Dendrite regeneration in C. elegans is controlled by the RAC GTPase CED-10 and the RhoGEF TIAM-1

Dendrite injury triggers neuroprotection in Drosophila models of neurodegenerative disease

Dendrite defects and loss are early cellular alterations observed across neurodegenerative diseases that play a role in early disease pathogenesis. Dendrite degeneration can be modeled by expressing pathogenic polyglutamine disease transgenes in Drosophila neurons in vivo. Here, we show that we can protect against dendrite loss in neurons modeling neurodegenerative polyglutamine diseases through injury to a single primary dendrite branch. We find that this neuroprotection is specific to injury-induced activation of dendrite regeneration: neither injury to the axon nor injury just to surrounding tissues induces this response. We show that the mechanism of this regenerative response is stabilization of the actin (but not microtubule) cytoskeleton. We also demonstrate that this regenerative response may extend to other neurodegenerative diseases. Together, we provide evidence that activating dendrite regeneration pathways has the potential to slow-or even reverse-dendrite loss in neurodegenerative disease.

Voltage-gated calcium channels act upstream of adenylyl cyclase Ac78C to promote timely initiation of dendrite regeneration

Most neurons are not replaced after injury and thus possess robust intrinsic mechanisms for repair after damage. Axon injury triggers a calcium wave, and calcium and cAMP can augment axon regeneration. In comparison to axon regeneration, dendrite regeneration is poorly understood. To test whether calcium and cAMP might also be involved in dendrite injury signaling, we tracked the responses of Drosophila dendritic arborization neurons to laser severing of axons and dendrites. We found that calcium and subsequently cAMP accumulate in the cell body after both dendrite and axon injury. Two voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs), L-Type and T-Type, are required for the calcium influx in response to dendrite injury and play a role in rapid initiation of dendrite regeneration. The AC8 family adenylyl cyclase, Ac78C, is required for cAMP production after dendrite injury and timely initiation of regeneration. Injury-induced cAMP production is sensitive to VGCC reduction, placing calcium upstream of cAMP generation. We propose that two VGCCs initiate global calcium influx in response to dendrite injury followed by production of cAMP by Ac78C. This signaling pathway promotes timely initiation of dendrite regrowth several hours after dendrite damage.

Dendrite morphogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans

Since the days of Ramón y Cajal, the vast diversity of neuronal and particularly dendrite morphology has been used to catalog neurons into different classes. Dendrite morphology varies greatly and reflects the different functions performed by different types of neurons. Significant progress has been made in our understanding of how dendrites form and the molecular factors and forces that shape these often elaborately sculpted structures. Here, we review work in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans that has shed light on the developmental mechanisms that mediate dendrite morphogenesis with a focus on studies investigating ciliated sensory neurons and the highly elaborated dendritic trees of somatosensory neurons. These studies, which combine time-lapse imaging, genetics, and biochemistry, reveal an intricate network of factors that function both intrinsically in dendrites and extrinsically from surrounding tissues. Therefore, dendrite morphogenesis is the result of multiple tissue interactions, which ultimately determine the shape of dendritic arbors.

The Rac pathway prevents cell fragmentation in a nonprotrusively migrating leader cell during C. elegans gonad organogenesis

The C. elegans hermaphrodite distal tip cell (DTC) leads gonadogenesis. Loss-of-function mutations in a C. elegans ortholog of the Rac1 GTPase (ced-10) and its GEF complex (ced-5/DOCK180, ced-2/CrkII, ced-12/ELMO) cause gonad migration defects related to directional sensing; we discovered an additional defect class of gonad bifurcation in these mutants. Using genetic approaches, tissue-specific and whole-body RNAi, and in vivo imaging of endogenously tagged proteins and marked cells, we find that loss of Rac1 or its regulators causes the DTC to fragment as it migrates. Both products of fragmentation-the now-smaller DTC and the membranous patch of cellular material-localize important stem cell niche signaling (LAG-2 ligand) and migration (INA-1/integrin subunit alpha) factors to their membranes, but only one retains the DTC nucleus and therefore the ability to maintain gene expression over time. The enucleate patch can lead a bifurcating branch off the gonad arm that grows through germ cell proliferation. Germ cells in this branch differentiate as the patch loses LAG-2 expression. While the nucleus is surprisingly dispensable for aspects of leader cell function, it is required for stem cell niche activity long term. Prior work found that Rac1-/-;Rac2-/- mouse erythrocytes fragment; in this context, our new findings support the conclusion that maintaining a cohesive but deformable cell is a conserved function of this important cytoskeletal regulator.

Functional Recovery Associated with Dendrite Regeneration in PVD Neuron of Caenorhabditis elegans

PVD neuron of Caenorhabditis elegans is a highly polarized cell with well-defined axonal, and dendritic compartments. PVD neuron operates in multiple sensory modalities including the control of both nociceptive touch sensation and body posture. Although both the axon and dendrites of this neuron show a regeneration response following laser-assisted injury, it is rather unclear how the behavior associated with this neuron is affected by the loss of these structures. It is also unclear whether neurite regrowth would lead to functional restoration in these neurons. Upon axotomy, using a femtosecond laser, we saw that harsh touch response was specifically affected leaving the body posture unperturbed. Subsequently, recovery in the touch response is highly correlated to the axon regrowth, which was dependent on DLK-1/MLK-1 MAP Kinase. Dendrotomy of both major and minor primary dendrites affected the wavelength and amplitude of sinusoidal movement without any apparent effect on harsh touch response. We further correlated the recovery in posture behavior to the type of dendrite regeneration events. We found that dendrite regeneration through the fusion and reconnection between the proximal and distal branches of the injured dendrite corresponded to improved recovery in posture. Our data revealed that the axons and dendrites of PVD neurons regulate the nociception and proprioception in worms, respectively. It also revealed that dendrite and axon regeneration lead to the restoration of these differential sensory modalities.

Optimization of RNAi efficiency in PVD neuron of C. elegans

PVD neuron of C. elegans has become an attractive model for the study of dendrite development and regeneration due to its elaborate and stereotype dendrite morphology. RNA interference (RNAi) by feeding E. coli expressing dsRNA has been the basis of several genome wide screens performed using C. elegans. However, the feeding method often fails when it comes to knocking down genes in nervous system. In order to optimize the RNAi conditions for PVD neuron, we fed the worm strains with E. coli HT115 bacteria expressing dsRNA against mec-3, hpo-30, and tiam-1, whose loss of function are known to show dendrite morphology defects in PVD neuron. We found that RNAi of these genes in the available sensitive backgrounds including the one expresses sid-1 under unc-119 promoter, although resulted in reduction of dendrite branching, the phenotypes were significantly modest compared to the respective loss of function mutants. In order to enhance RNAi in PVD neurons, we generated a strain that expressed sid-1 under the promoter mec-3, which exhibits strong expression in PVD. When Pmec-3::sid-1 is expressed in either nre-1(-)lin-15b(-) or lin-15b(-) backgrounds, the higher order branching phenotype after RNAi of mec-3, hpo-30, and tiam-1 was significantly enhanced as compared to the genetic background alone. Moreover, knockdown of genes playing role in dendrite regeneration in the nre-1(-)lin-15b(-), Pmec-3-sid-1[+] background resulted in significant reduction in dendrite regeneration following laser injury. The extent of dendrite regrowth due to the RNAi of aff-1 or ced-10 in our optimized strain was comparable to that of aff-1 and ced-10 mutants. Essentially, our strain expressing sid-1 in PVD neuron, provides an RNAi optimized platform for high throughput screening of genes involved in PVD development, maintenance and regeneration.

Getting there in one piece: The Rac pathway prevents cell fragmentation in a nonprotrusively migrating leader cell during organogenesis

The C. elegans hermaphrodite distal tip cell (DTC) leads gonadogenesis. Loss-of-function mutations in a C. elegans ortholog of the Rac1 GTPase (ced-10) and its GEF complex (ced-5/DOCK180, ced-2/CrkII, ced-12/ELMO) cause gonad migration defects related to directional sensing; we discovered an additional defect class of gonad bifurcation in these mutants. Using genetic approaches, tissue-specific and whole-body RNAi, and in vivo imaging of endogenously tagged proteins and marked cells, we find that loss of Rac1 or its regulators causes the DTC to fragment as it migrates. Both products of fragmentation-the now-smaller DTC and the membranous patch of cellular material-localize important stem cell niche signaling (LAG-2/DSL ligand) and migration (INA-1/integrin subunit alpha) factors to their membranes, but only one retains the DTC nucleus and therefore the ability to maintain gene expression over time. The enucleate patch can lead a bifurcating branch off the gonad arm that grows through germ cell proliferation. Germ cells in this branch differentiate as the patch loses LAG-2 expression. While the nucleus is surprisingly dispensable for aspects of leader cell function, it is required for stem cell niche activity long-term. Prior work found that Rac1-/-;Rac2-/- mouse erythrocytes fragment; in this context, our new findings support the conclusion that maintaining a cohesive but deformable cell is a conserved function of this important cytoskeletal regulator.

Motor neuron-specific RhoA knockout delays degeneration and promotes regeneration of dendrites in spinal ventral horn after brachial plexus injury

Dendrites play irreplaceable roles in the nerve conduction pathway and are vulnerable to various insults. Peripheral axotomy of motor neurons results in the retraction of dendritic arbors, and the dendritic arbor can be re-expanded when reinnervation is allowed. RhoA is a target that regulates the cytoskeleton and promotes neuronal survival and axon regeneration. However, the role of RhoA in dendrite degeneration and regeneration is unknown. In this study, we explored the potential role of RhoA in dendrites. A line of motor neuronal RhoA conditional knockout mice was developed by crossbreeding HB9^Cre+ mice with RhoA^flox/flox mice. We established two models for assaying dendrite degeneration and regeneration, in which the brachial plexus was transection or crush injured, respectively. We found that at 28 days after brachial plexus transection, the density, complexity, and structural integrity of dendrites in the ventral horn of the spinal cord of RhoA conditional knockout mice were slightly decreased compared with that in Cre mice. Dendrites underwent degeneration at 7 and 14 days after brachial plexus transection and recovered at 28-56 days. The density, complexity, and structural integrity of dendrites in the ventral horn of the spinal cord of RhoA conditional knockout mice recovered compared with results in Cre mice. These findings suggest that RhoA knockout in motor neurons attenuates dendrite degeneration and promotes dendrite regeneration after peripheral nerve injury.

Inhibition of spastin impairs motor function recovery after spinal cord injury

Promoting axonal regeneration is an effective strategy for recovery from traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Spastin, a microtubule-severing protein, modulates axonal outgrowth and branch formation by regulating microtubule dynamics. However, the exact role of spastin during recovery from SCI remains unknown. Therefore, we utilized a hemisection injury model of the mouse spinal cord and explored the effect of spastin using a spastin inhibitor, spastazoline. Results showed that spastazoline significantly suppressed the microtubule-severing activity of spastin in COS-7 cells and inhibited the promoting effect of spastin on neurite outgrowth in primarily cultured hippocampal neurons. The protein expression level of spastin was significantly upregulated in the injured spinal cord. Injured mice showed impaired motor functions, which included increased toe-off angle and foot fault steps and decreased stride length and Basso mouse scale score. Notably, these motor function impairments were aggravated by the application of spastazoline. Inhibition of spastin exacerbated neurogenesis impairment, as demonstrated by neuronal nuclei antigen staining, the inflammatory response, as shown by Iba-1 and GFAP staining, and axonal regeneration impairment, as shown by 5-hydroxytryptamine staining. Furthermore, mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the inhibition of spastin resulted in numerous dysregulated differentially expressed proteins that were closely associated with vesicle organization and transport. Taken together, our data suggest that spastin is critical for recovery from SCI and may be a potential target for the treatment of SCI.

Dendrite regeneration mediates functional recovery after complete dendrite removal

Unlike many cell types, neurons are not typically replaced if damaged. Therefore, regeneration of damaged cellular domains is critical for maintenance of neuronal function. While axon regeneration has been documented for several hundred years, it has only recently become possible to determine whether neurons respond to dendrite removal with regeneration. Regrowth of dendrite arbors has been documented in invertebrate and vertebrate model systems, but whether it leads to functional restoration of a circuit remains unknown. To test whether dendrite regeneration restores function, we used larval Drosophila nociceptive neurons. Their dendrites detect noxious stimuli to initiate escape behavior. Previous studies of Drosophila sensory neurons have shown that dendrites of single neurons regrow after laser severing. We removed dendrites from 16 neurons per animal to clear most of the dorsal surface of nociceptive innervation. As expected, this reduced aversive responses to noxious touch. Surprisingly, behavior was completely restored 24 ​h after injury, at the stage when dendrite regeneration has begun, but the new arbor has only covered a small portion of its former territory. This behavioral recovery required regenerative outgrowth as it was eliminated in a genetic background in which new growth is blocked. We conclude that dendrite regeneration can restore behavior.

TIAM-1 differentially regulates dendritic and axonal microtubule organization in patterning neuronal development through its multiple domains

Axon and dendrite development require the cooperation of actin and microtubule cytoskeletons. Microtubules form a well-organized network to direct polarized trafficking and support neuronal processes formation with distinct actin structures. However, it is largely unknown how cytoskeleton regulators differentially regulate microtubule organization in axon and dendrite development. Here, we characterize the role of actin regulators in axon and dendrite development and show that the RacGEF TIAM-1 regulates dendritic patterns through its N-terminal domains and suppresses axon growth through its C-terminal domains. TIAM-1 maintains plus-end-out microtubule orientation in posterior dendrites and prevents the accumulation of microtubules in the axon. In somatodendritic regions, TIAM-1 interacts with UNC-119 and stabilizes the organization between actin filaments and microtubules. UNC-119 is required for TIAM-1 to control axon growth, and its expression levels determine axon length. Taken together, TIAM-1 regulates neuronal microtubule organization and patterns axon and dendrite development respectively through its different domains.

Dendrite regeneration in the vertebrate spinal cord

Axon regeneration in response to injury has been documented in many animals over several hundred years. In contrast, how neurons respond to dendrite injury has been examined only in the last decade. So far, dendrite regeneration after injury has been documented in invertebrate model systems, but has not been assayed in a vertebrate. In this study, we use zebrafish motor neurons to track neurons after dendrite injury. We address two major gaps in our knowledge of dendrite regeneration: 1) whether post-synaptic dendrites can regenerate and 2) whether vertebrate dendrites can regenerate. We find that motor neurons survive laser microsurgery to remove one or all dendrites. Outgrowth of new dendrites typically initiated one to three days after injury, and a new, stable dendrite arbor was in place by five days after injury. We conclude that zebrafish motor neurons have the capacity to regenerate a new dendrite arbor.