua A, Mikheyev AS. Toxin expression in snake venom evolves rapidly with constant shifts in evolutionary rates. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20200613. [PMID: 32345154 PMCID: PMC7282918 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.0613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Key innovations provide ecological opportunity by enabling access to new resources, colonization of new environments, and are associated with adaptive radiation. The most well-known pattern associated with adaptive radiation is an early burst of phenotypic diversification. Venoms facilitate prey capture and are widely believed to be key innovations leading to adaptive radiation. However, few studies have estimated their evolutionary rate dynamics. Here, we test for patterns of adaptive evolution in venom gene expression data from 52 venomous snake species. By identifying shifts in tempo and mode of evolution along with models of phenotypic evolution, we show that snake venom exhibits the macroevolutionary dynamics expected of key innovations. Namely, all toxin families undergo shifts in their rates of evolution, likely in response to changes in adaptive optima. Furthermore, we show that rapid-pulsed evolution modelled as a Lévy process better fits snake venom evolution than conventional early burst or Ornstein-Uhlenbeck models. While our results support the idea of snake venom being a key innovation, the innovation of venom chemistry lacks clear mechanisms that would lead to reproductive isolation and thus adaptive radiation. Therefore, the extent to which venom directly influences the diversification process is still a matter of contention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agneesh Barua
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken 904-0495, Japan
| | - Alexander S. Mikheyev
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken 904-0495, Japan
- Evolutionary genomics group, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Niermann CN, Tate TG, Suto AL, Barajas R, White HA, Guswiler OD, Secor SM, Rowe AH, Rowe MP. Defensive Venoms: Is Pain Sufficient for Predator Deterrence? Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12040260. [PMID: 32316477 PMCID: PMC7232307 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain, though unpleasant, is adaptive in calling an animal’s attention to potential tissue damage. A long list of animals representing diverse taxa possess venom-mediated, pain-inducing bites or stings that work by co-opting the pain-sensing pathways of potential enemies. Typically, such venoms include toxins that cause tissue damage or disrupt neuronal activity, rendering painful stings honest indicators of harm. But could pain alone be sufficient for deterring a hungry predator? Some venomologists have argued “no”; predators, in the absence of injury, would “see through” the bluff of a painful but otherwise benign sting or bite. Because most algogenic venoms are also toxic (although not vice versa), it has been difficult to disentangle the relative contributions of each component to predator deterrence. Southern grasshopper mice (Onychomys torridus) are voracious predators of arthropods, feeding on a diversity of scorpion species whose stings vary in painfulness, including painful Arizona bark scorpions (Centruroides sculpturatus) and essentially painless stripe-tailed scorpions (Paravaejovis spinigerus). Moreover, southern grasshopper mice have evolved resistance to the lethal toxins in bark scorpion venom, rendering a sting from these scorpions painful but harmless. Results from a series of laboratory experiments demonstrate that painful stings matter. Grasshopper mice preferred to prey on stripe-tailed scorpions rather than bark scorpions when both species could sting; the preference disappeared when each species had their stingers blocked. A painful sting therefore appears necessary for a scorpion to deter a hungry grasshopper mouse, but it may not always be sufficient: after first attacking and consuming a painless stripe-tailed scorpion, many grasshopper mice went on to attack, kill, and eat a bark scorpion even when the scorpion was capable of stinging. Defensive venoms that result in tissue damage or neurological dysfunction may, thus, be required to condition greater aversion than venoms causing pain alone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Crystal N. Niermann
- Department of Biology, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77340, USA; (C.N.N.); (T.G.T.)
| | - Travis G. Tate
- Department of Biology, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77340, USA; (C.N.N.); (T.G.T.)
| | - Amber L. Suto
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (A.L.S.); (O.D.G.)
| | - Rolando Barajas
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (R.B.); (H.A.W.)
| | - Hope A. White
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (R.B.); (H.A.W.)
| | - Olivia D. Guswiler
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (A.L.S.); (O.D.G.)
| | - Stephen M. Secor
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA;
| | - Ashlee H. Rowe
- Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA;
| | - Matthew P. Rowe
- Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-405-325-6539
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Ashwood LM, Norton RS, Undheim EAB, Hurwood DA, Prentis PJ. Characterising Functional Venom Profiles of Anthozoans and Medusozoans within Their Ecological Context. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:E202. [PMID: 32283847 PMCID: PMC7230708 DOI: 10.3390/md18040202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This review examines the current state of knowledge regarding toxins from anthozoans (sea anemones, coral, zoanthids, corallimorphs, sea pens and tube anemones). We provide an overview of venom from phylum Cnidaria and review the diversity of venom composition between the two major clades (Medusozoa and Anthozoa). We highlight that the functional and ecological context of venom has implications for the temporal and spatial expression of protein and peptide toxins within class Anthozoa. Understanding the nuances in the regulation of venom arsenals has been made possible by recent advances in analytical technologies that allow characterisation of the spatial distributions of toxins. Furthermore, anthozoans are unique in that ecological roles can be assigned using tissue expression data, thereby circumventing some of the challenges related to pharmacological screening.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M. Ashwood
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Raymond S. Norton
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- ARC Centre for Fragment-Based Design, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Eivind A. B. Undheim
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - David A. Hurwood
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
- Institute of Future Environments, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Peter J. Prentis
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
- Institute of Future Environments, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Cassiosomes are stinging-cell structures in the mucus of the upside-down jellyfish Cassiopea xamachana. Commun Biol 2020; 3:67. [PMID: 32054971 PMCID: PMC7018847 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-020-0777-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Snorkelers in mangrove forest waters inhabited by the upside-down jellyfish Cassiopea xamachana report discomfort due to a sensation known as stinging water, the cause of which is unknown. Using a combination of histology, microscopy, microfluidics, videography, molecular biology, and mass spectrometry-based proteomics, we describe C. xamachana stinging-cell structures that we term cassiosomes. These structures are released within C. xamachana mucus and are capable of killing prey. Cassiosomes consist of an outer epithelial layer mainly composed of nematocytes surrounding a core filled by endosymbiotic dinoflagellates hosted within amoebocytes and presumptive mesoglea. Furthermore, we report cassiosome structures in four additional jellyfish species in the same taxonomic group as C. xamachana (Class Scyphozoa; Order Rhizostomeae), categorized as either motile (ciliated) or nonmotile types. This inaugural study provides a qualitative assessment of the stinging contents of C. xamachana mucus and implicates mucus containing cassiosomes and free intact nematocytes as the cause of stinging water. Cheryl L Ames, Anna Klompen et al. describe cassiosomes, stinging cell structures in the mucus of the upside-down jellyfish Cassiopea xamachana. They show that these motile cell masses consist of an outer epithelial layer largely composed of nematocytes surrounding centralized clusters of endosymbiotic dinoflagellates.
Collapse
|
48
|
Casewell NR, Petras D, Card DC, Suranse V, Mychajliw AM, Richards D, Koludarov I, Albulescu LO, Slagboom J, Hempel BF, Ngum NM, Kennerley RJ, Brocca JL, Whiteley G, Harrison RA, Bolton FMS, Debono J, Vonk FJ, Alföldi J, Johnson J, Karlsson EK, Lindblad-Toh K, Mellor IR, Süssmuth RD, Fry BG, Kuruppu S, Hodgson WC, Kool J, Castoe TA, Barnes I, Sunagar K, Undheim EAB, Turvey ST. Solenodon genome reveals convergent evolution of venom in eulipotyphlan mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:25745-25755. [PMID: 31772017 PMCID: PMC6926037 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1906117116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom systems are key adaptations that have evolved throughout the tree of life and typically facilitate predation or defense. Despite venoms being model systems for studying a variety of evolutionary and physiological processes, many taxonomic groups remain understudied, including venomous mammals. Within the order Eulipotyphla, multiple shrew species and solenodons have oral venom systems. Despite morphological variation of their delivery systems, it remains unclear whether venom represents the ancestral state in this group or is the result of multiple independent origins. We investigated the origin and evolution of venom in eulipotyphlans by characterizing the venom system of the endangered Hispaniolan solenodon (Solenodon paradoxus). We constructed a genome to underpin proteomic identifications of solenodon venom toxins, before undertaking evolutionary analyses of those constituents, and functional assessments of the secreted venom. Our findings show that solenodon venom consists of multiple paralogous kallikrein 1 (KLK1) serine proteases, which cause hypotensive effects in vivo, and seem likely to have evolved to facilitate vertebrate prey capture. Comparative analyses provide convincing evidence that the oral venom systems of solenodons and shrews have evolved convergently, with the 4 independent origins of venom in eulipotyphlans outnumbering all other venom origins in mammals. We find that KLK1s have been independently coopted into the venom of shrews and solenodons following their divergence during the late Cretaceous, suggesting that evolutionary constraints may be acting on these genes. Consequently, our findings represent a striking example of convergent molecular evolution and demonstrate that distinct structural backgrounds can yield equivalent functions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, United Kingdom;
| | - Daniel Petras
- Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093
| | - Daren C Card
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76010
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138
| | - Vivek Suranse
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, 560012 Bangalore, India
| | - Alexis M Mychajliw
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Rancho La Brea, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, CA 90036
- Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, 060-0819 Sapporo, Japan
| | - David Richards
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, NG7 2RD Nottingham, United Kingdom
- Biomedical Research Centre, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, NR4 7TJ Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology, Onna, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa, 904-0495, Japan
| | - Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Julien Slagboom
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 LA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Neville M Ngum
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, NG7 2RD Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Rosalind J Kennerley
- Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Les Augrès Manor, Trinity, Jersey JE3 5BP, British Channel Islands, United Kingdom
| | - Jorge L Brocca
- SOH Conservación, Apto. 401 Residencial Las Galerías, Santo Domingo, 10130, Dominican Republic
| | - Gareth Whiteley
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona M S Bolton
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4067, Australia
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jessica Alföldi
- Vertebrate Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Jeremy Johnson
- Vertebrate Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Elinor K Karlsson
- Vertebrate Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655
| | - Kerstin Lindblad-Toh
- Vertebrate Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ian R Mellor
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, NG7 2RD Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | | | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4067, Australia
| | - Sanjaya Kuruppu
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 LA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76010
| | - Ian Barnes
- Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, SW7 5BD London, United Kingdom
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, 560012 Bangalore, India
| | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Samuel T Turvey
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, NW1 4RY London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Jenner RA, von Reumont BM, Campbell LI, Undheim EAB. Parallel Evolution of Complex Centipede Venoms Revealed by Comparative Proteotranscriptomic Analyses. Mol Biol Evol 2019; 36:2748-2763. [PMID: 31396628 PMCID: PMC6878950 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msz181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Centipedes are among the most ancient groups of venomous predatory arthropods. Extant species belong to five orders, but our understanding of the composition and evolution of centipede venoms is based almost exclusively on one order, Scolopendromorpha. To gain a broader and less biased understanding we performed a comparative proteotranscriptomic analysis of centipede venoms from all five orders, including the first venom profiles for the orders Lithobiomorpha, Craterostigmomorpha, and Geophilomorpha. Our results reveal an astonishing structural diversity of venom components, with 93 phylogenetically distinct protein and peptide families. Proteomically-annotated gene trees of these putative toxin families show that centipede venom composition is highly dynamic across macroevolutionary timescales, with numerous gene duplications as well as functional recruitments and losses of toxin gene families. Strikingly, not a single family is found in the venoms of representatives of all five orders, with 67 families being unique for single orders. Ancestral state reconstructions reveal that centipede venom originated as a simple cocktail comprising just four toxin families, with very little compositional evolution happening during the approximately 50 My before the living orders had diverged. Venom complexity then increased in parallel within the orders, with scolopendromorphs evolving particularly complex venoms. Our results show that even venoms composed of toxins evolving under the strong constraint of negative selection can have striking evolutionary plasticity on the compositional level. We show that the functional recruitments and losses of toxin families that shape centipede venom arsenals are not concentrated early in their evolutionary history, but happen frequently throughout.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ronald A Jenner
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bjoern M von Reumont
- LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics (LOEWE-TBG), Frankfurt, Germany
- Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Animal Venomics, Giessen, Germany
| | - Lahcen I Campbell
- The European Molecular Biology Laboratory, The European Bioinformatics Institute, Hinxton, United Kingdom
| | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
- Centre for Ecology and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Bioscience, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Walker AA, Robinson SD, Undheim EAB, Jin J, Han X, Fry BG, Vetter I, King GF. Missiles of Mass Disruption: Composition and Glandular Origin of Venom Used as a Projectile Defensive Weapon by the Assassin Bug Platymeris rhadamanthus. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11110673. [PMID: 31752210 PMCID: PMC6891600 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Assassin bugs (Reduviidae) produce venoms that are insecticidal, and which induce pain in predators, but the composition and function of their individual venom components is poorly understood. We report findings on the venom system of the red-spotted assassin bug Platymeris rhadamanthus, a large species of African origin that is unique in propelling venom as a projectile weapon when threatened. We performed RNA sequencing experiments on venom glands (separate transcriptomes of the posterior main gland, PMG, and the anterior main gland, AMG), and proteomic experiments on venom that was either defensively propelled or collected from the proboscis in response to electrostimulation. We resolved a venom proteome comprising 166 polypeptides. Both defensively propelled venom and most venom samples collected in response to electrostimulation show a protein profile similar to the predicted secretory products of the PMG, with a smaller contribution from the AMG. Pooled venom samples induce calcium influx via membrane lysis when applied to mammalian neuronal cells, consistent with their ability to cause pain when propelled into the eyes or mucus membranes of potential predators. The same venom induces rapid paralysis and death when injected into fruit flies. These data suggest that the cytolytic, insecticidal venom used by reduviids to capture prey is also a highly effective defensive weapon when propelled at predators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A. Walker
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia or or (E.A.B.U.); (J.J.); (X.H.)
- Correspondence: (A.A.W.); (G.F.K.)
| | - Samuel D. Robinson
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia or or (E.A.B.U.); (J.J.); (X.H.)
| | - Eivind A. B. Undheim
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia or or (E.A.B.U.); (J.J.); (X.H.)
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jiayi Jin
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia or or (E.A.B.U.); (J.J.); (X.H.)
| | - Xiao Han
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia or or (E.A.B.U.); (J.J.); (X.H.)
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
| | - Irina Vetter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia or or (E.A.B.U.); (J.J.); (X.H.)
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Glenn F. King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia or or (E.A.B.U.); (J.J.); (X.H.)
- Correspondence: (A.A.W.); (G.F.K.)
| |
Collapse
|