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Fierst JL, Eggers VK. Regulatory logic and transposable element dynamics in nematode worm genomes. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.09.15.613132. [PMID: 39345564 PMCID: PMC11429677 DOI: 10.1101/2024.09.15.613132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/01/2024]
Abstract
Genome sequencing has revealed a tremendous diversity of transposable elements (TEs) in eukaryotes but there is little understanding of the evolutionary processes responsible for TE diversity. Non-autonomous TEs have lost the machinery necessary for transposition and rely on closely related autonomous TEs for critical proteins. We studied two mathematical models of TE regulation, one assuming that both autonomous tranposons and their non-autonomous relatives operate under the same regulatory logic, competing for transposition resources, and one assuming that autonomous TEs self-attenuate transposition while non-autonomous transposons continually increase, parasitizing their autonomous relatives. We implemented these models in stochastic simulations and studied how TE regulatory relationships influence transposons and populations. We found that only outcrossing populations evolving with Parasitic TE regulation resulted in stable maintenance of TEs. We tested our model predictions in Caenorhabditis genomes by annotating TEs in two focal families, autonomous LINEs and their non-autonomous SINE relatives and the DNA transposon Mutator . We found broad variation in autonomous - non-autonomous relationships and rapid mutational decay in the sequences that allow non-autonomous TEs to transpose. Together, our results suggest that individual TE families evolve according to disparate regulatory rules that are relevant in the early, acute stages of TE invasion.
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Linn C, O’Malley A, Khatri K, Wright EM, Sebagh D, Grbić M, Kowal K, Chruszcz M. Microscopic Menaces: The Impact of Mites on Human Health. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3675. [PMID: 38612486 PMCID: PMC11011512 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25073675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Mites are highly prevalent arthropods that infest diverse ecological niches globally. Approximately 55,000 species of mites have been identified but many more are yet to be discovered. Of the ones we do know about, most go unnoticed by humans and animals. However, there are several species from the Acariformes superorder that exert a significant impact on global human health. House dust mites are a major source of inhaled allergens, affecting 10-20% of the world's population; storage mites also cause a significant allergy in susceptible individuals; chiggers are the sole vectors for the bacterium that causes scrub typhus; Demodex mites are part of the normal microfauna of humans and their pets, but under certain conditions populations grow out of control and affect the integrity of the integumentary system; and scabies mites cause one of the most common dermatological diseases worldwide. On the other hand, recent genome sequences of mites provide novel tools for mite control and the development of new biomaterial with applications in biomedicine. Despite the palpable disease burden, mites remain understudied in parasitological research. By better understanding mite biology and disease processes, researchers can identify new ways to diagnose, manage, and prevent common mite-induced afflictions. This knowledge can lead to improved clinical outcomes and reduced disease burden from these remarkably widespread yet understudied creatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Linn
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (C.L.); (A.O.); (K.K.); (E.M.W.); (D.S.)
| | - Andrea O’Malley
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (C.L.); (A.O.); (K.K.); (E.M.W.); (D.S.)
| | - Kriti Khatri
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (C.L.); (A.O.); (K.K.); (E.M.W.); (D.S.)
| | - Elaine M. Wright
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (C.L.); (A.O.); (K.K.); (E.M.W.); (D.S.)
| | - Dylan Sebagh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (C.L.); (A.O.); (K.K.); (E.M.W.); (D.S.)
| | - Miodrag Grbić
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B7, Canada;
| | - Krzysztof Kowal
- Department of Allergology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland;
- Department of Experimental Allergology and Immunology, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Maksymilian Chruszcz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (C.L.); (A.O.); (K.K.); (E.M.W.); (D.S.)
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Sarkies P. The curious case of the disappearing piRNAs. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. RNA 2024; 15:e1849. [PMID: 38629193 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Small non-coding RNAs are key regulators of gene expression across eukaryotes. Piwi-interacting small RNAs (piRNAs) are a specific type of small non-coding RNAs, conserved across animals, which are best known as regulators of genome stability through their ability to target transposable elements for silencing. Despite the near ubiquitous presence of piRNAs in animal lineages, there are some examples where the piRNA pathway has been lost completely, most dramatically in nematodes where loss has occurred in at least four independent lineages. In this perspective I will provide an evaluation of the presence of piRNAs across animals, explaining how it is known that piRNAs are missing from certain organisms. I will then consider possible explanations for why the piRNA pathway might have been lost and evaluate the evidence in favor of each possible mechanism. While it is still impossible to provide definitive answers, these theories will prompt further investigations into why such a highly conserved pathway can nevertheless become dispensable in certain lineages. This article is categorized under: Regulatory RNAs/RNAi/Riboswitches > Biogenesis of Effector Small RNAs RNA Evolution and Genomics > RNA and Ribonucleoprotein Evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Sarkies
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Feng C, Torimaru K, Lim MYT, Chak LL, Shiimori M, Tsuji K, Tanaka T, Iida J, Okamura K. A novel eukaryotic RdRP-dependent small RNA pathway represses antiviral immunity by controlling an ERK pathway component in the black-legged tick. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0281195. [PMID: 36996253 PMCID: PMC10062562 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0281195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are involved in antiviral defense and gene regulation. Although roles of RNA-dependent RNA Polymerases (RdRPs) in sRNA biology are extensively studied in nematodes, plants and fungi, understanding of RdRP homologs in other animals is still lacking. Here, we study sRNAs in the ISE6 cell line, which is derived from the black-legged tick, an important vector of human and animal pathogens. We find abundant classes of ~22nt sRNAs that require specific combinations of RdRPs and sRNA effector proteins (Argonautes or AGOs). RdRP1-dependent sRNAs possess 5'-monophosphates and are mainly derived from RNA polymerase III-transcribed genes and repetitive elements. Knockdown of some RdRP homologs misregulates genes including RNAi-related genes and the regulator of immune response Dsor1. Sensor assays demonstrate that Dsor1 is downregulated by RdRP1 through the 3'UTR that contains a target site of RdRP1-dependent repeat-derived sRNAs. Consistent with viral gene repression by the RNAi mechanism using virus-derived small interfering RNAs, viral transcripts are upregulated by AGO knockdown. On the other hand, RdRP1 knockdown unexpectedly results in downregulation of viral transcripts. This effect is dependent on Dsor1, suggesting that antiviral immunity is enhanced by RdRP1 knockdown through Dsor1 upregulation. We propose that tick sRNA pathways control multiple aspects of immune response via RNAi and regulation of signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Canran Feng
- Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Nara, Japan
| | | | - Mandy Yu Theng Lim
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Li-Ling Chak
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Kosuke Tsuji
- Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Nara, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Tanaka
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Junko Iida
- Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Nara, Japan
| | - Katsutomo Okamura
- Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Nara, Japan
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Khanal S, Zancanela BS, Peter JO, Flynt AS. The Small RNA Universe of Capitella teleta. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:802814. [PMID: 35281272 PMCID: PMC8915122 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.802814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
RNAi is an evolutionarily fluid mechanism with dramatically different activities across animal phyla. One major group where there has been little investigation is annelid worms. Here, the small RNAs of the polychaete developmental model Capitella teleta are profiled across development. As is seen with nearly all animals, nearly 200 microRNAs were found with 58 high-confidence novel species. Greater miRNA diversity was associated with later stages consistent with differentiation of tissues. Outside miRNA, a distinct composition of other small RNA pathways was found. Unlike many invertebrates, an endogenous siRNA pathway was not observed, indicating pathway loss relative to basal planarians. No processively generated siRNA-class RNAs could be found arising from dsRNA precursors. This has a significant impact on RNAi technology development for this group of animals. Unlike the apparent absence of siRNAs, a significant population of piRNAs was observed. For many piRNAs, phasing and ping-pong biogenesis pathways were identified. Interestingly, piRNAs were found to be highly expressed during early development, suggesting a potential role in regulation in metamorphosis. Critically, the configuration of RNAi factors in C. teleta is found in other annelids and mollusks, suggesting that similar biology is likely to be present in the wider clade. This study is the first in providing comprehensive analysis of small RNAs in annelids.
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Degree of piRNA sharing and Piwi gene expression in the skeletal muscle of Piaractus mesopotamicus (pacu), Colossoma macropomum (tambaqui), and the hybrid tambacu. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2021; 264:111120. [PMID: 34822974 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2021.111120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
PiRNAs are a class of small noncoding RNAs that, in their mature form, bind to Piwi proteins to repress transposable element activity. Besides their role in gametogenesis and genome integrity, recent evidence indicates their action in non-germinative tissues. We performed a global analysis of piRNA and Piwi gene expression in the skeletal muscle of juveniles pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus), tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), and the hybrid tambacu to evaluate the degree of piRNA sharing among these three genotypes. Total RNA was sequenced and analyzed using specific parameters of piRNAs by bioinformatics tools. piRNA and Piwi gene expression was analyzed by RT-qPCR. We detected 24 piRNA clusters common to the three genotypes, with eight shared between pacu and tambacu, three between pacu and tambaqui, and five between tambaqui and tambacu; seven, five, and four clusters were unique to pacu, tambacu, and tambaqui, respectively. Genomic localization and fold change values showed two clusters and 100 piRNAs shared among the three genotypes. The gene expression of four piRNAs was evaluated to validate our bioinformatics results. piRNAs from cluster 17 were higher in tambacu than pacu and piRNAs from cluster 18 were more highly expressed in tambacu than tambaqui and pacu. In addition, the expression of Piwis 1 and 2 was higher in tambacu and tambaqui than pacu. Our results open an important window to investigate whether these small noncoding RNAs benefit the hybrid in terms of faster growth and offer a new perspective on the function of piRNAs and Piwis in fish skeletal muscle.
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Liu Q, Deng Y, Song A, Xiang Y, Chen D, Wei L. Comparative analysis of mite genomes reveals positive selection for diet adaptation. Commun Biol 2021; 4:668. [PMID: 34083730 PMCID: PMC8175442 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02173-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Diet is a powerful evolutionary force for species adaptation and diversification. Acari is one of the most abundant clades of Arachnida, exhibiting diverse dietary types, while the underlying genetic adaptive mechanisms are not fully understood. Based on comparative analyses of 15 Acari genomes, we found genetic bases for three specialized diets. Herbivores experienced stronger selection pressure than other groups; the olfactory genes and gene families involving metabolizing toxins showed strong adaptive signals. Genes and gene families related to anticoagulation, detoxification, and haemoglobin digestion were found to be under strong selection pressure or significantly expanded in the blood-feeding species. Lipid metabolism genes have a faster evolutionary rate and been subjected to greater selection pressures in fat-feeding species; one positively selected site in the fatty-acid amide hydrolases 2 gene was identified. Our research provides a new perspective for the evolution of Acari and offers potential target loci for novel pesticide development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuhua Deng
- Clinical Research Institute, The First People's Hospital of Foshan, Foshan, China
| | - An Song
- ShaanXi JunDa Forensic Medicine Expertise Station, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yifan Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - De Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
| | - Lai Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.
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Schneider L, Guo Y, Birch D, Sarkies P. Network-based visualisation reveals new insights into transposable element diversity. Mol Syst Biol 2021; 17:e9600. [PMID: 34169647 PMCID: PMC8226279 DOI: 10.15252/msb.20209600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Transposable elements (TEs) are widespread across eukaryotic genomes, yet their content varies widely between different species. Factors shaping the diversity of TEs are poorly understood. Understanding the evolution of TEs is difficult because their sequences diversify rapidly and TEs are often transferred through non-conventional means such as horizontal gene transfer. We developed a method to track TE evolution using network analysis to visualise TE sequence and TE content across different genomes. We illustrate our method by first using a monopartite network to study the sequence evolution of Tc1/mariner elements across focal species. We identify a connection between two subfamilies associated with convergent acquisition of a domain from a protein-coding gene. Second, we use a bipartite network to study how TE content across species is shaped by epigenetic silencing mechanisms. We show that the presence of Piwi-interacting RNAs is associated with differences in network topology after controlling for phylogenetic effects. Together, our method demonstrates how a network-based approach can identify hitherto unknown properties of TE evolution across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Schneider
- MRC London Institute of Medical SciencesLondonUK
- Institute of Clinical SciencesImperial CollegeLondonUK
- Data Sciences InstituteImperial CollegeLondonUK
| | - Yi‐Ke Guo
- Data Sciences InstituteImperial CollegeLondonUK
- Present address:
Hong Kong Baptist UniversityKowloon TsaiHong Kong
| | - David Birch
- Data Sciences InstituteImperial CollegeLondonUK
| | - Peter Sarkies
- MRC London Institute of Medical SciencesLondonUK
- Institute of Clinical SciencesImperial CollegeLondonUK
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9
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Fontenla S, Rinaldi G, Tort JF. Lost and Found: Piwi and Argonaute Pathways in Flatworms. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:653695. [PMID: 34123869 PMCID: PMC8191739 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.653695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Platyhelminthes comprise one of the major phyla of invertebrate animals, inhabiting a wide range of ecosystems, and one of the most successful in adapting to parasitic life. Small non-coding RNAs have been implicated in regulating complex developmental transitions in model parasitic species. Notably, parasitic flatworms have lost Piwi RNA pathways but gained a novel Argonaute gene. Herein, we analyzed, contrasted and compared the conservation of small RNA pathways among several free-living species (a paraphyletic group traditionally known as ‘turbellarians’) and parasitic species (organized in the monophyletic clade Neodermata) to disentangle possible adaptations during the transition to parasitism. Our findings showed that complete miRNA and RNAi pathways are present in all analyzed free-living flatworms. Remarkably, whilst all ‘turbellarians’ have Piwi proteins, these were lost in parasitic Neodermantans. Moreover, two clusters of Piwi class Argonaute genes are present in all ‘turbellarians’. Interestingly, we identified a divergent Piwi class Argonaute in free living flatworms exclusively, which we named ‘Fliwi’. In addition, other key proteins of the Piwi pathways were conserved in ‘turbellarians’, while none of them were detected in Neodermatans. Besides Piwi and the canonical Argonaute proteins, a flatworm-specific class of Argonautes (FL-Ago) was identified in the analyzed species confirming its ancestrallity to all Platyhelminthes. Remarkably, this clade was expanded in parasitic Neodermatans, but not in free-living species. These phyla-specific Argonautes showed lower sequence conservation compared to other Argonaute proteins, suggesting that they might have been subjected to high evolutionary rates. However, key residues involved in the interaction with the small RNA and mRNA cleavage in the canonical Argonautes were more conserved in the FL-Agos than in the Piwi Argonautes. Whether this is related to specialized functions and adaptations to parasitism in Neodermatans remains unclear. In conclusion, differences detected in gene conservation, sequence and structure of the Argonaute family suggest tentative biological and evolutionary diversifications that are unique to Platyhelminthes. The remarkable divergencies in the small RNA pathways between free-living and parasitic flatworms indicate that they may have been involved in the adaptation to parasitism of Neodermatans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Fontenla
- Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República (UDELAR), Montevideo, Uruguay
| | | | - Jose F Tort
- Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República (UDELAR), Montevideo, Uruguay
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Meta-Transcriptomic Analysis Reveals the Virome and Viral Genomic Evolution of Medically Important Mites. J Virol 2021; 94:JVI.01686-20. [PMID: 33208452 PMCID: PMC8092686 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01686-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Mites are notorious for being vectors transmitting infectious pathogens and source of allergens causing allergic conditions in animals and humans. However, despite their huge impact on public health, the virome of mites remains unknown. Here we characterized the virus diversity and abundance of 14 species of medically important mites based on total RNA sequencing data sets generated in this study as well as those deposited in the Sequence Read Archive (SRA) database. A total of 47 genetically distinct viruses were identified and classified into 17 virus families or virus super-groups, and the viral sequences accounted for as much as 29.67% of total non-rRNA transcriptome in one mite library. The most commonly identified viruses are members of Picornavirales, among which we revealed more than one type of viruses that are evolutionarily related to dicistronic viruses but contain a single open reading frame, thus likely representing a recent example of host (i.e., mite)-related parallel evolution from dicistronic to monocistronic genomic form within the family Dicistroviridae To our best knowledge, this is the first time to perform comprehensive and systematic screening of RNA virome in medically important mites including house dust mites (HDM). Overall, the RNA virome identified here provides not only significant insights into the diversity and evolution of RNA viruses in mites, but also a solid knowledge base for studying their roles in human diseases.IMPORTANCE Mites are important group of arthropods that are associated with a variety of human diseases including scrub typhus and asthma. However, it remains unclear whether or not mites carry viruses that might play a role in human infections or allergic disease. In this study, we used a total transcriptomics approach to characterize and compare the complete RNA virome within mites that are relevant to human health and diseases. Specifically, our data revealed a large diversity, a high abundance, and a flexible genomic evolution for these viruses. Although most of the viruses identified here are unknown to associate with human infectious disease, the abundant presence of viral RNAs may play an immunomodulatory role in the development of allergic reactions such as asthma during environmental exposure to mite allergens, and therefore provide important insights into the mite-induced allergy and preparation of mite allergen vaccines.
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Chen W, Bartley K, Nunn F, Bowman AS, Sternberg JM, Burgess STG, Nisbet AJ, Price DRG. RNAi gene knockdown in the poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer 1778), a tool for functional genomics. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:57. [PMID: 33461614 PMCID: PMC7813172 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04562-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The avian haematophagous ectoparasite Dermanyssus gallinae, commonly known as the poultry red mite, causes significant economic losses to the egg-laying industry worldwide and also represents a significant welfare threat. Current acaricide-based controls are unsustainable due to the mite’s ability to rapidly develop resistance, thus developing a novel sustainable means of control for D. gallinae is a priority. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated gene silencing is a valuable tool for studying gene function in non-model organisms, but is also emerging as a novel tool for parasite control. Methods Here we use an in silico approach to identify core RNAi pathway genes in the recently sequenced D. gallinae genome. In addition we utilise an in vitro feeding device to deliver double-stranded (ds) RNA to D. gallinae targeting the D. gallinae vATPase subunit A (Dg vATPase A) gene and monitor gene knockdown using quantitative PCR (qPCR). Results Core components of the small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA) pathways were identified in D. gallinae, which indicates that these gene silencing pathways are likely functional. Strikingly, the P-element-induced wimpy testis (PIWI)-interacting RNA (piRNA) pathway was absent in D. gallinae. In addition, feeding Dg vATPase A dsRNA to adult female D. gallinae resulted in silencing of the targeted gene compared to control mites fed non-specific lacZ dsRNA. In D. gallinae, dsRNA-mediated gene knockdown was rapid, being detectable 24 h after oral delivery of the dsRNA, and persisted for at least 120 h. Conclusions This study shows the presence of core RNAi machinery components in the D. gallinae genome. In addition, we have developed a robust RNAi methodology for targeting genes in D. gallinae that will be of value for studying genes of unknown function and validating potential control targets in D. gallinae. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Chen
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentland Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK.,Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Kathryn Bartley
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentland Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Francesca Nunn
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentland Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Alan S Bowman
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Jeremy M Sternberg
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Stewart T G Burgess
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentland Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Alasdair J Nisbet
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentland Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Daniel R G Price
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentland Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK.
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Environmental RNAi pathways in the two-spotted spider mite. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:42. [PMID: 33421998 PMCID: PMC7796550 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-07322-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background RNA interference (RNAi) regulates gene expression in most multicellular organisms through binding of small RNA effectors to target transcripts. Exploiting this process is a popular strategy for genetic manipulation and has applications that includes arthropod pest control. RNAi technologies are dependent on delivery method with the most convenient likely being feeding, which is effective in some animals while others are insensitive. The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, is prime candidate for developing RNAi approaches due to frequent occurrence of conventional pesticide resistance. Using a sequencing-based approach, the fate of ingested RNAs was explored to identify features and conditions that affect small RNA biogenesis from external sources to better inform RNAi design. Results Biochemical and sequencing approaches in conjunction with extensive computational assessment were used to evaluate metabolism of ingested RNAs in T. urticae. This chelicerae arthropod shows only modest response to oral RNAi and has biogenesis pathways distinct from model organisms. Processing of synthetic and plant host RNAs ingested during feeding were evaluated to identify active substrates for spider mite RNAi pathways. Through cataloging characteristics of biochemically purified RNA from these sources, trans-acting small RNAs could be distinguished from degradation fragments and their origins documented. Conclusions Using a strategy that delineates small RNA processing, we found many transcripts have the potential to enter spider mite RNAi pathways, however, trans-acting RNAs appear very unstable and rare. This suggests potential RNAi pathway substrates from ingested materials are mostly degraded and infrequently converted into regulators of gene expression. Spider mites infest a variety of plants, and it would be maladaptive to generate diverse gene regulators from dietary RNAs. This study provides a framework for assessing RNAi technology in organisms where genetic and biochemical tools are absent and benefit rationale design of RNAi triggers for T.urticae.
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Nganso BT, Sela N, Soroker V. A genome-wide screening for RNAi pathway proteins in Acari. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:791. [PMID: 33183236 PMCID: PMC7659050 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-07162-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND RNA interference (RNAi) is a highly conserved, sequence-specific gene silencing mechanism present in Eukaryotes. Three RNAi pathways are known, namely micro-RNA (miRNA), piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) and short interfering RNA (siRNA). However, little knowledge exists about the proteins involved in these pathways in Acari. Moreover, variable successes has been obtained in gene knockdown via siRNA pathway in their functional genomics and management. We hypothesized that the clue may be in the variability of the composition and the efficacy of siRNA machinery among Acari. RESULTS Both comparative genomic analyses and domain annotation suggest that all the analyzed species have homologs of putative core proteins that mediate cleaving of targeted genes via the three RNAi pathways. We identified putative homologs of Caenorhabditis elegans RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) protein in all species though no secondary Argonaute homologs that operate with this protein in siRNA amplification mechanism were found, suggesting that the siRNA amplification mechanism present in Acari may be distinct from that described in C. elegans. Moreover, the genomes of these species do not encode homologs of C. elegans systemic RNAi defective-1 (Sid-1) protein that mediate silencing of the mRNA target throughout the treated organisms suggesting that the phenomena of systemic RNAi that has been reported in some Acari species probably occur through a different mechanism. However, homologs of putative RNAi spreading defective-3 (Rsd-3) protein and scavenger receptors namely Eater and SR-CI that mediate endocytosis cellular update of dsRNA in C. elegans and Drosophila melanogaster were found in Acari genomes. This result suggests that cellular dsRNA uptake in Acari is endocytosis-dependent. Detailed phylogenetic analyses of core RNAi pathway proteins in the studied species revealed that their evolution is compatible with the proposed monophyletic evolution of this group. CONCLUSIONS Our analyses have revealed the potential activity of all three pathways in Acari. Still, much experimental work remains to be done to confirm the mechanisms behind these pathways in particular those that govern systemic/parental RNAi and siRNA amplification in Acari. Disclosure of these mechanisms will facilitate the development of new and specific management tools for the harmful species and enrichment of the beneficial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice T Nganso
- Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, P.O.B 15159, 7505101, Rishon leZion, Israel
| | - Noa Sela
- Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, P.O.B 15159, 7505101, Rishon leZion, Israel
| | - Victoria Soroker
- Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, P.O.B 15159, 7505101, Rishon leZion, Israel.
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14
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Bergthorsson U, Sheeba CJ, Konrad A, Belicard T, Beltran T, Katju V, Sarkies P. Long-term experimental evolution reveals purifying selection on piRNA-mediated control of transposable element expression. BMC Biol 2020; 18:162. [PMID: 33158445 PMCID: PMC7646084 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-020-00897-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Transposable elements (TEs) are an almost universal constituent of eukaryotic genomes. In animals, Piwi-interacting small RNAs (piRNAs) and repressive chromatin often play crucial roles in preventing TE transcription and thus restricting TE activity. Nevertheless, TE content varies widely across eukaryotes and the dynamics of TE activity and TE silencing across evolutionary time is poorly understood. Results Here, we used experimentally evolved populations of C. elegans to study the dynamics of TE expression over 409 generations. The experimental populations were evolved at population sizes of 1, 10 and 100 individuals to manipulate the efficiency of natural selection versus genetic drift. We demonstrate increased TE expression relative to the ancestral population, with the largest increases occurring in the smallest populations. We show that the transcriptional activation of TEs within active regions of the genome is associated with failure of piRNA-mediated silencing, whilst desilenced TEs in repressed chromatin domains retain small RNAs. Additionally, we find that the sequence context of the surrounding region influences the propensity of TEs to lose silencing through failure of small RNA-mediated silencing. Conclusions Our results show that natural selection in C. elegans is responsible for maintaining low levels of TE expression, and provide new insights into the epigenomic features responsible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulfar Bergthorsson
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77845, USA
| | - Caroline J Sheeba
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK.,Institute of Clinical Sciences, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Anke Konrad
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77845, USA.,Present Address: Intituto Gulbenkian de Ciencia, Rua da Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Tony Belicard
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK.,Institute of Clinical Sciences, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Toni Beltran
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK.,Institute of Clinical Sciences, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK.,Present Address: Centre for Genomic Regulation, PRBB Building, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Vaishali Katju
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77845, USA.
| | - Peter Sarkies
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK. .,Institute of Clinical Sciences, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK.
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15
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Greenhalgh R, Dermauw W, Glas JJ, Rombauts S, Wybouw N, Thomas J, Alba JM, Pritham EJ, Legarrea S, Feyereisen R, Van de Peer Y, Van Leeuwen T, Clark RM, Kant MR. Genome streamlining in a minute herbivore that manipulates its host plant. eLife 2020; 9:56689. [PMID: 33095158 PMCID: PMC7738191 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The tomato russet mite, Aculops lycopersici, is among the smallest animals on earth. It is a worldwide pest on tomato and can potently suppress the host's natural resistance. We sequenced its genome, the first of an eriophyoid, and explored whether there are genomic features associated with the mite's minute size and lifestyle. At only 32.5 Mb, the genome is the smallest yet reported for any arthropod and, reminiscent of microbial eukaryotes, exceptionally streamlined. It has few transposable elements, tiny intergenic regions, and is remarkably intron-poor, as more than 80% of coding genes are intronless. Furthermore, in accordance with ecological specialization theory, this defense-suppressing herbivore has extremely reduced environmental response gene families such as those involved in chemoreception and detoxification. Other losses associate with this species' highly derived body plan. Our findings accelerate the understanding of evolutionary forces underpinning metazoan life at the limits of small physical and genome size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Greenhalgh
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Wannes Dermauw
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Joris J Glas
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Stephane Rombauts
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Nicky Wybouw
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jainy Thomas
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Juan M Alba
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Ellen J Pritham
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Saioa Legarrea
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - René Feyereisen
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Yves Van de Peer
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium.,Centre for Microbial Ecology and Genomics, Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Thomas Van Leeuwen
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Richard M Clark
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States.,Henry Eyring Center for Cell and Genome Science, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Merijn R Kant
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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16
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Mondal M, Brown JK, Flynt A. Exploiting somatic piRNAs in Bemisia tabaci enables novel gene silencing through RNA feeding. Life Sci Alliance 2020; 3:3/10/e202000731. [PMID: 32764103 PMCID: PMC7425214 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202000731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
RNAi usually relies on Dicer-produced siRNAs to induce gene silencing. In many arthropods, another type of RNAi is present in the soma—the piRNA pathway. This work finds exploiting this biology is a viable alternative for gene knockdown. RNAi promises to reshape pest control by being nontoxic, biodegradable, and species specific. However, due to the plastic nature of RNAi, there is a significant variability in responses. In this study, we investigate small RNA pathways and processing of ingested RNAi trigger molecules in a hemipteran plant pest, the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. Unlike Drosophila, where the paradigm for insect RNAi technology was established, whitefly has abundant somatic piwi-associated RNAs (piRNAs). Long regarded as germline restricted, piRNAs are common in the soma of many invertebrates. We sought to exploit this for a novel gene silencing approach. The main principle of piRNA biogenesis is the recruitment of target RNA fragments into the pathway. As such, we designed synthetic RNAs to possess complementarity to the loci we annotated. Following feeding of these exogenous piRNA triggers knockdown as effective as conventional siRNA-only approaches was observed. These results demonstrate a new approach for RNAi technology that could be applicable to dsRNA-recalcitrant pest species and could be fundamental to realizing insecticidal RNAi against pests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mosharrof Mondal
- School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Judith K Brown
- School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Alex Flynt
- Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA
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17
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Wang M, Dean RA. Movement of small RNAs in and between plants and fungi. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2020; 21:589-601. [PMID: 32027079 PMCID: PMC7060135 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
RNA interference is a biological process whereby small RNAs inhibit gene expression through neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules. This process is conserved in eukaryotes. Here, recent work regarding the mechanisms of how small RNAs move within and between organisms is examined. Small RNAs can move locally and systemically in plants through plasmodesmata and phloem, respectively. In fungi, transportation of small RNAs may also be achieved by septal pores and vesicles. Recent evidence also supports bidirectional cross-kingdom communication of small RNAs between host plants and adapted fungal pathogens to affect the outcome of infection. We discuss several mechanisms for small RNA trafficking and describe evidence for transport through naked form, combined with RNA-binding proteins or enclosed by vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengying Wang
- Fungal Genomics LaboratoryCenter for Integrated Fungal ResearchDepartment of Entomology and Plant PathologyNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Ralph A. Dean
- Fungal Genomics LaboratoryCenter for Integrated Fungal ResearchDepartment of Entomology and Plant PathologyNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
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18
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Erban T, Klimov P, Molva V, Hubert J. Whole genomic sequencing and sex-dependent abundance estimation of Cardinium sp., a common and hyperabundant bacterial endosymbiont of the American house dust mite, Dermatophagoides farinae. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2020; 80:363-380. [PMID: 32072355 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-020-00475-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The two common species of house dust mites (HDMs), Dermatophagoides farinae and D. pteronyssinus, are major sources of allergens in human dwellings worldwide. Many allergens from HDMs have been described, but their extracts vary in immunogens. Mite strains may differ in their microbiomes, which affect mite allergen expression and contents of bacterial endotoxins. Some bacteria, such as the intracellular symbiont Cardinium, can affect both the sex ratio and biochemical pathways of mites, resulting in abundance variations of mite allergens/immunogens. Here, we investigated the bacterial microbiomes of D. farinae and D. pteronyssinus males and females using barcode 16S rDNA sequencing, qPCR, and genomic data analysis. We found a single species of Cardinium associated with D. farinae strains from the USA, China and Europe. Cardinium had high abundance relative to other bacterial taxa and represented 99% of all bacterial DNA reads from female mites from the USA. Cardinium was also abundant with respect to the number of host cells-we estimated 10.4-11.8 cells of Cardinium per single female mite cell. In a European D. farinae strain, Cardinium was more prevalent in females than in males (representing 92 and 67% of all bacterial taxa in females and males, respectively). In contrast, D. pteronyssinus lacked any Cardinium species, and the microbiomes of male and female mites were similar. We produced a Cardinium genome assembly (1.48 Mb; GenBank: PRJNA555788, GCA_007559345.1) associated with D. farinae. The ascertained ubiquity and abundance of Cardinium strongly suggest that this intracellular bacterium plays an important biological role in D. farinae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Erban
- Crop Research Institute, Drnovska 507/73, 161 06, Prague 6-Ruzyne, Czechia.
- Department of Biophysics, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, 150 00, Prague 5, Czechia.
- Proteomics and Metabolomics Laboratory, Crop Research Institute, Drnovska 507/73, 16106, Prague 6-Ruzyne, Czechia.
| | - Pavel Klimov
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, 3600 Varsity Drive, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Institute of Biology, University of Tyumen, Pirogova 3, Tyumen, Russia, 625043
| | - Vit Molva
- Crop Research Institute, Drnovska 507/73, 161 06, Prague 6-Ruzyne, Czechia
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Vinicna 7, 128 44, Prague 2, Czechia
| | - Jan Hubert
- Crop Research Institute, Drnovska 507/73, 161 06, Prague 6-Ruzyne, Czechia
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources,, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamycka 129, 165 21, Prague 6 - Suchdol, Czechia
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19
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Niu J, Li XL, Wu YL, Sun QZ, Zhang W, Cao M, Wang JJ. RNA virome screening in diverse but ecologically related citrus pests reveals potential virus-host interactions. J Invertebr Pathol 2020; 170:107329. [PMID: 31962124 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2020.107329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
As an evergreen ecosystem, citrus orchards have specialized pest species and stable ecological homeostasis; thus, they provide an ideal model for investigating RNA viromes in diverse but ecologically related species. For this purpose, we collected specialized citrus pests from three classes of invertebrates, Insecta, Arachnida, and Gastropoda and we constructed two kinds of libraries (RNA and small RNA) for the pests by deep sequencing. In total, six virus-derived sequences were identified, including four Picornavirales, one Jingchuvirales and one Nidovirales. The picornavirus-derived small RNAs showed significant small RNA peaks and symmetric distribution patterns along the genome, which suggests these viruses infected the hosts and triggered host antiviral immunity RNA interference. Screening of virus-derived sequences in multiple species of citrus pests (n = 10 per species) showed that Eotetranychus kankitus picorna-like virus and Tetranychus urticae mivirus may be present in multiple pests. Our investigation in citrus pests confirmed that RNA viruses revealed by metagenomics could impact host immunity (e.g. RNAi). An approach with parallel deep sequencing of RNAs and small RNAs is useful not only for viral discoveries but also for understanding virus-host interactions of ecologically related but divergent pest species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinzhi Niu
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; State Cultivation Base of Crop Stress Biology for Southern Mountainous Land, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiao-Lin Li
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; State Cultivation Base of Crop Stress Biology for Southern Mountainous Land, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yue-Ling Wu
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; State Cultivation Base of Crop Stress Biology for Southern Mountainous Land, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qin-Zhe Sun
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; State Cultivation Base of Crop Stress Biology for Southern Mountainous Land, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; State Cultivation Base of Crop Stress Biology for Southern Mountainous Land, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mengji Cao
- State Cultivation Base of Crop Stress Biology for Southern Mountainous Land, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; National Citrus Engineering Research Center, Citrus Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jin-Jun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; State Cultivation Base of Crop Stress Biology for Southern Mountainous Land, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
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20
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Erban T, Klimov P, Talacko P, Harant K, Hubert J. Proteogenomics of the house dust mite, Dermatophagoides farinae: Allergen repertoire, accurate allergen identification, isoforms, and sex-biased proteome differences. J Proteomics 2020; 210:103535. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2019.103535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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21
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Castro LL, Kitoko JZ, Xisto DG, Olsen PC, Guedes HLM, Morales MM, Lopes-Pacheco M, Cruz FF, Rocco PRM. Multiple doses of adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells induce immunosuppression in experimental asthma. Stem Cells Transl Med 2019; 9:250-260. [PMID: 31746562 PMCID: PMC6988761 DOI: 10.1002/sctm.19-0120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In experimental house dust mite (HDM)‐induced allergic asthma, therapeutic administration of a single dose of adipose tissue‐derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) ameliorates lung inflammation but is unable to reverse remodeling. We hypothesized that multiple doses of MSCs might exert better therapeutic effects by reducing lung inflammation and remodeling but might also result in immunosuppressive effects in experimental asthma. HDM was administered intranasally in C57BL/6 mice. After the last HDM challenge, mice received two or three doses of MSCs (105 cells per day) or saline intravenously. An additional cohort of mice received dexamethasone as a positive control for immunosuppression. Two and three doses of MSCs reduced lung inflammation, levels of interleukin (IL)‐4, IL‐13, and eotaxin; total leukocyte, CD4+ T‐cell, and eosinophil counts in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid; and total leukocyte counts in bone marrow, spleen, and mediastinal lymph nodes. Two and three doses of MSCs also reduced collagen fiber content and transforming growth factor‐β levels in lung tissue; however, the three‐dose regimen was more effective, and reduced these parameters to control levels, while also decreasing α‐actin content in lung tissue. Two and three doses of MSCs improved lung mechanics. Dexamethasone, two and three doses of MSCs similarly increased galectin levels, but only the three‐dose regimen increased CD39 levels in the thymus. Dexamethasone and the three‐dose, but not the two‐dose regimen, also increased levels of programmed death receptor‐1 and IL‐10, while reducing CD4+CD8low cell percentage in the thymus. In conclusion, multiple doses of MSCs reduced lung inflammation and remodeling while causing immunosuppression in HDM‐induced allergic asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ligia L Castro
- Laboratory of Pulmonary Investigation, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology for Regenerative Medicine, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Jamil Z Kitoko
- Laboratory of Pulmonary Investigation, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Laboratory of Clinical Bacteriology and Immunology, School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Debora G Xisto
- Laboratory of Pulmonary Investigation, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Priscilla C Olsen
- Laboratory of Clinical Bacteriology and Immunology, School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Herbert L M Guedes
- Laboratory of Glycobiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcelo M Morales
- National Institute of Science and Technology for Regenerative Medicine, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Miquéias Lopes-Pacheco
- Laboratory of Pulmonary Investigation, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology for Regenerative Medicine, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fernanda F Cruz
- Laboratory of Pulmonary Investigation, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology for Regenerative Medicine, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Patricia R M Rocco
- Laboratory of Pulmonary Investigation, Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology for Regenerative Medicine, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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22
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Ozata DM, Gainetdinov I, Zoch A, O'Carroll D, Zamore PD. PIWI-interacting RNAs: small RNAs with big functions. Nat Rev Genet 2019; 20:89-108. [PMID: 30446728 DOI: 10.1038/s41576-018-0073-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 663] [Impact Index Per Article: 132.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In animals, PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) of 21-35 nucleotides in length silence transposable elements, regulate gene expression and fight viral infection. piRNAs guide PIWI proteins to cleave target RNA, promote heterochromatin assembly and methylate DNA. The architecture of the piRNA pathway allows it both to provide adaptive, sequence-based immunity to rapidly evolving viruses and transposons and to regulate conserved host genes. piRNAs silence transposons in the germ line of most animals, whereas somatic piRNA functions have been lost, gained and lost again across evolution. Moreover, most piRNA pathway proteins are deeply conserved, but different animals employ remarkably divergent strategies to produce piRNA precursor transcripts. Here, we discuss how a common piRNA pathway allows animals to recognize diverse targets, ranging from selfish genetic elements to genes essential for gametogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deniz M Ozata
- RNA Therapeutics Institute and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Ildar Gainetdinov
- RNA Therapeutics Institute and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Ansgar Zoch
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Dónal O'Carroll
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Phillip D Zamore
- RNA Therapeutics Institute and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
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23
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Yang R, Niu D, Zhao Y, Gong X, Hu L, Ai L. Function of heat shock protein 70 in the thermal stress response of Dermatophagoides farinae and establishment of an RNA interference method. Gene 2019; 705:82-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2019.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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24
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Niu J, Shen G, Christiaens O, Smagghe G, He L, Wang J. Beyond insects: current status and achievements of RNA interference in mite pests and future perspectives. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2018; 74:2680-2687. [PMID: 29749092 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Mites comprise a group of key agricultural pests on a wide range of crops. They cause harm through feeding on the plant and transferring dangerous pathogens, and the rapid evolution of pesticide resistance in mites highlights the need for novel control methods. Currently, RNA interference (RNAi) shows great potential for insect pest control. Here, we review the literature regarding RNAi in mite pests. We discuss different target genes and RNAi efficiency in various mite species, a promising Varroa control program using RNAi, the synergy of RNAi with plant defense mechanisms and microorganisms, and current understanding of systemic movement of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). On the basis of this evidence, we can conclude that there is clear potential for application of RNAi-based mite control, but further research on several aspects of RNAi in mites is needed, including: (i) the factors influencing RNAi efficiency, (ii) the mechanism of environmental RNAi and cross-kingdom dsRNA trafficking, (iii) the mechanism of possible systemic and parental RNAi, and (iv) non-target effects, specifically in predatory mites, which should be considered during RNAi target selection. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinzhi Niu
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Guangmao Shen
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Olivier Christiaens
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Guy Smagghe
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lin He
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jinjun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Entomology and Pest Control Engineering, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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25
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Marr EJ, Wright HW, Sargison ND, Nisbet AJ, Burgess STG. Gene silencing by RNA interference in the ectoparasitic mite, Psoroptes ovis. Vet Res 2018; 49:112. [PMID: 30382906 PMCID: PMC6211577 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-018-0608-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of components of the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway in Psoroptes ovis, an ectoparasitic mite responsible for psoroptic mange, was investigated through interrogation of the P. ovis genome. Homologues of transcripts representing critical elements for achieving effective RNAi in the mite, Tetranychus urticae and the model organisms Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster were identified and, following the development of a non-invasive immersion method of double stranded RNA delivery, gene silencing by RNAi was successfully demonstrated in P. ovis. Significant reductions in transcript levels were achieved for three target genes which encode the Group 2 allergen (Pso o 2), mu-class glutathione S-transferase (PoGST-mu1) and beta-tubulin (Poβtub). This is the first demonstration of RNAi in P. ovis and provides a mechanism for mining transcriptomic and genomic datasets for novel control targets against this economically important ectoparasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward J Marr
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Edinburgh, EH26 0PZ, Scotland, UK.,Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, The King's Buildings, Ashworth Laboratories, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, Scotland, UK
| | - Harry W Wright
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Edinburgh, EH26 0PZ, Scotland, UK
| | - Neil D Sargison
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK
| | - Alasdair J Nisbet
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Edinburgh, EH26 0PZ, Scotland, UK
| | - Stewart T G Burgess
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Edinburgh, EH26 0PZ, Scotland, UK.
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26
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Calcino AD, Fernandez-Valverde SL, Taft RJ, Degnan BM. Diverse RNA interference strategies in early-branching metazoans. BMC Evol Biol 2018; 18:160. [PMID: 30382896 PMCID: PMC6211395 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-018-1274-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Micro RNAs (miRNAs) and piwi interacting RNAs (piRNAs), along with the more ancient eukaryotic endogenous small interfering RNAs (endo-siRNAs) constitute the principal components of the RNA interference (RNAi) repertoire of most animals. RNAi in non-bilaterians - sponges, ctenophores, placozoans and cnidarians - appears to be more diverse than that of bilaterians, and includes structurally variable miRNAs in sponges, an enormous number of piRNAs in cnidarians and the absence of miRNAs in ctenophores and placozoans. RESULTS Here we identify thousands of endo-siRNAs and piRNAs from the sponge Amphimedon queenslandica, the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi and the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis using a computational approach that clusters mapped small RNA sequences and annotates each cluster based on the read length and relative abundance of the constituent reads. This approach was validated on 11 small RNA libraries in Drosophila melanogaster, demonstrating the successful annotation of RNAi-associated loci with properties consistent with previous reports. In the non-bilaterians we uncover seven new miRNAs from Amphimedon and four from Nematostella as well as sub-populations of candidate cis-natural antisense transcript (cis-NAT) endo-siRNAs. We confirmed the absence of miRNAs in Mnemiopsis but detected an abundance of endo-siRNAs in this ctenophore. Analysis of putative piRNA structure suggests that conserved localised secondary structures in primary transcripts may be important for the production of mature piRNAs in Amphimedon and Nematostella, as is also the case for endo-siRNAs. CONCLUSION Together, these findings suggest that the last common ancestor of extant animals did not have the entrained RNAi system that typifies bilaterians. Instead it appears that bilaterians, cnidarians, ctenophores and sponges express unique repertoires and combinations of miRNAs, piRNAs and endo-siRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Calcino
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.,Present address: Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 1, 4A-1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Selene L Fernandez-Valverde
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.,Present address: CONACYT, Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad (Langebio). CINVESTAV, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Ryan J Taft
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.,Illumina Inc, San Diego, California, 92122, USA
| | - Bernard M Degnan
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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27
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Waldron FM, Stone GN, Obbard DJ. Metagenomic sequencing suggests a diversity of RNA interference-like responses to viruses across multicellular eukaryotes. PLoS Genet 2018; 14:e1007533. [PMID: 30059538 PMCID: PMC6085071 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi)-related pathways target viruses and transposable element (TE) transcripts in plants, fungi, and ecdysozoans (nematodes and arthropods), giving protection against infection and transmission. In each case, this produces abundant TE and virus-derived 20-30nt small RNAs, which provide a characteristic signature of RNAi-mediated defence. The broad phylogenetic distribution of the Argonaute and Dicer-family genes that mediate these pathways suggests that defensive RNAi is ancient, and probably shared by most animal (metazoan) phyla. Indeed, while vertebrates had been thought an exception, it has recently been argued that mammals also possess an antiviral RNAi pathway, although its immunological relevance is currently uncertain and the viral small RNAs (viRNAs) are not easily detectable. Here we use a metagenomic approach to test for the presence of viRNAs in five species from divergent animal phyla (Porifera, Cnidaria, Echinodermata, Mollusca, and Annelida), and in a brown alga-which represents an independent origin of multicellularity from plants, fungi, and animals. We use metagenomic RNA sequencing to identify around 80 virus-like contigs in these lineages, and small RNA sequencing to identify viRNAs derived from those viruses. We identified 21U small RNAs derived from an RNA virus in the brown alga, reminiscent of plant and fungal viRNAs, despite the deep divergence between these lineages. However, contrary to our expectations, we were unable to identify canonical (i.e. Drosophila- or nematode-like) viRNAs in any of the animals, despite the widespread presence of abundant micro-RNAs, and somatic transposon-derived piwi-interacting RNAs. We did identify a distinctive group of small RNAs derived from RNA viruses in the mollusc. However, unlike ecdysozoan viRNAs, these had a piRNA-like length distribution but lacked key signatures of piRNA biogenesis. We also identified primary piRNAs derived from putatively endogenous copies of DNA viruses in the cnidarian and the echinoderm, and an endogenous RNA virus in the mollusc. The absence of canonical virus-derived small RNAs from our samples may suggest that the majority of animal phyla lack an antiviral RNAi response. Alternatively, these phyla could possess an antiviral RNAi response resembling that reported for vertebrates, with cryptic viRNAs not detectable through simple metagenomic sequencing of wild-type individuals. In either case, our findings show that the antiviral RNAi responses of arthropods and nematodes, which are highly divergent from each other and from that of plants and fungi, are also highly diverged from the most likely ancestral metazoan state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fergal M. Waldron
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Graham N. Stone
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Darren J. Obbard
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Immunity Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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28
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Mondal M, Mansfield K, Flynt A. siRNAs and piRNAs collaborate for transposon control in the two-spotted spider mite. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2018; 24:899-907. [PMID: 29678924 PMCID: PMC6004056 DOI: 10.1261/rna.065839.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
RNAi has revolutionized genetic research, and is being commercialized as an insect pest control technology. Mechanisms exploited for this purpose are antiviral and therefore rapidly evolving. Ideally, RNAi will also be used for noninsect pests; however, differences in RNAi biology make this uncertain. Tetranychus urticae (two-spotted spider mite) is a destructive noninsect pest, which has a proclivity to develop pesticide resistance. Here we provide a comprehensive study of the endogenous RNAi pathways of spider mites to inform design of exogenous RNAi triggers. This effort revealed unexpected roles for small RNAs and novel genome surveillance pathways. Spider mites have an expanded RNAi machinery relative to insects, encoding RNA dependent RNA polymerase (Rdrp) and extra Piwi-class effectors. Through analyzing T. urticae transcriptome data we explored small RNA biogenesis, and discovered five siRNA loci that appear central to genome surveillance. These RNAs are expressed in the gonad, which we hypothesize to trigger production of piRNAs for control of transposable elements (TEs). This work highlights the need to investigate endogenous RNAi biology as lessons from model organisms may not hold in other species, impacting development of an RNAi strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mosharrof Mondal
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406, USA
| | - Kody Mansfield
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406, USA
| | - Alex Flynt
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406, USA
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29
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Li L, Gu W. House dust mites use a plant-like siRNA pathway to silence transposable elements. PLoS Genet 2018; 14:e1007255. [PMID: 29621231 PMCID: PMC5886382 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lichao Li
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Weifeng Gu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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