1
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Sutton NM, Suski C, Payne K, O'Dwyer JP. Moving beyond the mean: an analysis of faecal corticosterone metabolites shows substantial variability both within and across white-tailed deer populations. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 12:coae062. [PMID: 39252885 PMCID: PMC11381565 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coae062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2024] [Accepted: 08/21/2024] [Indexed: 09/11/2024]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid (GC) levels have significant impacts on the health and behaviour of wildlife populations and are involved in many essential body functions including circadian rhythm, stress physiology and metabolism. However, studies of GCs in wildlife often focus on estimating mean hormone levels in populations, or a subset of a population, rather than on assessing the entire distribution of hormone levels within populations. Additionally, explorations of population GC data are limited due to the tradeoff between the number of individuals included in studies and the amount of data per individual that can be collected. In this study, we explore patterns of GC level distributions in three white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations using a non-invasive, opportunistic sampling approach. GC levels were assessed by measuring faecal corticosterone metabolite levels ('fCMs') from deer faecal samples throughout the year. We found both population and seasonal differences in fCMs but observed similarly shaped fCM distributions in all populations. Specifically, all population fCM cumulative distributions were found to be very heavy-tailed. We developed two toy models of acute corticosterone elevation in an effort to recreate the observed heavy-tailed distributions. We found that, in all three populations, cumulative fCM distributions were better described by an assumption of large, periodic spikes in corticosterone levels every few days, as opposed to an assumption of random spikes in corticosterone levels. The analyses presented in this study demonstrate the potential for exploring population-level patterns of GC levels from random, opportunistically sampled data. When taken together with individual-focused studies of GC levels, such analyses can improve our understanding of how individual hormone production scales up to population-level patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas M Sutton
- Department of Biology, Grinnell College, 1116 8th Avenue, Grinnell, IA, 50112, USA
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 505 S. Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Cory Suski
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, 1102 S. Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Keegan Payne
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, 1102 S. Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - James P O'Dwyer
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 505 S. Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1206 West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL,61801, USA
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2
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Roos T, Purdon A, Boult V, Delsink A, Mitchell B, Kilian PJ. Movement patterns of two reintegrated African elephant ( Loxodonta africana) herds: transitioning from captivity to free-living. PeerJ 2024; 12:e17535. [PMID: 38854797 PMCID: PMC11162612 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
With the escalating challenges in captive elephant management, the study of elephant reintegration emerges as a pivotal area of research, primarily addressing the enhancement of animal welfare. The term 'reintegration' refers to the process of rehabilitating captive elephants to a natural system, allowing them to roam freely without intensive human intervention. There is a relative paucity of research addressing the behavioural adaptations post-reintegration, despite reintegration of over 20 elephants across various fenced reserves in South Africa. Our study centres on two distinct herds of reintegrated African elephants, monitoring their movement patterns in two South African reserves over a 57-month period post-release. The primary goal of the study was to establish whether the flexibility and adaptability of movement behaviour of reintegrated elephants can be considered as one of the indicators of determining the success of such an operation. The second aim of our study was to investigate if the reintegrated elephants demonstrated an adaptability to their environment through their hourly, daily, and seasonal ranging patterns after a period of free roaming that exceeded 4 years. Our findings indicated that reintegrated elephants, much like their wild counterparts (movement based on literature), displayed notable seasonal and diurnal variations in key movement parameters, such as utilisation distribution areas and reserve utilization. These patterns changed over time, reflecting an adaptive shift in movement patterns after several years of free roaming. Notably, the trajectory of changes in movement parameters varied between herds, indicating unique adaptation responses, likely resulting from differences in the reintegration process (familiarity of reserve, season of release, presence of wild elephants). Although our study is constrained by the limited number of reintegrated herds available for analysis, it underscores the potential of captive elephants to successfully adapt to a free-living environment, emphasising the promising implications of reintegration initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tenisha Roos
- Elephant Reintegration Trust, Port Alfred, Eastern Cape, South Africa
| | - Andrew Purdon
- M.A.P Scientific Services, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Victoria Boult
- Department of Meteorology, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Audrey Delsink
- Humane Society International-Africa, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Brett Mitchell
- Elephant Reintegration Trust, Port Alfred, Eastern Cape, South Africa
| | - Petrus Johannes Kilian
- Elephant Reintegration Trust, Port Alfred, Eastern Cape, South Africa
- !Khamab Kalahari Reserve, Tosca, North West, South Africa
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3
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Pokharel SS, Brown JL. Physiological plasticity in elephants: highly dynamic glucocorticoids in African and Asian elephants. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 11:coad088. [PMCID: PMC10673820 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coad088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2024]
Abstract
Slowly reproducing and long-lived terrestrial mammals are often more at risk from challenges that influence fitness and survival. It is, therefore, important to understand how animals cope with such challenges and how coping mechanisms translate over generations and affect phenotypic plasticity. Rapidly escalating anthropogenic challenges may further diminish an animal’s ability to reinstate homeostasis. Research to advance insights on elephant stress physiology has predominantly focused on relative or comparative analyses of a major stress response marker, glucocorticoids (GCs), across different ecological, anthropogenic, and reproductive contexts. This paper presents an extensive review of published findings on Asian and African elephants from 1980 to 2023 (May) and reveals that stress responses, as measured by alterations in GCs in different sample matrices, often are highly dynamic and vary within and across individuals exposed to similar stimuli, and not always in a predictable fashion. Such dynamicity in physiological reactivity may be mediated by individual differences in personality traits or coping styles, ecological conditions, and technical factors that often are not considered in study designs. We describe probable causations under the ‘Physiological Dynamicity Model’, which considers context–experience–individuality effects. Highly variable adrenal responses may affect physiological plasticity with potential fitness and survival consequences. This review also addresses the significance of cautious interpretations of GCs data in the context of normal adaptive stress versus distress. We emphasize the need for long-term assessments of GCs that incorporate multiple markers of ‘stress’ and ‘well-being’ to decipher the probable fitness consequences of highly dynamic physiological adrenal responses in elephants. Ultimately, we propose that assessing GC responses to current and future challenges is one of the most valuable and informative conservation tools we have for guiding conservation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeeta Sharma Pokharel
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
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4
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Pretorius Y, Eggeling T, Ganswindt A. Identifying potential measures of stress and disturbance during a captive to wild African elephant reintegration. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0291293. [PMID: 37788241 PMCID: PMC10547182 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0291293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence of compromised welfare for elephants managed in captivity. Should such facilities eventually close, more elephants will need to be rehabilitated and reintegrated into the wild. The goal of such reintegration would be to restore any physical or psychological aspects of the elephant that may have been compromised in captivity, followed by introduction into a free-roaming system where they can interact with other elephants. However, to achieve this goal, the reintegration methods implemented need to be assessed to ensure that welfare remains the priority. The objective of this study was to test whether parameters generally associated with stress and disturbance in African elephants, respond to changes in potentially stressful environmental conditions, assessed at multiple temporal scales ranging from minutes to months. The main changes in environmental conditions that were investigated included the different phases of reintegration of a group of elephants from captivity into the wild. Stress and disturbance related parameters used for comparisons included physiological responses, namely the extent of temporal gland secretions (eTGS) and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) levels as well as behavioural responses, namely the display of stereotype and stress-related behaviours. Results showed that eTGS significantly increased during the initial release of the elephants compared to when in captivity. Stereotypic behaviours were only recorded during the captive phase and immediately ceased after release. Faecal GCM levels spiked in the first year after release before decreasing back to pre-reintegration levels during the third year. These findings indicate that fGCM levels, the eTGS and disturbance related behaviours all proved effective in explaining the changes in stress and disturbance experienced by elephants during the initial years after being reintegrated from captivity into the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Andre Ganswindt
- Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa
- Endocrine Research Laboratory, Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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5
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Pero EM, Palm EC, Chitwood MC, Hildreth AM, Keller BJ, Sumners JA, Hansen LP, Isabelle JL, Millspaugh JJ. Spatial acclimation of elk during population restoration to the Missouri Ozarks, USA. Anim Conserv 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- E. M. Pero
- Wildlife Biology Program University of Montana Missoula MT USA
| | - E. C. Palm
- Wildlife Biology Program University of Montana Missoula MT USA
| | - M. C. Chitwood
- Natural Resource Ecology & Management Oklahoma State University Stillwater OK USA
| | | | - B. J. Keller
- Minnesota Department of Natural Resources St. Paul MN USA
| | - J. A. Sumners
- Missouri Department of Conservation Jefferson City MO USA
| | - L. P. Hansen
- Missouri Department of Conservation Columbia MO USA
- Minnesota Department of Natural Resources St. Paul MN USA
| | - J. L. Isabelle
- Missouri Department of Conservation Columbia MO USA
- Minnesota Department of Natural Resources St. Paul MN USA
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6
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Can stress and anxiety be assessed in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) using self-directed behaviour? Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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7
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Iglesias-Carrasco M, Wong BBM, Jennions MD. In the shadows: wildlife behaviour in tree plantations. Trends Ecol Evol 2022; 37:838-850. [PMID: 35710479 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2022.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Destruction of natural habitats for tree plantations is a major threat to wildlife. These novel environments elicit behavioural changes that can either be detrimental or beneficial to survival and reproduction, with population - and community - level consequences. However, compared with well-documented changes following other forms of habitat modification, we know little about wildlife behavioural responses to tree plantations, and even less about their associated fitness costs. Here, we highlight critical knowledge gaps in understanding the ecological and evolutionary consequences of behavioural shifts caused by tree plantations and discuss how wildlife responses to plantations could be critical in determining which species persist in these highly modified environments.
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8
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Chen Y, Atzeni L, Gibson L, Sun Y, Yang Z, Shi K, Dudgeon D. Urban expansion and infrastructure development reduce habitat suitability for Asian elephants in southwestern China. J Wildl Manage 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.22204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Chen
- School of Ecology and Nature Conservation Beijing Forestry University Beijing 100083 China
- School of Biological Sciences The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong China
| | - Luciano Atzeni
- School of Ecology and Nature Conservation Beijing Forestry University Beijing 100083 China
| | - Luke Gibson
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering Southern University of Science and Technology Shenzhen 518055 China
| | - Yakuan Sun
- School of Ecology and Nature Conservation Beijing Forestry University Beijing 100083 China
| | - Zicheng Yang
- Kunming Institute of Survey and Design, State Forestry and Grassland Administration Kunming 650031 China
| | - Kun Shi
- School of Ecology and Nature Conservation Beijing Forestry University Beijing 100083 China
- Eco‐Bridge Continental Beijing 100085 China
| | - David Dudgeon
- School of Biological Sciences The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong China
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9
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Garai ME, Roos T, Eggeling T, Ganswindt A, Pretorius Y, Henley M. Developing welfare parameters for African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in fenced reserves in South Africa. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264931. [PMID: 35324916 PMCID: PMC8947097 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
South Africa has many fenced reserves harbouring small to medium sized populations of African elephant (Loxodonta africana), most of which have been translocated. Elephants on fenced reserves may be exposed to various management interventions and practices (translocation, hunting, darting, high tourism impact, contraception programs, disruption due to infrastructure maintenance, etc.). These factors may impact the welfare of elephants. Poor elephant welfare may have serious consequences such as increased inter- and intra-species aggression that could result in fatalities. This is the first study to attempt to define behavioural and physiological welfare parameters for free-ranging elephants on small to medium sized reserves. The eight study sites incorporated reserves with different social structure combinations, elephant life-histories, reserve sizes, habitat, management, and tourism intensity. Data collection consisted of behavioural observations (10-minute videos) as well as faecal samples. By incorporating both behavioural and physiological (faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentration) parameters, we aimed to investigate whether the two parameters showed similar trends. Five behavioural categories were identified (Arousal, Assessing, Ambivalent, Ambivalent/ Body care, and Frustrated behaviour), with various detailed behaviours demonstrated by the elephants that may indicate the influence of anthropogenic disturbance and possibly impact on animal welfare. The study showed significant differences between the selected detailed behaviours, behavioural categories and fGCM concentrations of elephants across the eight reserves. History seemed to be a decisive factor, as reserves with predominantly ex-captive elephants showed higher frequencies of certain behaviours as well as higher fGCM concentrations. Age, sex, reserve size and season were also found to contribute to our defined welfare indices and fGCM concentrations. This indicates that behavioural parameters, indicative of certain behavioural states, are valuable indicators of welfare, as supported by the physiological response of the elephants. The results also highlight the importance of taking multiple specified behaviours from a category into consideration when evaluating the welfare of elephants, to account for individual variation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tenisha Roos
- Elephant Reintegration Trust, Port Alfred, South Africa
| | | | - André Ganswindt
- Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | - Michelle Henley
- Applied Behavioural Ecology and Environmental Research Unit, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
- Elephants Alive, Hoedspruit, Limpopo, South Africa
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10
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Stahlschmidt Z, Vo C. Spatial bet hedging, thermal trade-offs and glyphosate: crickets integrate multivariate information during oviposition. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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11
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He H, Buchholtz E, Chen F, Vogel S, Yu CA. An agent-based model of elephant crop consumption walks using combinatorial optimization. Ecol Modell 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2021.109852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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12
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Allen CRB, Croft DP, Brent LJN. Reduced older male presence linked to increased rates of aggression to non-conspecific targets in male elephants. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20211374. [PMID: 34933598 PMCID: PMC8692974 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.1374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Males in many large mammal species spend a considerable portion of their lives in all-male groups segregated from females. In long-lived species, these all-male groups may contain individuals of vastly different ages, providing the possibility that behaviours such as aggression vary with the age demographic of the social environment, as well as an individual's own age. Here, we explore social factors affecting aggression and fear behaviours in non-musth male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) aggregating in an all-male area. Adolescent males had greater probabilities of directing aggressive and fearful behaviours to non-elephant targets when alone compared to when with other males. All males, regardless of age, were less aggressive towards non-elephant targets (e.g. vehicles and non-elephant animals) when larger numbers of males from the oldest age cohort were present. The presence of older males did not influence the probability that other males were aggressive to conspecifics or expressed fearful behaviours towards non-elephant targets. Older bulls may police aggression directed towards non-elephant targets or may lower elephants' perception of their current threat level. Our results suggest male elephants may pose an enhanced threat to humans and livestock when adolescents are socially isolated, and when fewer older bulls are nearby.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connie R. B. Allen
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QG, UK,Elephants for Africa, 5 Balfour Road, London N5 2HB, UK,School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Darren P. Croft
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QG, UK
| | - Lauren J. N. Brent
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QG, UK
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13
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Wilson AE, Sergiel A, Selva N, Swenson JE, Zedrosser A, Stenhouse G, Janz DM. Correcting for enzyme immunoassay changes in long term monitoring studies. MethodsX 2021; 8:101212. [PMID: 34434735 PMCID: PMC8374155 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2021.101212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) are a common tool for measuring steroid hormones in wildlife due to their low cost, commercial availability, and rapid results. Testing technologies improve continuously, sometimes requiring changes in protocols or crucial assay components. Antibody replacement between EIA kits can cause differences in EIA sensitivity, which can hinder monitoring hormone concentration over time. The antibody in a common cortisol EIA kit used for long-term monitoring of stress in wildlife was replaced in 2014, causing differences in cross reactivity and standard curve concentrations. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a method to standardize results following changes in EIA sensitivity. We validated this method using cortisol concentrations measured in the hair of brown bears (Ursus arctos).We used a simple linear regression to model the relationship between cortisol concentrations using kit 1 and kit 2. We found a linear relationship between the two kits (R2 = 0.85) and used the regression equation (kit2 = (0.98 × kit1) + 1.65) to predict cortisol concentrations in re-measured samples. Mean predicted percent error was 16% and 72% of samples had a predicted percent error <20%, suggesting that this method is well-suited for correcting changes in EIA sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbey E. Wilson
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 44 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B3, Canada
- Corresponding author.
| | - Agnieszka Sergiel
- Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Adama Mickiewicza 33, 31120 Krakow, Poland
| | - Nuria Selva
- Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Adama Mickiewicza 33, 31120 Krakow, Poland
| | - Jon E. Swenson
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Høgskoleveien 12, NO-1432, Norway
| | - Andreas Zedrosser
- Department of Natural Sciences and Environmental Health, University of South-Eastern Norway, Gullbringvegen 36, 3800 Bø, Norway
- Institute for Wildlife Biology and Game Management, University for Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Gregor-Mendel-Straße 33, 1180 Vienna, Austria
| | - Gordon Stenhouse
- fRI Research, Grizzly Bear Program, 1176 Switzer Drive, Hinton T7V 1V3, AB, Canada
| | - David M. Janz
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 44 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B3, Canada
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14
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Moraes RN, Laske TG, Leimgruber P, Stabach JA, Marinari PE, Horning MM, Laske NR, Rodriguez JV, Eye GN, Kordell JE, Gonzalez M, Eyring T, Lemons C, Helmick KE, Delaski KM, Ware LH, Jones JC, Songsasen N. Inside out: heart rate monitoring to advance the welfare and conservation of maned wolves ( Chrysocyon brachyurus). CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 9:coab044. [PMID: 34188936 PMCID: PMC8224209 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coab044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Anthropogenic change is a major threat to individual species and biodiversity. Yet the behavioral and physiological responses of animals to these changes remain understudied. This is due to the technological challenges in assessing these effects in situ. Using captive maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus, n = 6) as a model, we deployed implantable biologgers and collected physiological data on heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) over a 1-year period. To test for links between HR and changes in the environment we analysed HR daily rhythms and responses to potential stressors (e.g. physical restraint, change in housing conditions, short-distance transportation and unfamiliar human presence). The 2-min HR averages ranged from 33 to 250 bpm, with an overall rest average of 73 bpm and a maximum of 296 bpm. On average, HRV was higher in females (227 ± 51 ms) than in males (151 ± 51 ms). As expected, HR increased at dusk and night when animals were more active and in response to stressors. Sudden decreases in HR were observed during transportation in three wolves, suggestive of fear bradycardia. We provide the first non-anesthetic HR values for the species and confirm that behaviour does not always reflect the shifts in autonomic tone in response to perceived threats. Because strong HR responses often were not revealed by observable changes in behaviour, our findings suggest that the number and variety of stressors in ex situ or in situ environments for maned wolves and most wildlife species may be underestimated. Our study also shows that integrating biologging with behavioral observations can provide vital information to guide captive management. Similar technology can be used to advance in situ research for developing more effective welfare, management and conservation plans for the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosana N Moraes
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
- Department of Physiology, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, PR, 81530-900, Brazil
| | - Timothy G Laske
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
- AF Solutions, Medtronic Inc., Mounds View, MN, 55112, USA
| | - Peter Leimgruber
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Jared A Stabach
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Paul E Marinari
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Megan M Horning
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Noelle R Laske
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Juan V Rodriguez
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
- Department of Parks and Recreation, Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning commission, Clinton, MD, 20735, USA
| | - Ginger N Eye
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Jessica E Kordell
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Marissa Gonzalez
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Tom Eyring
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Christopher Lemons
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Kelly E Helmick
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Kristina M Delaski
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Lisa H Ware
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Julia C Jones
- Department of Conservation Medicine, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Nucharin Songsasen
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
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15
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Influence of cereal harvest on adrenocortical activity in European hares (Lepus europaeus). EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-020-01430-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAnthropogenic disturbances, such as habitat modifications and machines, are associated with increased levels of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) in mammals, an indicator of a stress response. One human-caused process provoking incisive habitat alterations is harvesting arable crops. We investigated the effect of cereal harvest on fGCM concentrations in European hares (Lepus europaeus) in arable landscapes in lower Austria during the year 2018 by collecting 591 faecal samples before, during and after cereal harvest. fGCMs were analysed using an enzyme immunoassay, and data were analysed using linear mixed-effects models. We found that neither cereal harvest nor farming practice (organic vs. conventional) caused an overall increase in the hares’ stress level. Lower vegetation density and higher proportions of bare ground were negatively correlated with fGCM concentrations, whereas the proportion of stubble fields was significantly positively correlated with fGCM concentrations in European hares. A change to more open landscapes might decrease time spent avoiding predation, and fallen grains may provide a beneficial additional food source for the hares. This indicates that European hares are well adapted to an opening up of the landscape and short-term disturbances such as cereal harvesting. In conclusion, cereal harvest had no large impact on European hares’ adrenocortical activity in an arable landscape with small average field size and enough available non-farmed areas.
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Reis A, Barros F. Tropical saltmarshes are important to juvenile fiddler crabs but not as refuges from large predators or high temperatures. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 161:105133. [PMID: 32911252 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Tropical saltmarshes' role as a refuge for macrofauna is poorly known. We tested the hypotheses that: i) there is an increase in abundance of early life-stages of fiddler crabs associated with an increase in vegetation density (thermal and/or predation refuge) and ii) predation are lower within saltmarsh vegetation. The abundance of early life-stages increased with both vegetation density and temperature. Megalopa and juveniles might be adapted or benefit from high temperatures found on tropical saltmarshes and thus do not need protection from it. Predation was higher in saltmarshes than in nearby non-vegetated areas, thus tropical saltmarshes can not be considered a refuge from relatively large predators for juveniles of fiddler crabs. Although not offering refuge against temperature and predation, tropical saltmarshes are important habitats for the recruitment of early life-stages of fiddler crabs. Future studies should consider the evaluation of tropical saltmarsh hydrodynamics in the settlement and permanence of juveniles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Reis
- Laboratório de Ecologia Bentônica, Instituto de Biologia & CIENAM, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Rua Barão de Geremoabo, s/n, Campus de Ondina, Salvador, Bahia, 40170-115, Brazil; Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia, Estudos Interdisciplinares e Transdisciplinares em Ecologia e Evolução (INCT IN-TREE), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Francisco Barros
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia, Estudos Interdisciplinares e Transdisciplinares em Ecologia e Evolução (INCT IN-TREE), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
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Oduor S, Brown J, Macharia GM, Boisseau N, Murray S, Obade P. Differing physiological and behavioral responses to anthropogenic factors between resident and non-resident African elephants at Mpala Ranch, Laikipia County, Kenya. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10010. [PMID: 33062433 PMCID: PMC7528812 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heterogeneous landscapes like those of Laikipia County, Kenya consist of a mosaic of land-use types, which may exert differential physiological effects on elephants that occupy and traverse them. Understanding behavioral and physiological states of wild African elephants in response to the challenges of living in human-dominated landscapes is therefore important for conservation managers to evaluate risks imposed by elephants to humans and vice versa. Several conservation physiology tools have been developed to assess how animals respond to both natural and anthropogenic changes, and determine biological impacts. This study investigated how migratory and avoidance behavioral to vehicle presence, and vegetation quality affected fecal glucocorticoid (GC) metabolite (FGM) concentrations in African elephants at Mpala Ranch, Laikipia County, Kenya. METHODS The study compared adrenal glucocorticoid activity of resident elephants that live within Mpala (n = 57) and non-resident elephants whose space use patterns overlap several ranches (n = 99) in Laikipia County, Kenya. Fecal samples were collected for a 4-month period between April and August for analysis of FGM concentrations. Behavioral reactions to research vehicles and body condition also were assessed. Satellite images from Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging (MODIS MOD13Q1) were downloaded and processed using Google Earth Engine to calculate a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) as a measure of vegetation quality. RESULTS As expected, there was a positive correlation between avoidance behavior to vehicle presence and FGM concentrations in both resident and non-resident elephants, whereas there was an inverse relationship between FGM concentrations and NDVI values. Our study also found a positive influence of age on the FGM concentrations, but there were no relationships between FGM and sex, social group type, herd size, and body condition. However, contrary to our expectations, resident elephants had higher FGM concentrations than non-residents. DISCUSSION Findings reveal elephants with stronger avoidance responses to research vehicles and resident elephants with relatively smaller home ranges exhibited higher FGM concentrations within the Mpala Ranch, Kenya and surrounding areas. Higher vegetative quality within the ranges occupied by non-resident elephants in Laikipia may be one reason for lower FGM, and an indication that the non-residents are tracking better forage quality to improve energy balance and reduce overall GC output. Additionally, our study found a positive influence of age, but no other demographic variables on FGM concentrations. Finally, adrenal glucocorticoid activity was inversely related to vegetative quality. Our findings can help conservation managers better understand how behavior and environment influences the physiological states of African elephants, and how management intervention might mitigate negative human-elephant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandy Oduor
- Research, Mpala Research Centre, Nanyuki, Laikipia, Kenya
| | - Janine Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Geoffrey M. Macharia
- Department of Environmental Science, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nicole Boisseau
- Endocrine Lab, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Suzan Murray
- Global Health Program, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Paul Obade
- Department of Environmental Science, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
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Carbillet J, Rey B, Palme R, Morellet N, Bonnot N, Chaval Y, Cargnelutti B, Hewison AJM, Gilot-Fromont E, Verheyden H. Under cover of the night: context-dependency of anthropogenic disturbance on stress levels of wild roe deer Capreolus capreolus. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 8:coaa086. [PMID: 32995004 PMCID: PMC7507870 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coaa086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Wildlife populations are increasingly exposed to human-induced modifications of their habitats. To cope with anthropogenic stressors, animals can adjust their behaviour-for example, by shifting their activity to more sheltered habitats, or becoming more nocturnal. However, whether use of spatial and temporal adjustments in behaviour may regulate the endocrine response is poorly documented. Here, we analyzed faecal cortisol metabolites (FCMs) of wild roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) living in a human-dominated agro-ecosystem. Using Global Positioning System monitoring of 116 individuals, we assessed their spatial behaviour and tested whether proximity to anthropogenic structures (linear distance to built-up areas) and the use of refuge habitats (woodland and hedges) influenced FCM levels. In accordance with our predictions, individuals ranging closer to anthropogenic structures during daytime had higher FCM levels, but this relationship was buffered as use of refuge habitat increased. In addition, this link between proximity to anthropogenic structures and FCM levels disappeared when we analyzed spatial behaviour at night. Finally, FCM levels were higher when the ambient temperature was lower, and during years of low resource availability. Our results demonstrate that the stress levels of large mammals may be strongly influenced by their proximity to anthropogenic activities, but that these effects may be buffered by behavioural adjustments in terms of space use and circadian rhythm. Whereas most studies have focused on the influence of environmental heterogeneity, our analysis highlights the need to also consider the fine-scale spatial response of individuals when studying the hormonal response of wild animals to human disturbance. We emphasize the potential to mitigate this hormonal stress response, and its potential negative consequences on population dynamics, through the preservation or restoration of patches of refuge habitat in close proximity to human infrastructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Carbillet
- INRAE, CEFS, Université de Toulouse, F-31326, Castanet Tolosan, France
- VetAgro Sup Campus vétérinaire de Lyon, Université de Lyon, F-69280, Marcy-l’Etoile, France
| | - Benjamin Rey
- Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive UMR 5558, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Rupert Palme
- Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology, and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, 1210, Austria
| | - Nicolas Morellet
- INRAE, CEFS, Université de Toulouse, F-31326, Castanet Tolosan, France
| | | | - Yannick Chaval
- INRAE, CEFS, Université de Toulouse, F-31326, Castanet Tolosan, France
| | - Bruno Cargnelutti
- INRAE, CEFS, Université de Toulouse, F-31326, Castanet Tolosan, France
| | - A J M Hewison
- INRAE, CEFS, Université de Toulouse, F-31326, Castanet Tolosan, France
| | - Emmanuelle Gilot-Fromont
- VetAgro Sup Campus vétérinaire de Lyon, Université de Lyon, F-69280, Marcy-l’Etoile, France
- Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive UMR 5558, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Hélène Verheyden
- INRAE, CEFS, Université de Toulouse, F-31326, Castanet Tolosan, France
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Wilson AE, Kearney S, Wismer D, Macbeth B, Stenhouse G, Coops NC, Janz DM. Population‐level monitoring of stress in grizzly bears between 2004 and 2014. Ecosphere 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Abbey E. Wilson
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences University of Saskatchewan 44 Campus Drive Saskatoon SaskatchewanS7N 5B3Canada
| | - Sean Kearney
- Department of Forest Resource Management University of British Columbia 2424 Main Mall Vancouver British ColumbiaV6T 1Z4Canada
| | - Dan Wismer
- Grizzly Bear Program Foothills Research Institute 1176 Switzer Drive Hinton AlbertaT7V 1V3Canada
| | - Bryan Macbeth
- British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations, and Rural Development 2080 Labieux Road Nanaimo British ColumbiaV9T 6J9Canada
| | - Gordon Stenhouse
- Grizzly Bear Program Foothills Research Institute 1176 Switzer Drive Hinton AlbertaT7V 1V3Canada
| | - Nicholas C. Coops
- Department of Forest Resource Management University of British Columbia 2424 Main Mall Vancouver British ColumbiaV6T 1Z4Canada
| | - David M. Janz
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences University of Saskatchewan 44 Campus Drive Saskatoon SaskatchewanS7N 5B3Canada
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan Derham
- School of Natural Sciences and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage (CABAH) University of Tasmania Hobart Tas. Australia
| | - Freya Mathews
- College of Arts Social Sciences and CommerceLa Trobe University Bundoora Vic. Australia
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Szott ID, Pretorius Y, Ganswindt A, Koyama NF. Physiological stress response of African elephants to wildlife tourism in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa. WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1071/wr19045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
ContextWildlife tourism has been shown to increase stress in a variety of species and can negatively affect survival, reproduction, welfare, and behaviour of individuals. In African elephants, Loxodonta africana, increased physiological stress has been linked to use of refugia, rapid movement through corridors, and heightened aggression towards humans. However, we are unaware of any studies assessing the impact of tourism pressure (tourist numbers) on physiological stress in elephants.
AimsWe used faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations to investigate whether tourist numbers in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa, were related to changes in physiological stress in elephants.
MethodsWe repeatedly collected dung samples (n=43) from 13 individually identified elephants over 15 months. Using a generalised linear mixed model and a Kenward–Roger approximation, we assessed the impact of monthly tourist numbers, season, age, and sex on elephant fGCM concentrations.
Key resultsHigh tourist numbers were significantly related to elevated fGCM concentrations. Overall, fGCM concentrations increased by 112% (from 0.26 to 0.55µgg−1 dry weight) in the months with the highest tourist pressure, compared to months with the lowest tourist pressure.
ConclusionsManagers of fenced reserves should consider providing potential alleviation measures for elephants during high tourist pressure, for example, by ensuring that refuge areas are available. This may be of even higher importance if elephant populations have had traumatic experiences with humans in the past, such as poaching or translocation. Such management action will improve elephant welfare and increase tourist safety.
ImplicationsAlthough tourism can generate substantial revenue to support conservation action, careful monitoring of its impact on wildlife is required to manage potential negative effects.
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Navarro JL, Lèche A, Della Costa NS, Vera Cortez M, Marin RH, Martella MB. State of the art knowledge in adrenocortical and behavioral responses to environmental challenges in a threatened South American ratite: Implications to in situ and ex-situ conservation. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2019; 273:52-60. [PMID: 29656044 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2018.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) is an endemic ratite to South America, whose wild populations have undergone a remarkable decrease due to habitat degradation and fragmentation by the expansion of the agricultural frontier, poaching and predation by dogs. Anthropogenic perturbations in wild environments, as well as the management in captivity, can generate different stress responses in this species, thus, the monitoring of adrenocortical and behavioral activities are considered primary assessment tools with both conservation and welfare implications. In this review we analyze and integrate the different measurements of glucocorticoids (in plasma, feces, and yolk) carried out in different captive and wild populations, taking into account the diverse predictable and unpredictable conditions to which the Greater Rhea responds in each of those environments. In addition, the translocation of this bird is presented as an application of stress physiology in field ecology for conservation purposes, in which we evaluated how this species responds when it is released into a novel environment. Our results indicate that this ratite has a striking high sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis compared to that of other bird species and shows a wide variety of adrenocortical responses depending on the environment in which it lives. This suggests that its HPA axis has a phenotypic plasticity that enables the rhea to cope with the environmental challenges. In this sense, we propose that one of the routes of this plasticity could be mediated by the maternal transfer of steroid hormones to the egg. Finally, we discuss the importance of integrating the monitoring of the adrenocortical response along with the environmental variables that define the life history of the species, in management and conservation programs ex-situ and in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquín Luis Navarro
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Centro de Zoología Aplicada, Rondeau 798, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Departamento de Diversidad Biológica y Ecología, Cátedra de Problemática Ambiental, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología Animal (IDEA), Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Alvina Lèche
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Centro de Zoología Aplicada, Rondeau 798, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología Animal (IDEA), Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Natalia S Della Costa
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Centro de Zoología Aplicada, Rondeau 798, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología Animal (IDEA), Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Marilina Vera Cortez
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Centro de Zoología Aplicada, Rondeau 798, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología Animal (IDEA), Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Raúl H Marin
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos (ICTA) y Cátedra de Química Biológica, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 1611, X5000AVP Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIBYT), Av. Vélez Sarsfield 1611, CP 5016 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Mónica B Martella
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Centro de Zoología Aplicada, Rondeau 798, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología Animal (IDEA), Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina.
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Thaker M, Gupte PR, Prins HHT, Slotow R, Vanak AT. Fine-Scale Tracking of Ambient Temperature and Movement Reveals Shuttling Behavior of Elephants to Water. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Pokharel SS, Singh B, Seshagiri PB, Sukumar R. Lower levels of glucocorticoids in crop‐raiders: diet quality as a potential ‘pacifier’ against stress in free‐ranging Asian elephants in a human‐production habitat. Anim Conserv 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. S. Pokharel
- Centre for Ecological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India
| | - B. Singh
- Centre for Ecological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India
| | - P. B. Seshagiri
- Department of Molecular Reproduction and Developmental Genetics Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India
| | - R. Sukumar
- Centre for Ecological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Bangalore India
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Jachowski DS, Kauffman MJ, Jesmer BR, Sawyer H, Millspaugh JJ. Integrating physiological stress into the movement ecology of migratory ungulates: a spatial analysis with mule deer. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 6:coy054. [PMID: 30279991 PMCID: PMC6161405 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coy054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Rapid climate and human land-use change may limit the ability of long-distance migratory herbivores to optimally track or 'surf' high-quality forage during spring green-up. Understanding how anthropogenic and environmental stressors influence migratory movements is of critical importance because of their potential to cause a mismatch between the timing of animal movements and the emergence of high-quality forage. We measured stress hormones (fecal glucocorticoid metabolites; FGMs) to test hypotheses about the effects of high-quality forage tracking, human land-use and use of stopover sites on the physiological state of individuals along a migratory route. We collected and analysed FGM concentrations from 399 mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) samples obtained along a 241-km migratory route in western Wyoming, USA, during spring 2015 and 2016. In support of a fitness benefit hypothesis, individuals occupying areas closer to peak forage quality had decreased FGM levels. Specifically, for every 10-day interval closer to peak forage quality, we observed a 7% decrease in FGMs. Additionally, we observed support for both an additive anthropogenic stress hypothesis and a hypothesis that stopovers act as physiological refugia, wherein individuals sampled far from stopover sites exhibited 341% higher FGM levels if in areas of low landscape integrity compared to areas of high landscape integrity. Overall, our findings indicate that the physiological state of mule deer during migration is influenced by both anthropogenic disturbances and their ability to track high-quality forage. The availability of stopovers, however, modulates physiological responses to those stressors. Thus, our results support a recent call for the prioritization of stopover locations and connectivity between those locations in conservation planning for migratory large herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Jachowski
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
- School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, South Africa
| | - Matthew J Kauffman
- US Geological Survey, Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
| | - Brett R Jesmer
- Program in Ecology, Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
| | - Hall Sawyer
- Western Ecosystems Technology, Inc., 200 South 2nd St., Laramie, WY, USA
| | - Joshua J Millspaugh
- W.A. Franke College of Forestry and Conservation, Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
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Vijayakrishnan S, Kumar MA, Umapathy G, Kumar V, Sinha A. Physiological stress responses in wild Asian elephants Elephas maximus in a human-dominated landscape in the Western Ghats, southern India. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2018; 266:150-156. [PMID: 29777687 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2018.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Increasing anthropogenic pressures on forests, especially in the tropical regions of the world, have restricted several large mammalian species such as the Asian elephant to fragmented habitats within human-dominated landscapes. In this study, we assessed the effects of an anthropogenic landscape and its associated conflict with humans on the physiological stress responses displayed by Asian elephants in the Anamalai Hills of the Western Ghats mountains in south India. We have quantified faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations in focal individual elephants within and across herds, inhabiting both anthropogenic and natural habitats, and evaluated their physiological responses to different socio-ecological situations between November 2013 and April 2014. Physiological stress responses varied significantly among the tested elephant age- and sex categories but not across different types of social organisation. Adults generally showed higher FGM concentrations, even in the absence of stressors, than did any other age category. Males also appeared to have higher stress responses than did females. Although there was no significant variation in mean stress levels between elephants on the plateau in the absence of human interactions and those in adjacent, relatively undisturbed forest habitats, FGM concentrations increased significantly for adult and subadult individuals as well as for calves following drives, during which elephants were driven off aggressively by people. Our study emphasises the general importance of understanding individual variation in physiology and behaviour within a population of a seriously threatened mammalian species, the Asian elephant, and specifically highlights the need for long-term monitoring of the stress physiology and behavioural responses of individual elephants across both human-dominated and natural landscapes. Such studies would not only provide comprehensive insights into the adaptive biology of elephants in changing ecological regimes but also aid in the development of effective management and conservation strategies for endangered populations of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sreedhar Vijayakrishnan
- Postgraduate Programme in Wildlife Biology and Conservation, Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program and National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore, India; Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, India; National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India.
| | | | - G Umapathy
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India
| | - Vinod Kumar
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India
| | - Anindya Sinha
- Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, India; National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India; Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata, India
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Vance JA, Jachowski DS, Boynton AC, Kelly MJ. Importance of evaluating GPS telemetry collar performance in monitoring reintroduced populations. WILDLIFE SOC B 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James A. Vance
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science; The University of Virginia's College at Wise, One College Avenue; Wise VA 24293 USA
| | - David S. Jachowski
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation; Clemson University; Clemson SC 29634 USA
| | - Allen C. Boynton
- Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries; Marion VA 24354 USA
| | - Marcella J. Kelly
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation; Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Blacksburg VA 24061 USA
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Fullman TJ, Kiker GA, Gaylard A, Southworth J, Waylen P, Kerley GI. Elephants respond to resource trade-offs in an aseasonal system through daily and annual variability in resource selection. KOEDOE: AFRICAN PROTECTED AREA CONSERVATION AND SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.4102/koedoe.v59i1.1326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Animals and humans regularly make trade-offs between competing objectives. In Addo Elephant National Park (AENP), elephants (Loxodonta africana) trade off selection of resources, while managers balance tourist desires with conservation of elephants and rare plants. Elephant resource selection has been examined in seasonal savannas, but is understudied in aseasonal systems like AENP. Understanding elephant selection may suggest ways to minimise management trade-offs. We evaluated how elephants select vegetation productivity, distance to water, slope and terrain ruggedness across time in AENP and used this information to suggest management strategies that balance the needs of tourists and biodiversity. Resource selection functions with time-interacted covariates were developed for female elephants, using three data sets of daily movement to capture circadian and annual patterns of resource use. Results were predicted in areas of AENP currently unavailable to elephants to explore potential effects of future elephant access. Elephants displayed dynamic resource selection at daily and annual scales to meet competing requirements for resources. In summer, selection patterns generally conformed to those seen in savannas, but these relationships became weaker or reversed in winter. At daily scales, resource selection in the morning differed from that of midday and afternoon, likely reflecting trade-offs between acquiring sufficient forage and water. Dynamic selection strategies exist even in an aseasonal system, with both daily and annual patterns. This reinforces the importance of considering changing resource availability and trade-offs in studies of animal selection.Conservation implications: Guiding tourism based on knowledge of elephant habitat selection may improve viewing success without requiring increased elephant numbers. If AENP managers expand elephant habitat to reduce density, our model predicts where elephant use may concentrate and where botanical reserves may be needed to protect rare plants from elephant impacts.
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Landscape effects on wild boar home range size under contrasting harvest regimes in a human-dominated agro-ecosystem. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-017-1090-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Pryke JS, Roets F, Samways MJ. Wild Herbivore Grazing Enhances Insect Diversity over Livestock Grazing in an African Grassland System. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0164198. [PMID: 27783685 PMCID: PMC5082622 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Southern Africa's grassland biodiversity is threatened by habitat transformation such as commercial forestry. Ecological networks (ENs) have been instigated to alleviate the pressure of habitat transformation on local biodiversity. ENs are large scale webs of corridors and patches of natural vegetation criss-crossing production landscapes that can simulate conditions in protected areas (PAs). Many ENs have lost many native large mammal species, which have been replaced by domestic livestock to retain natural grazing dynamics, which could have an impact on the long-term value of ENs for insects. Here we compared dung beetle, butterfly and grasshopper diversity in ENs across a landscape mosaic of timber plantations, where 1) wild megaherbivores were maintained, 2) in ENs where these herbivores were replaced by livestock and, 3) in a nearby World Heritage PA which retained its natural complement of megaherbivores. Sites in the PA far from any plantation were similar in composition to those in the wild grazed EN. Presence of the wild grazers improved the alpha- and beta-diversity of all focal insect taxa when compared to domestic grazing. Furthermore, species composition shows significant differences between the two grazing systems indicating that an assemblage of native large mammals facilitates insect diversity conservation. We support the maintenance or introduction of large native mammals in ENs or similar conservation areas in production landscapes to simulate the ecological conditions and natural heterogeneity in nearby PAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S. Pryke
- Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
- * E-mail:
| | - Francois Roets
- Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Michael J. Samways
- Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
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Breuer T, Maisels F, Fishlock V. The consequences of poaching and anthropogenic change for forest elephants. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2016; 30:1019-1026. [PMID: 26801000 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 01/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Poaching has devastated forest elephant populations (Loxodonta cyclotis), and their habitat is dramatically changing. The long-term effects of poaching and other anthropogenic threats have been well studied in savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana), but the impacts of these changes for Central Africa's forest elephants have not been discussed. We examined potential repercussions of these threats and the related consequences for forest elephants in Central Africa by summarizing the lessons learned from savannah elephants and small forest elephant populations in West Africa. Forest elephant social organization is less known than the social organization of savannah elephants, but the close evolutionary history of these species suggests that they will respond to anthropogenic threats in broadly similar ways. The loss of older, experienced individuals in an elephant population disrupts ecological, social, and population parameters. Severe reduction of elephant abundance within Central Africa's forests can alter plant communities and ecosystem functions. Poaching, habitat alterations, and human population increase are probably compressing forest elephants into protected areas and increasing human-elephant conflict, which negatively affects their conservation. We encourage conservationists to look beyond documenting forest elephant population decline and address the causes of these declines when developing conversation strategies. We suggest assessing the effectiveness of the existing protected-area networks for landscape connectivity in light of current industrial and infrastructure development. Longitudinal assessments of the effects of landscape changes on forest elephant sociality and behavior are also needed. Finally, lessons learned from West African elephant population loss and habitat fragmentation should be used to inform strategies for land-use planning and managing human-elephant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Breuer
- Global Conservation Program, Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, 10460, U.S.A..
| | - Fiona Maisels
- Global Conservation Program, Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, 10460, U.S.A
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Vicki Fishlock
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Amboseli Trust for Elephants, Langata 00509, Nairobi, P.O. Box 15135, Kenya
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Cameron EZ, Ryan SJ. Welfare at Multiple Scales: Importance of Zoo Elephant Population Welfare in a World of Declining Wild Populations. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158701. [PMID: 27415004 PMCID: PMC4945041 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Elissa Z. Cameron
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Sadie J. Ryan
- Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
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Sah P, Nussear KE, Esque TC, Aiello CM, Hudson PJ, Bansal S. Inferring social structure and its drivers from refuge use in the desert tortoise, a relatively solitary species. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2136-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Vézina-Audette R, Herry C, Burns P, Frasch M, Chave E, Theoret C. Heart rate variability in relation to stress in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). THE CANADIAN VETERINARY JOURNAL = LA REVUE VETERINAIRE CANADIENNE 2016; 57:289-292. [PMID: 26933266 PMCID: PMC4751769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This study describes a safe, reliable, and accessible means to measure heart rate (HR) and HR variability (HRV) and evaluates the use of HRV as a physiological correlate of stress in the Asian elephant. A probabilistic model indicates that HRV measurements may adequately distinguish between stressed and non-stressed elephants.
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Molnar B, Fattebert J, Palme R, Ciucci P, Betschart B, Smith DW, Diehl PA. Environmental and Intrinsic Correlates of Stress in Free-Ranging Wolves. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137378. [PMID: 26398784 PMCID: PMC4580640 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND When confronted with a stressor, animals react with several physiological and behavioral responses. Although sustained or repeated stress can result in severe deleterious physiological effects, the causes of stress in free-ranging animals are yet poorly documented. In our study, we aimed at identifying the main factors affecting stress levels in free-ranging wolves (Canis lupus). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We used fecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) as an index of stress, after validating the method for its application in wolves. We analyzed a total of 450 fecal samples from eleven wolf packs belonging to three protected populations, in Italy (Abruzzo), France (Mercantour), and the United States (Yellowstone). We collected samples during two consecutive winters in each study area. We found no relationship between FCM concentrations and age, sex or social status of individuals. At the group level, our results suggest that breeding pair permanency and the loss of pack members through processes different from dispersal may importantly impact stress levels in wolves. We measured higher FCM levels in comparatively small packs living in sympatry with a population of free-ranging dogs. Lastly, our results indicate that FCM concentrations are associated with endoparasitic infections of individuals. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE In social mammals sharing strong bonds among group members, the death of one or several members of the group most likely induces important stress in the remainder of the social unit. The potential impact of social and territorial stability on stress levels should be further investigated in free-ranging populations, especially in highly social and in territorial species. As persistent or repeated stressors may facilitate or induce pathologies and physiological alterations that can affect survival and fitness, we advocate considering the potential impact of anthropogenic causes of stress in management and conservation programs regarding wolves and other wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Molnar
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Julien Fattebert
- School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Rupert Palme
- Department of Biomedical Sciences/Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Experimental Endocrinology, Vetmeduni, Vienna, Austria
| | - Paolo Ciucci
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies, University “La Sapienza”, Roma, Italy
| | - Bruno Betschart
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Douglas W. Smith
- Yellowstone Center of Resources, National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States of America
| | - Peter-Allan Diehl
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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Jachowski DS, Washburn BE, Millspaugh JJ. Revisiting the importance of accounting for seasonal and diel rhythms in fecal stress hormone studies. WILDLIFE SOC B 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David S. Jachowski
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation; Clemson University; 258 Lehotsky Hall Clemson SC 29634 USA
| | - Brian E. Washburn
- United States Department of Agriculture; Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center; 6100 Columbus Avenue Sandusky OH 44870 USA
| | - Joshua J. Millspaugh
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences; University of Missouri; 302 Natural Resources Building Columbia MO 65211 USA
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Jachowski DS, Singh NJ. Toward a mechanistic understanding of animal migration: incorporating physiological measurements in the study of animal movement. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 3:cov035. [PMID: 27293720 PMCID: PMC4778435 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cov035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/04/2015] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Movements are a consequence of an individual's motion and navigational capacity, internal state variables and the influence of external environmental conditions. Although substantial advancements have been made in methods of measuring and quantifying variation in motion capacity, navigational capacity and external environmental parameters in recent decades, the role of internal state in animal migration (and in movement in general) is comparatively little studied. Recent studies of animal movement in the wild illustrate how direct physiological measurements can improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying movement decisions. In this review, we synthesize and provide examples of how recent technical advances in the physiology-related fields of energetics, nutrition, endocrinology, immunology and ecotoxicology provide opportunities for direct measurements of physiological state in the study of animal movement. We then propose a framework for practitioners to enable better integration of studies of physiological state into animal movement ecology by assessing the mechanistic role played by physiology as both a driver and a modulator of movement. Finally, we highlight the current limitations and research priorities for better integration of direct measurements of animal physiological state into the study of animal movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S. Jachowski
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, 258 Lehotsky Hall, Clemson, SC 29634-0310, USA
- School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, SA
| | - Navinder J. Singh
- Department of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden
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Balestri M, Barresi M, Campera M, Serra V, Ramanamanjato JB, Heistermann M, Donati G. Habitat degradation and seasonality affect physiological stress levels of Eulemur collaris in littoral forest fragments. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107698. [PMID: 25229944 PMCID: PMC4168001 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The littoral forest on sandy soil is among the most threatened habitats in Madagascar and, as such, it represents a hot-spot within a conservation hot-spot. Assessing the health of the resident lemur fauna is not only critical for the long-term viability of these populations, but also necessary for the future re-habilitation of this unique habitat. Since the Endangered collared brown lemur, Eulemur collaris, is the largest seed disperser of the Malagasy south-eastern littoral forest its survival in this habitat is crucial. In this study we compared fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) levels, a measure of physiological stress and potential early indicator of population health, between groups of collared brown lemurs living in a degraded forest fragment and groups occurring in a more preserved area. For this, we analysed 279 fecal samples collected year-round from 4 groups of collared brown lemurs using a validated 11-oxoetiocholanolone enzyme immunoassay and tested if fGCM levels were influenced by reproductive stages, phenological seasons, sex, and habitat degradation. The lemurs living in the degraded forest had significantly higher fGCM levels than those living in the more preserved area. In particular, the highest fGCM levels were found during the mating season in all animals and in females during gestation in the degraded forest. Since mating and gestation are both occurring during the lean season in the littoral forest, these results likely reflect a combination of ecological and reproductive pressures. Our findings provide a clear indication that habitat degradation has additive effects to the challenges found in the natural habitat. Since increased stress hormone output may have long-term negative effects on population health and reproduction, our data emphasize the need for and may add to the development of effective conservation plans for the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Balestri
- Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Marta Barresi
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Marco Campera
- Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | | | - Michael Heistermann
- Endocrinology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Giuseppe Donati
- Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Cattet M, Macbeth BJ, Janz DM, Zedrosser A, Swenson JE, Dumond M, Stenhouse GB. Quantifying long-term stress in brown bears with the hair cortisol concentration: a biomarker that may be confounded by rapid changes in response to capture and handling. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 2:cou026. [PMID: 27293647 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cou26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The measurement of cortisol in hair is becoming important in studying the role of stress in the life history, health and ecology of wild mammals. The hair cortisol concentration (HCC) is generally believed to be a reliable indicator of long-term stress that can reflect frequent or prolonged activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis over weeks to months through passive diffusion from the blood supply to the follicular cells that produce the hair. Diffusion of cortisol from tissues surrounding the follicle and glandular secretions (sebum and sweat) that coat the growing hair may also affect the HCC, but the extent of these effects is thought to be minimal. In this study, we report on a range of factors that are associated with, and possibly influence, cortisol concentrations in the hair of free-ranging brown bears (Ursus arctos). Through two levels of analyses that differed in sample sizes and availability of predictor variables, we identified the presence or absence of capture, restraint and handling, as well as different methods of capture, as significant factors that appeared to influence HCC in a time frame that was too short (minutes to hours) to be explained by passive diffusion from the blood supply alone. Furthermore, our results suggest that HCC was altered after hair growth had ceased and blood supply to the hair follicle was terminated. However, we also confirmed that HCC was inversely associated with brown bear body condition and was, therefore, responsive to diminished food availability/quality and possibly other long-term stressors that affect body condition. Collectively, our findings emphasize the importance of further elucidating the mechanisms of cortisol accumulation in hair and the influence of long- and short-term stressors on these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Cattet
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5B4
| | - Bryan J Macbeth
- Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 4Z6
| | - David M Janz
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5B4
| | - Andreas Zedrosser
- Department of Environmental and Health Studies, Telemark University College, 3800 Bø, Norway
| | - Jon E Swenson
- Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NO-1432 Ås, Norway
| | - Mathieu Dumond
- Department of Environment, Government of Nunavut, Kugluktuk, Nunavut, Canada X0B 0E0
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40
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Cattet M, Macbeth BJ, Janz DM, Zedrosser A, Swenson JE, Dumond M, Stenhouse GB. Quantifying long-term stress in brown bears with the hair cortisol concentration: a biomarker that may be confounded by rapid changes in response to capture and handling. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 2:cou026. [PMID: 27293647 PMCID: PMC4732478 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cou026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The measurement of cortisol in hair is becoming important in studying the role of stress in the life history, health and ecology of wild mammals. The hair cortisol concentration (HCC) is generally believed to be a reliable indicator of long-term stress that can reflect frequent or prolonged activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis over weeks to months through passive diffusion from the blood supply to the follicular cells that produce the hair. Diffusion of cortisol from tissues surrounding the follicle and glandular secretions (sebum and sweat) that coat the growing hair may also affect the HCC, but the extent of these effects is thought to be minimal. In this study, we report on a range of factors that are associated with, and possibly influence, cortisol concentrations in the hair of free-ranging brown bears (Ursus arctos). Through two levels of analyses that differed in sample sizes and availability of predictor variables, we identified the presence or absence of capture, restraint and handling, as well as different methods of capture, as significant factors that appeared to influence HCC in a time frame that was too short (minutes to hours) to be explained by passive diffusion from the blood supply alone. Furthermore, our results suggest that HCC was altered after hair growth had ceased and blood supply to the hair follicle was terminated. However, we also confirmed that HCC was inversely associated with brown bear body condition and was, therefore, responsive to diminished food availability/quality and possibly other long-term stressors that affect body condition. Collectively, our findings emphasize the importance of further elucidating the mechanisms of cortisol accumulation in hair and the influence of long- and short-term stressors on these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Cattet
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5B4
- Corresponding author: Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5B4. Tel: +1 306 966 2162.
| | - Bryan J. Macbeth
- Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 4Z6
| | - David M. Janz
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5B4
| | - Andreas Zedrosser
- Department of Environmental and Health Studies, Telemark University College, 3800 Bø, Norway
| | - Jon E. Swenson
- Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NO-1432 Ås, Norway
| | - Mathieu Dumond
- Department of Environment, Government of Nunavut, Kugluktuk, Nunavut, Canada X0B 0E0
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LACK OF SPATIAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESPONSES TO IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION APPLICATION IN AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (LOXODONTA AFRICANA). J Zoo Wildl Med 2013; 44:S52-74. [DOI: 10.1638/1042-7260-44.4s.s52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Shannon G, Slotow R, Durant SM, Sayialel KN, Poole J, Moss C, McComb K. Effects of social disruption in elephants persist decades after culling. Front Zool 2013; 10:62. [PMID: 24152378 PMCID: PMC3874604 DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-10-62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 10/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Multi-level fission-fusion societies, characteristic of a number of large brained mammal species including some primates, cetaceans and elephants, are among the most complex and cognitively demanding animal social systems. Many free-ranging populations of these highly social mammals already face severe human disturbance, which is set to accelerate with projected anthropogenic environmental change. Despite this, our understanding of how such disruption affects core aspects of social functioning is still very limited. Results We now use novel playback experiments to assess decision-making abilities integral to operating successfully within complex societies, and provide the first systematic evidence that fundamental social skills may be significantly impaired by anthropogenic disruption. African elephants (Loxodonta africana) that had experienced separation from family members and translocation during culling operations decades previously performed poorly on systematic tests of their social knowledge, failing to distinguish between callers on the basis of social familiarity. Moreover, elephants from the disrupted population showed no evidence of discriminating between callers when age-related cues simulated individuals on an increasing scale of social dominance, in sharp contrast to the undisturbed population where this core social ability was well developed. Conclusions Key decision-making abilities that are fundamental to living in complex societies could be significantly altered in the long-term through exposure to severely disruptive events (e.g. culling and translocation). There is an assumption that wildlife responds to increasing pressure from human societies only in terms of demography, however our study demonstrates that the effects may be considerably more pervasive. These findings highlight the potential long-term negative consequences of acute social disruption in cognitively advanced species that live in close-knit kin-based societies, and alter our perspective on the health and functioning of populations that have been subjected to anthropogenic disturbance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graeme Shannon
- Mammal Vocal Communication & Cognition Research, School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QH, UK.,Amarula Elephant Research Programme, School of Biological and Conservation Sciences, University of Kwazulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Pvt. Bag 54001, Durban 4000, South Africa
| | - Rob Slotow
- Amarula Elephant Research Programme, School of Biological and Conservation Sciences, University of Kwazulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Pvt. Bag 54001, Durban 4000, South Africa
| | - Sarah M Durant
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - Katito N Sayialel
- Amboseli Elephant Research Project, Amboseli Trust for Elephants, PO Box 15135, Langata, Nairobi 00509, Kenya
| | - Joyce Poole
- Amboseli Elephant Research Project, Amboseli Trust for Elephants, PO Box 15135, Langata, Nairobi 00509, Kenya.,ElephantVoices, Buskhelinga 3, Sandefjord 3236, Norway
| | - Cynthia Moss
- Amboseli Elephant Research Project, Amboseli Trust for Elephants, PO Box 15135, Langata, Nairobi 00509, Kenya
| | - Karen McComb
- Mammal Vocal Communication & Cognition Research, School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QH, UK
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Jachowski DS, Slotow R, Millspaugh JJ. Good virtual fences make good neighbors: opportunities for conservation. Anim Conserv 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. S. Jachowski
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation; Virginia Tech; Blacksburg VA USA
- Amarula Elephant Research Programme; School of Life Sciences; University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus; Durban South Africa
| | - R. Slotow
- Amarula Elephant Research Programme; School of Life Sciences; University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus; Durban South Africa
| | - J. J. Millspaugh
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences; University of Missouri; Columbia MO USA
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Jachowski DS, Montgomery RA, Slotow R, Millspaugh JJ. Unravelling complex associations between physiological state and movement of African elephants. Funct Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rob Slotow
- Amarula Elephant Research Programme; School of Life Sciences; University of KwaZulu-Natal; Westville Campus; Durban; South Africa
| | - Joshua J. Millspaugh
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences; University of Missouri; Columbia; Missouri; 65201; USA
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Kioko J, Zink E, Sawdy M, Kiffner C. Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Demography and Behaviour in the Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem, Tanzania. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.3957/056.043.0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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Jachowski DS, Slotow R, Millspaugh JJ. Delayed physiological acclimatization by African elephants following reintroduction. Anim Conserv 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. S. Jachowski
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences; University of Missouri; Columbia MO USA
- Amarula Elephant Research Programme; School of Life Sciences; University of KwaZulu-Natal; Durban South Africa
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation; Virginia Tech; Blacksburg VA USA
| | - R. Slotow
- Amarula Elephant Research Programme; School of Life Sciences; University of KwaZulu-Natal; Durban South Africa
| | - J. J. Millspaugh
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences; University of Missouri; Columbia MO USA
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