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Banjare L, Singh Y, Verma SK, Singh AK, Kumar P, Kumar S, Jain AK, Thareja S. Multifaceted 3D-QSAR analysis for the identification of pharmacophoric features of biphenyl analogues as aromatase inhibitors. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2023; 41:1322-1341. [PMID: 34963408 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.2019122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Aromatase, a cytochrome P450 enzyme, is responsible for the conversion of androgens to estrogens, which fuel the multiplication of cancerous cells. Inhibition of estrogen biosynthesis by aromatase inhibitors (AIs) is one of the highly advanced therapeutic approach available for the treatment of estrogen-positive breast cancer. Biphenyl moiety aids lipophilicity to the conjugated scaffold and enhances the accessibility of the ligand to the target. The present study is focused on the investigation of, the mode of binding of biphenyl with aromatase, prediction of ligand-target binding affinities, and pharmacophoric features essential for favorable for aromatase inhibition. A multifaceted 3D-QSAR (SOMFA, Field and Gaussian) along with molecular docking, molecular dynamic simulations and pharmacophore mapping were performed on a series of biphenyl bearing molecules (1-33) with a wide range of aromatase inhibitory activity (0.15-920 nM). Among the generated 3D-QSAR models, the Force field-based 3D-QSAR model (R2 = 0.9151) was best as compared to SOMFA and Gaussian Field (R2=0.7706, 0.9074, respectively). However, all the generated 3D-QSAR models were statistically fit, robust enough, and reliable to explain the variation in biological activity in relation to pharmacophoric features of dataset molecules. A four-point pharmacophoric features with three acceptor sites (A), one aromatic ring (R) features, AAAR_1, were obtained with the site and survival score values 0.890 and 4.613, respectively. The generated 3D-QSAR plots in the study insight into the structure-activity relationship of dataset molecules, which may help in the designing of potent biphenyl derivatives as newer inhibitors of aromatase.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laxmi Banjare
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Central University, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Yogesh Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Central, University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Sant Kumar Verma
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Atul Kumar Singh
- Molecular Signaling and Drug Discovery Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India
| | - Pradeep Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Central, University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Shashank Kumar
- Molecular Signaling and Drug Discovery Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India
| | - Akhlesh Kumar Jain
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Central University, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Suresh Thareja
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Central, University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
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2
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Roleira FMF, Costa SC, Gomes AR, Varela CL, Amaral C, Augusto TV, Correia-da-Silva G, Romeo I, Costa G, Alcaro S, Teixeira N, Tavares-da-Silva EJ. Design, synthesis, biological activity evaluation and structure-activity relationships of new steroidal aromatase inhibitors. The case of C-ring and 7β substituted steroids. Bioorg Chem 2023; 131:106286. [PMID: 36459778 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2022.106286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In this work, new steroidal aromatase inhibitors (AIs) were designed, synthesized, and tested. In one approach, C-ring substituted steroids namely those functionalized at C-11 position with an α or β hydroxyl group or with a carbonyl group as well as C-9/C-11 steroidal olefins and epoxides were studied. It was found that the carbonyl group at C-11 is more beneficial for aromatase inhibition than the hydroxyl group, and that the C-ring epoxides were more potent than the C-ring olefins, leading to the discovery of a very strong AI, compound 7, with an IC50 of 0.011 μM, better than Exemestane, the steroidal AI in clinical use, which presents an IC50 of 0.050 μM. In another approach, we explored the biological activity of A-ring C-1/C-2 steroidal olefins and epoxides in relation to aromatase inhibition and compared it with the biological activity of C-ring C-9/C-11 steroidal olefins and epoxides. On the contrary to what was observed for the C-ring olefins and epoxides, the A-ring epoxides were less potent than A-ring olefins. Finally, the effect of 7β-methyl substitution on aromatase inhibition was compared with 7α-methyl substitution, showing that 7β-methyl is better than 7α-methyl substitution. Molecular modelling studies showed that the 7β-methyl on C-7 seems to protrude into the opening to the access channel of aromatase in comparison to the 7α-methyl. This comparison led to find the best steroidal AI (12a) of this work with IC50 of 0.0058 μM. Compound 12a showed higher aromatase inhibition capacity than two of the three AIs currently in clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda M F Roleira
- Univ Coimbra, CIEPQPF, FFUC, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Pólo III - Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Saul C Costa
- Univ Coimbra, FFUC, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Pólo III - Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana R Gomes
- Univ Coimbra, CIEPQPF, FFUC, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Pólo III - Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Carla L Varela
- Univ Coimbra, CIEPQPF, FFUC, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Pólo III - Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Cristina Amaral
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Tiago V Augusto
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Georgina Correia-da-Silva
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Isabella Romeo
- Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giosuè Costa
- Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Stefano Alcaro
- Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Natércia Teixeira
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Elisiário J Tavares-da-Silva
- Univ Coimbra, CIEPQPF, FFUC, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Pólo III - Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal.
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Zheng W, Cheng X, Chen H, Jiang Z, Sun Y, Yu Z, Yang T, Zhang L, Liu Y, Ji X, Wu Z. Novel 18F-Labeled PET Tracers Specific to Aromatase: Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:2456-2470. [PMID: 35621695 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The abnormal expression of aromatase is associated with the occurrence and development of a variety of neurological diseases and tumors. A series of 18F-labeled and 68Ga-labeled potential aromatase-binding candidate compounds were designed and synthesized based on the structures of aromatase inhibitors. Competitive inhibition experiments in vitro and molecular docking showed that BIBD-069 and BIBD-071 have high affinity for aromatase. The radiolabeling conditions of [18F]BIBD-069 and [18F]BIBD-071 were simple, and the yields were high. Biodistribution and in vivo inhibition experiments confirmed that [18F]BIBD-069 and [18F]BIBD-071 specifically bind to aromatase. [18F]BIBD-069 and [18F]BIBD-071 selectively imaged the amygdala and nucleus of the stria terminalis, which is similar to the imaging result of [11C]vorozole. Radiometabolites of [18F]BIBD-069 and [18F]BIBD-071 did not bind to aromatase and interfered with brain imaging. MicroPET-CT imaging further confirmed that [18F]BIBD-069 and [18F]BIBD-071 can specifically bind to aromatase and were not defluorinated in vivo. Given that [18F]BIBD-069 and [18F]BIBD-071 exhibit excellent aromatase binding affinities, mild radiolabeling conditions, and good pharmacokinetics, they can be important tools for the diagnosis and treatment of aromatase-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zheng
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Xuebo Cheng
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Hualong Chen
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Zeng Jiang
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Yuli Sun
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Ziyue Yu
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Tingyu Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Lu Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Yajing Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Xunming Ji
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.,Institute of Hypoxia Medicine, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Zehui Wu
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
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Abaffy T, Matsunami H. 19-hydroxy Steroids in the Aromatase Reaction: Review on Expression and Potential Functions. J Endocr Soc 2021; 5:bvab050. [PMID: 34095690 PMCID: PMC8169043 DOI: 10.1210/jendso/bvab050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Scientific evidence related to the aromatase reaction in various biological processes spanning from mid-1960 to today is abundant; however, as our analytical sensitivity increases, a new look at the old chemical reaction is necessary. Here, we review an irreversible aromatase reaction from the substrate androstenedione. It proceeds in 3 consecutive steps. In the first 2 steps, 19-hydroxy steroids are produced. In the third step, estrone is produced. They can dissociate from the enzyme complex and either accumulate in tissues or enter the blood. In this review, we want to highlight the potential importance of these 19-hydroxy steroids in various physiological and pathological conditions. We focus primarily on 19-hydroxy steroids, and in particular on the 19-hydroxyandrostenedione produced by the incomplete aromatase reaction. Using a PubMed database and the search term “aromatase reaction,” 19-hydroxylation of androgens and steroid measurements, we detail the chemistry of the aromatase reaction and list previous and current methods used to measure 19-hydroxy steroids. We present evidence of the existence of 19-hydroxy steroids in brain tissue, ovaries, testes, adrenal glands, prostate cancer, as well as during pregnancy and parturition and in Cushing’s disease. Based on the available literature, a potential involvement of 19-hydroxy steroids in the brain differentiation process, sperm motility, ovarian function, and hypertension is suggested and warrants future research. We hope that with the advancement of highly specific and sensitive analytical methods, future research into 19-hydroxy steroids will be encouraged, as much remains to be learned and discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Abaffy
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Hiroaki Matsunami
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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Di Nardo G, Di Venere A, Zhang C, Nicolai E, Castrignanò S, Di Paola L, Gilardi G, Mei G. Polymorphism on human aromatase affects protein dynamics and substrate binding: spectroscopic evidence. Biol Direct 2021; 16:8. [PMID: 33902660 PMCID: PMC8073906 DOI: 10.1186/s13062-021-00292-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human aromatase is a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily, involved in steroid hormones biosynthesis. In particular, it converts androgen into estrogens being therefore responsible for the correct sex steroids balance. Due to its capacity in producing estrogens it has also been considered as a promising target for breast cancer therapy. Two single-nucleotide polymorphisms (R264C and R264H) have been shown to alter aromatase activity and they have been associated to an increased or decreased risk for estrogen-dependent pathologies. Here, the effect of these mutations on the protein dynamics is investigated by UV/FTIR and time resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. H/D exchange rates were measured by FTIR for the three proteins in the ligand-free, substrate- and inhibitor-bound forms and the data indicate that the wild-type enzyme undergoes a conformational change leading to a more compact tertiary structure upon substrate or inhibitor binding. Indeed, the H/D exchange rates are decreased when a ligand is present. In the variants, the exchange rates in the ligand-free and -bound forms are similar, indicating that a structural change is lacking, despite the single amino acid substitution is located in the peripheral shell of the protein molecule. Moreover, the fluorescence lifetimes data show that the quenching effect on tryptophan-224 observed upon ligand binding in the wild-type, is absent in both variants. Since this residue is located in the catalytic pocket, these findings suggest that substrate entrance and/or retention in the active site is partially compromised in both mutants. A contact network analysis demonstrates that the protein structure is organized in two main clusters, whose connectivity is altered by ligand binding, especially in correspondence of helix-G, where the amino acid substitutions occur. Our findings demonstrate that SNPs resulting in mutations on aromatase surface modify the protein flexibility that is required for substrate binding and catalysis. The cluster analysis provides a rationale for such effect, suggesting helix G as a possible target for aromatase inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Di Nardo
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e Biologia dei Sistemi, Università di Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy
| | - Almerinda Di Venere
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Università di Roma Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133, Rome, Italy
| | - Chao Zhang
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e Biologia dei Sistemi, Università di Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy
| | - Eleonora Nicolai
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Università di Roma Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Castrignanò
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e Biologia dei Sistemi, Università di Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy
| | - Luisa Di Paola
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Unità di Fondamenti Chimico-Fisici dell'Ingegneria Chimica, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, via Álvaro del Portillo 21, 00128, Rome, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Gilardi
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e Biologia dei Sistemi, Università di Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy.
| | - Giampiero Mei
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Università di Roma Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133, Rome, Italy.
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Avvaru SP, Noolvi MN, More UA, Chakraborty S, Dash A, Aminabhavi TM, Narayan KP, Sutariya V. Synthesis and Anticancer Activity of Thiadiazole Containing Thiourea, Benzothiazole and Imidazo[2,1-b][1,3,4]thiadiazole Scaffolds. Med Chem 2021; 17:750-765. [PMID: 32427086 DOI: 10.2174/1573406416666200519085626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A great array of nitrogen-containing heterocyclic rings were being extensively explored for their functional versatility in the field of medicine, especially in anticancer research. 1,3,4- thiadiazole is one of such heterocyclic rings with promising anticancer activity against several cancer cell lines, inhibiting diverse biological targets. INTRODUCTION The 1,3,4-thiadiazole, when equipped with other heterocyclic scaffolds, has displayed enhanced anticancer properties. The thiourea, benzothiazole, imidazo[2,1,b][1,3,4]-thiadiazoles are such potential scaffolds with promising anticancer activity. METHODS A new series of 5-substituted-1,3,4-thiadiazoles linked with phenyl thiourea, benzothiazole and 2,6-disubstituted imidazo[2,1-b][1,3,4]thiadiazole derivatives were synthesized and tested for invitro anticancer activity on various cancer cell lines. RESULTS The National Cancer Institute's preliminary anticancer screening results showed compounds 4b and 5b having potent antileukemic activity. Compound 4b selectively showed 32 percent lethality on Human Leukemia-60 cell line. The docking studies of the derivatives on aromatase enzyme (Protein Data Bank: 3S7S) have shown reversible interactions at the active site with good docking scores comparable to Letrozole and Exemestane. Furthermore, the selected derivatives were tested for anticancer activity on HeLa cell line based on the molecular docking studies. CONCLUSION Compounds 4b and 5b showed effective inhibition equivalent to Letrozole. These preliminary biological screening studies have given positive anticancer activity for these new classes of derivatives. An additional research study like the mechanism of action of the anticancer activity of this new class of compounds is necessary. These groundwork studies illuminate a future pathway for research of this class of compounds enabling the discovery of potent antitumor agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P Avvaru
- Department of Pharmacy, Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad, India
| | - Malleshappa N Noolvi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Shree Dhanvantary Pharmacy College, Surat, India
| | - Uttam A More
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Shree Dhanvantary Pharmacy College, Surat, India
| | | | - Ashutosh Dash
- Radiopharmaceuticals Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
| | | | - Kumar P Narayan
- Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology & Science-Pilani, Hyderabad, India
| | - Vishnu Sutariya
- Pharmaceutical Analysis, Shree Dhanvantary Pharmacy College, Surat, India
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7
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Banjare L, Verma SK, Jain AK, Thareja S. Design and pharmacophoric identification of flavonoid scaffold‐based aromatase inhibitors. J Heterocycl Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jhet.4068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laxmi Banjare
- School of Pharmaceutical SciencesGuru Ghasidas Central University Bilaspur Chhattisgarh India
| | - Sant Kumar Verma
- School of Pharmaceutical SciencesGuru Ghasidas Central University Bilaspur Chhattisgarh India
| | - Akhlesh Kumar Jain
- School of Pharmaceutical SciencesGuru Ghasidas Central University Bilaspur Chhattisgarh India
| | - Suresh Thareja
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural ProductsCentral University of Punjab Bathinda Punjab India
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8
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Paço L, Zarate-Perez F, Clouser AF, Atkins WM, Hackett JC. Dynamics and Mechanism of Binding of Androstenedione to Membrane-Associated Aromatase. Biochemistry 2020; 59:2999-3009. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.0c00460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lorela Paço
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-7610, United States
| | - Francisco Zarate-Perez
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics and Massey Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0035, United States
| | - Amanda F. Clouser
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-7610, United States
| | - William M. Atkins
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-7610, United States
| | - John C. Hackett
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics and Massey Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0035, United States
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9
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Yamaguchi Y, Nishizono N, Oda K. Evaluation of Synthesized Ester or Amide Coumarin Derivatives on Aromatase Inhibitory Activity. Biol Pharm Bull 2020; 43:1179-1187. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b20-00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Yamaguchi
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido
| | - Naozumi Nishizono
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido
| | - Kazuaki Oda
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido
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Abstract
Aromatase CYP19A1 catalyzes the synthesis of estrogens in endocrine, reproductive and central nervous systems. Higher levels of 17β-estradiol (E2) are associated with malignancies and diseases of the breast, ovary and endometrium, while low E2 levels increase the risk for osteoporosis, cardiovascular diseases and cognitive disorders. E2, the transcriptional activator of the estrogen receptors, is also known to be involved in non-genomic signaling as a neurotransmitter/neuromodulator, with recent evidence for rapid estrogen synthesis (RES) within the synaptic terminal. Although regulation of brain aromatase activity by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation has been suggested, it remains obscure in the endocrine and reproductive systems. RES and overabundance of estrogens could stimulate the genomic and non-genomic signaling pathways, and genotoxic effects of estrogen metabolites. Here, by utilizing biochemical, cellular, mass spectrometric, and structural data we unequivocally demonstrate phosphorylation of human placental aromatase and regulation of its activity. We report that human aromatase has multiple phosphorylation sites, some of which are consistently detectable. Phosphorylation of the residue Y361 at the reductase-coupling interface significantly elevates aromatase activity. Other sites include the active site residue S478 and several at the membrane interface. We present the evidence that two histidine residues are phosphorylated. Furthermore, oxidation of two proline residues near the active site may have implications in regulation. Taken together, the results demonstrate that aromatase activity is regulated by phosphorylation and possibly other post-translational modifications. Protein level regulation of aromatase activity not only represents a paradigm shift in estrogen-mediated biology, it could also explain unresolved clinical questions such as aromatase inhibitor resistance.
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Ferreira Almeida C, Oliveira A, João Ramos M, Fernandes PA, Teixeira N, Amaral C. Estrogen receptor-positive (ER +) breast cancer treatment: Are multi-target compounds the next promising approach? Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 177:113989. [PMID: 32330493 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.113989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine therapy is currently the main therapeutic approach for estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer, the most frequent subtype of breast cancer in women worldwide. For this subtype of tumors, the current clinical treatment includes aromatase inhibitors (AIs) and anti-estrogenic compounds, such as Tamoxifen and Fulvestrant, being AIs the first-line treatment option for post-menopausal women. Moreover, the recent guidelines also suggest the use of these compounds by pre-menopausal women after suppressing ovaries function. However, besides its therapeutic efficacy, the prolonged use of this type of therapies may lead to the development of several adverse effects, as well as, endocrine resistance, limiting the effectiveness of such treatments. In order to surpass this issues and clinical concerns, during the last years, several studies have been suggesting alternative therapeutic approaches, considering the function of aromatase, ERα and ERβ. Here, we review the structural and functional features of these three targets and their importance in ER+ breast cancer treatment, as well as, the current treatment strategies used in clinic, emphasizing the importance of the development of multi-target compounds able to simultaneously modulate these key targets, as a novel and promising therapeutic strategy for this type of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Ferreira Almeida
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, n° 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Oliveira
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Computational Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria João Ramos
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Computational Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro A Fernandes
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Computational Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Natércia Teixeira
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, n° 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Cristina Amaral
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, n° 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
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12
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Ritacco I, Spinello A, Ippoliti E, Magistrato A. Post-Translational Regulation of CYP450s Metabolism As Revealed by All-Atoms Simulations of the Aromatase Enzyme. J Chem Inf Model 2019; 59:2930-2940. [PMID: 31033287 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.9b00157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Phosphorylation by kinases enzymes is a widespread regulatory mechanism able of rapidly altering the function of target proteins. Among these are cytochrome P450s (CYP450), a superfamily of enzymes performing the oxidation of endogenous and exogenous substrates thanks to the electron supply of a redox partner. In spite of its pivotal role, the molecular mechanism by which phosphorylation modulates CYP450s metabolism remains elusive. Here by performing microsecond-long all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, we disclose how phosphorylation regulates estrogen biosynthesis, catalyzed by the Human Aromatase (HA) enzyme. Namely, we unprecedentedly propose that HA phosphorylation at Y361 markedly stabilizes its adduct with the flavin mononucleotide domain of CYP450s reductase (CPR), the redox partner of microsomal CYP450s, and a variety of other proteins. With CPR present at physiological conditions in a limiting ratio with respect to its multiple oxidative partners, the enhanced stability of the CPR/HA adduct may favor HA in the competition with the other proteins requiring CPR's electron supply, ultimately facilitating the electron transfer and estrogen biosynthesis. As a result, our work elucidates at atomic-level the post-translational regulation of CYP450s catalysis. Given the potential for rational clinical management of diseases associated with steroid metabolism disorders, unraveling this mechanism is of utmost importance, and raises the intriguing perspective of exploiting this knowledge to devise novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida Ritacco
- CNR-IOM-Democritos c/o International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) , via Bonomea 265 , 34136 Trieste , Italy
| | - Angelo Spinello
- CNR-IOM-Democritos c/o International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) , via Bonomea 265 , 34136 Trieste , Italy
| | - Emiliano Ippoliti
- IAS-5/INM-9 Computational Biomedicine Institute and JARA-HPC, Forschungszentrum Jülich , Wilhelm-Johnen-Straße , 52425 Jülich , Germany
| | - Alessandra Magistrato
- CNR-IOM-Democritos c/o International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) , via Bonomea 265 , 34136 Trieste , Italy
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13
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The Catalytic Mechanism of Steroidogenic Cytochromes P450 from All-Atom Simulations: Entwinement with Membrane Environment, Redox Partners, and Post-Transcriptional Regulation. Catalysts 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/catal9010081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochromes P450 (CYP450s) promote the biosynthesis of steroid hormones with major impact on the onset of diseases such as breast and prostate cancers. By merging distinct functions into the same catalytic scaffold, steroidogenic CYP450s enhance complex chemical transformations with extreme efficiency and selectivity. Mammalian CYP450s and their redox partners are membrane-anchored proteins, dynamically associating to form functional machineries. Mounting evidence signifies that environmental factors are strictly intertwined with CYP450s catalysis. Atomic-level simulations have the potential to provide insights into the catalytic mechanism of steroidogenic CYP450s and on its regulation by environmental factors, furnishing information often inaccessible to experimental means. In this review, after an introduction of computational methods commonly employed to tackle these systems, we report the current knowledge on three steroidogenic CYP450s—CYP11A1, CYP17A1, and CYP19A1—endowed with multiple catalytic functions and critically involved in cancer onset. In particular, besides discussing their catalytic mechanisms, we highlight how the membrane environment contributes to (i) regulate ligand channeling through these enzymes, (ii) modulate their interactions with specific protein partners, (iii) mediate post-transcriptional regulation induced by phosphorylation. The results presented set the basis for developing novel therapeutic strategies aimed at fighting diseases originating from steroid metabolism dysfunction.
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14
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Ghosh D, Egbuta C, Lo J. Testosterone complex and non-steroidal ligands of human aromatase. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2018; 181:11-19. [PMID: 29476820 PMCID: PMC5997392 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 aromatase (AROM) catalyzes the biosynthesis of estrogen from androgen. Previously crystal structures of human AROM in complex with the substrate androstenedione, and inhibitors exemestane, as well as the newly designed steroidal compounds, have been reported. Here we report the first crystal structure of testosterone complex of human placental AROM. Testosterone binds at the androgen-specific heme distal pocket. The polar and hydrophobic interactions with the surrounding residues resemble the interactions observed for other ligands. The heme proximal region comprises the intermolecular interface in AROM, and also the putative interaction surface of its redox partner cytochrome P450 reductase. Unreported previously, the proximal region is characterized by a large surface cavity, unlike most known P450's. Using five best X-ray data sets from androstenedione and testosterone complexes of AROM, we now unequivocally show the presence of an unexplained ligand electron density inside the proximal cavity. The density is interpreted as ordered five ethylene glycol units of polyethylene glycols used as a solvent for steroids and also in crystallization. Interestingly, polyethylene glycol exhibits weak inhibition of AROM enzyme activity in a time dependent manner. Besides its critical role in the redox partner coupling and electron transfer process, the proximal cavity possibly serves as the interaction site for other molecules that may have regulatory effects on AROM activity. In addition, the new data also reveal a previously unidentified water channel linking the active site to the lipid interface. The channel could be the predicted passage for water molecules involved in catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debashis Ghosh
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210 United States.
| | - Chinaza Egbuta
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210 United States
| | - Jessica Lo
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210 United States
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15
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Lee S, Barron MG. 3D-QSAR study of steroidal and azaheterocyclic human aromatase inhibitors using quantitative profile of protein-ligand interactions. J Cheminform 2018; 10:2. [PMID: 29349513 PMCID: PMC5773458 DOI: 10.1186/s13321-017-0253-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Aromatase is a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily responsible for a key step in the biosynthesis of estrogens. As estrogens are involved in the control of important reproduction-related processes, including sexual differentiation and maturation, aromatase is a potential target for endocrine disrupting chemicals as well as breast cancer therapy. In this work, 3D-QSAR combined with quantitative profile of protein-ligand interactions was employed in the identification and characterization of critical steric and electronic features of aromatase-inhibitor complexes and the estimation of their quantitative contribution to inhibition potency. Bioactivity data on pIC50 values of 175 steroidal and 124 azaheterocyclic human aromatase inhibitors (AIs) were used for the 3D-QSAR analysis. For the quantitative description of the effects of the hydrophobic contact and nitrogen-heme-iron coordination on aromatase inhibition, the hydrophobicity density field model and the smallest dual descriptor Δf(r) S were introduced, respectively. The model revealed that hydrophobic contact and nitrogen-heme-iron coordination primarily determines inhibition potency of steroidal and azaheterocyclic AIs, respectively. Moreover, hydrogen bonds with key amino acid residues, in particular Asp309 and Met375, and interaction with the heme-iron are required for potent inhibition. Phe221 and Thr310 appear to be quite flexible and adopt different conformations according to a substituent at 4- or 6-position of steroids. Flexible docking results indicate that proper representation of the residues' flexibility is critical for reasonable description of binding of the structurally diverse inhibitors. Our results provide a quantitative and mechanistic understanding of inhibitory activity of steroidal and azaheterocyclic AIs of relevance to adverse outcome pathway development and rational drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sehan Lee
- Gulf Ecology Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1 Sabine Island Drive, Gulf Breeze, FL, 32561, USA.
| | - Mace G Barron
- Gulf Ecology Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1 Sabine Island Drive, Gulf Breeze, FL, 32561, USA
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16
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Yamaguchi Y, Nishizono N, Kobayashi D, Yoshimura T, Wada K, Oda K. Evaluation of synthesized coumarin derivatives on aromatase inhibitory activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2017; 27:2645-2649. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2017.01.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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17
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Baravalle R, Di Nardo G, Bandino A, Barone I, Catalano S, Andò S, Gilardi G. Impact of R264C and R264H polymorphisms in human aromatase function. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 167:23-32. [PMID: 27702664 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The cytochrome P450 aromatase is involved in the last step of sex hormones biosynthesis by converting androgens into estrogens. The human enzyme is highly polymorphic and literature data correlate aromatase single nucleotide polymorphisms to the onset of pathologies such as breast cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. The aims of this study were i) to study the influence of the mutations R264C and R264H on the structure-function of the enzyme also upon phosphorylation by selected kinases and ii) to compare the activity of the variants to that of aromatase wild type in two different cell lines. Far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopy, thermal denaturation experiments and CO-binding assay showed that the two polymorphic variants are correctly folded. Steady-state kinetics experiments showed that rArom R264C and R264H exhibit a 1.5 and 3.4 folds lower catalytic efficiency, respectively, when compared to the wild type protein. Since R264 is part of the consensus motif of PKA and PKG1, phosphorylation experiments were performed to study the effect on aromatase function. Phosphorylation by PKA caused a decrease in activity by 36.2%, 49.3% and 27.9% in the wild type, R264C and R264H proteins respectively. Phosphorylation by PKG1 was also found to decrease the activity by 30.3%, 30.5% and 15.4% in the wild type, R264C and R264H proteins respectively. Experiments performed on the three full-length proteins expressed in human MCF-7 breast cancer cells and rat ST14A neuronal cells showed that, depending on the cell line used, the activity of the proteins is different, implicating different cellular mechanisms modulating aromatase activity. This work demonstrate that R264 polymorphism causes an intrinsic alteration of aromatase activity together with a different consensus for phosphorylation by different kinases, indicating that estrogen production can be different when such mutations are present. These findings are significant in understanding the onset and treatment of pathologies in which aromatase has been shown to be involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Baravalle
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123 Torino, Italy
| | - Giovanna Di Nardo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123 Torino, Italy; CrisDi, Interdepartmental Center for Crystallography, via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125, Torino, Italy
| | - Andrea Bandino
- Department of Medicine and Experimental Oncology, University of Torino, Via Michelangelo 27, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Ines Barone
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Stefania Catalano
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Sebastiano Andò
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Gilardi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123 Torino, Italy; CrisDi, Interdepartmental Center for Crystallography, via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125, Torino, Italy.
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18
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Jha T, Adhikari N, Halder AK, Saha A. Ligand- and Structure-Based Drug Design of Non-Steroidal Aromatase Inhibitors (NSAIs) in Breast Cancer. Oncology 2017. [DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0549-5.ch004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Aromatase is a multienzyme complex overexpressed in breast cancer and responsible for estrogen production. It is the potential target for designing anti-breast cancer drugs. Ligand and Structure-Based Drug Designing approaches (LBDD and SBDD) are involved in development of active and more specific Nonsteroidal Aromatase Inhibitors (NSAIs). Different LBDD and SBDD approaches are presented here to understand their utility in designing novel NSAIs. It is observed that molecules should possess a five or six membered heterocyclic nitrogen containing ring to coordinate with heme portion of aromatase for inhibition. Moreover, one or two hydrogen bond acceptor features, hydrophobicity, and steric factors may play crucial roles for anti-aromatase activity. Electrostatic, van der Waals, and p-p interactions are other important factors that determine binding affinity of inhibitors. HQSAR, LDA-QSAR, GQSAR, CoMFA, and CoMSIA approaches, pharmacophore mapping followed by virtual screening, docking, and dynamic simulation may be effective approaches for designing new potent anti-aromatase molecules.
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19
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Karmakar T, Roy S, Balaram H, Balasubramanian S. Structural and dynamical correlations in PfHGXPRT oligomers: A molecular dynamics simulation study. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2016; 34:1590-605. [PMID: 26441001 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2015.1085441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
PfHGXPRT is a key enzyme involved in purine nucleotide salvage pathway of the malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations have been performed on two types of PfHGXPRT dimers (D1 and D3) and its tetramer in their apo and ligand-bound states. A significant event in the catalytic cycle is the dynamics of a gate that provides access for the ligand molecules to the reaction center. The gate is formed by loops II and IV, the former being the most flexible. Large amplitude conformational changes have been observed in active site loop II. Upon complete occupancy of the active site, loop II gets stabilized due to specific interactions between its residues and the ligand molecules. Remote loop, X, is seen to be less fluxional in the D3 dimer than in D1 which is rationalized as due to the greater number of inter-subunit contacts in the former. The presence of ligand molecules in subunits of the tetramer further reduces the flexibility of loop X epitomizing a communication between this region and the active sites in the tetramer. These observations are in accordance with the outcomes of several experimental investigations. Participation of loop X in the oligomerization process has also been discerned. Between the two types of dimers in solution, D1 tetramerizes readily and thus would not be present as free dimers. We conjecture an equilibrium to exist between D3 and the tetramer in solution; upon binding of the ligand molecules to the D3 dimer, this equilibrium shifts toward the tetramer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarak Karmakar
- a Chemistry and Physics of Materials Unit , Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research , Bangalore , 560 064 India
| | - Sourav Roy
- b Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit , Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research , Bangalore , 560 064 India
| | - Hemalatha Balaram
- b Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit , Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research , Bangalore , 560 064 India
| | - Sundaram Balasubramanian
- a Chemistry and Physics of Materials Unit , Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research , Bangalore , 560 064 India
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20
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Ghosh D, Lo J, Egbuta C. Recent Progress in the Discovery of Next Generation Inhibitors of Aromatase from the Structure-Function Perspective. J Med Chem 2016; 59:5131-48. [PMID: 26689671 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Human aromatase catalyzes the synthesis of estrogen from androgen with high substrate specificity. For the past 40 years, aromatase has been a target of intense inhibitor discovery research for the prevention and treatment of estrogen-dependent breast cancer. The so-called third generation aromatase inhibitors (AIs) letrozole, anastrozole, and the steroidal exemestane were approved in the U.S. in the late 1990s for estrogen-dependent postmenopausal breast cancer. Efforts to develop better AIs with higher selectivity and lower side effects were handicapped by the lack of an experimental structure of this unique P450. The year 2009 marked the publication of the crystal structure of aromatase purified from human placenta, revealing an androgen-specific active site. The structure has reinvigorated research activities on this fascinating enzyme and served as the catalyst for next generation AI discovery research. Here, we present an account of recent developments in the AI field from the perspective of the enzyme's structure-function relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debashis Ghosh
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University , 750 East Adams Street, Syracuse, New York 13210, United States
| | - Jessica Lo
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University , 750 East Adams Street, Syracuse, New York 13210, United States
| | - Chinaza Egbuta
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University , 750 East Adams Street, Syracuse, New York 13210, United States
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21
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Martin LL, Holien JK, Mizrachi D, Corbin CJ, Conley AJ, Parker MW, Rodgers RJ. Evolutionary comparisons predict that dimerization of human cytochrome P450 aromatase increases its enzymatic activity and efficiency. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2015; 154:294-301. [PMID: 26361012 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 08/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Estrogen is an essential vertebrate hormone synthesized from androgens involving multiple hydroxylations, catalyzed by cytochrome P450 aromatase (P450arom or CYP19) enzymes. Despite their importance, very few comparative studies have been conducted on vertebrate and/or mammalian P450arom enzymes, either structurally or functionally. Here we directly compared the human (h-) and porcine gonadal (p(g)-) P450arom, as p(g)-P450arom has very low catalytic efficiency, with a ten-fold higher affinity (Km) for a substrate (androstenedione) and ten-fold reduction in turnover (Vmax). We recombinantly expressed these proteins and compared their interactions on a membrane using a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) and also with the electron donor protein cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (CPR). Changes in frequency and dissipation in the QCM supported the h-P450arom forming a homodimer that agreed with the FRET data, but not p(g)-P450arom. Analysis of the X-ray crystal structure of the h-P450arom suggested a likely site of homo-dimerization and found that certain key interacting residues were not conserved in pg-P450arom. Molecular dynamics simulations provide support for the importance of these residues in homo-dimerization. Here we propose that the lower affinity and higher activity with reduced release of intermediate metabolites by the h-P450arom is as a consequence of its ability to form homodimers. The functional implications of dimerization provide an important mechanistic step in the requirement for efficient aromatization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisandra L Martin
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Jessica K Holien
- ACRF Rational Drug Discovery Centre, St Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy 3065, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dario Mizrachi
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - C Jo Corbin
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Alan J Conley
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Michael W Parker
- ACRF Rational Drug Discovery Centre, St Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy 3065, Victoria, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Victoria, Australia
| | - Raymond J Rodgers
- Discipline of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Robinson Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
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22
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Sgrignani J, Iannuzzi M, Magistrato A. Role of Water in the Puzzling Mechanism of the Final Aromatization Step Promoted by the Human Aromatase Enzyme. Insights from QM/MM MD Simulations. J Chem Inf Model 2015; 55:2218-26. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.5b00249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo Sgrignani
- CNR-IOM-Democritos
National Simulation Center c/o International School for Advanced Studies
(SISSA/ISAS), via Bonomea 265, Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Marcella Iannuzzi
- Physical
Chemistry Institute, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alessandra Magistrato
- CNR-IOM-Democritos
National Simulation Center c/o International School for Advanced Studies
(SISSA/ISAS), via Bonomea 265, Trieste, Trieste, Italy
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23
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Bioelectrochemistry as a tool for the study of aromatization of steroids by human aromatase. Electrochem commun 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2015.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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24
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Kingsley LJ, Lill MA. Substrate tunnels in enzymes: structure-function relationships and computational methodology. Proteins 2015; 83:599-611. [PMID: 25663659 DOI: 10.1002/prot.24772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In enzymes, the active site is the location where incoming substrates are chemically converted to products. In some enzymes, this site is deeply buried within the core of the protein, and, in order to access the active site, substrates must pass through the body of the protein via a tunnel. In many systems, these tunnels act as filters and have been found to influence both substrate specificity and catalytic mechanism. Identifying and understanding how these tunnels exert such control has been of growing interest over the past several years because of implications in fields such as protein engineering and drug design. This growing interest has spurred the development of several computational methods to identify and analyze tunnels and how ligands migrate through these tunnels. The goal of this review is to outline how tunnels influence substrate specificity and catalytic efficiency in enzymes with buried active sites and to provide a brief summary of the computational tools used to identify and evaluate these tunnels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Kingsley
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
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25
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Navrátilová V, Paloncýová M, Kajšová M, Berka K, Otyepka M. Effect of Cholesterol on the Structure of Membrane-Attached Cytochrome P450 3A4. J Chem Inf Model 2015; 55:628-35. [DOI: 10.1021/ci500645k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Navrátilová
- Regional Centre of Advanced
Technologies and Materials, Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty
of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, tř. 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Markéta Paloncýová
- Regional Centre of Advanced
Technologies and Materials, Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty
of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, tř. 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Kajšová
- Regional Centre of Advanced
Technologies and Materials, Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty
of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, tř. 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Berka
- Regional Centre of Advanced
Technologies and Materials, Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty
of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, tř. 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Otyepka
- Regional Centre of Advanced
Technologies and Materials, Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty
of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, tř. 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic
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26
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Cai J, Li J, Zhang J, Ding S, Liu G, Li W, Tang Y. Computational insights into inhibitory mechanism of azole compounds against human aromatase. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra19602g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the inhibitory mechanism of azole aromatase inhibitors. The results showed that letrozole and imazalil prefer different unbinding pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinya Cai
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design
- School of Pharmacy
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
| | - Junhao Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design
- School of Pharmacy
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
| | - Juan Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design
- School of Pharmacy
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
| | - Shihui Ding
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design
- School of Pharmacy
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
| | - Guixia Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design
- School of Pharmacy
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
| | - Weihua Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design
- School of Pharmacy
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
| | - Yun Tang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design
- School of Pharmacy
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
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27
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Jha T, Adhikari N, Halder AK, Saha A. Ligand- and Structure-Based Drug Design of Non-Steroidal Aromatase Inhibitors (NSAIs) in Breast Cancer. QUANTITATIVE STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS IN DRUG DESIGN, PREDICTIVE TOXICOLOGY, AND RISK ASSESSMENT 2015. [DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8136-1.ch011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Aromatase is a multienzyme complex overexpressed in breast cancer and responsible for estrogen production. It is the potential target for designing anti-breast cancer drugs. Ligand and Structure-Based Drug Designing approaches (LBDD and SBDD) are involved in development of active and more specific Nonsteroidal Aromatase Inhibitors (NSAIs). Different LBDD and SBDD approaches are presented here to understand their utility in designing novel NSAIs. It is observed that molecules should possess a five or six membered heterocyclic nitrogen containing ring to coordinate with heme portion of aromatase for inhibition. Moreover, one or two hydrogen bond acceptor features, hydrophobicity, and steric factors may play crucial roles for anti-aromatase activity. Electrostatic, van der Waals, and p-p interactions are other important factors that determine binding affinity of inhibitors. HQSAR, LDA-QSAR, GQSAR, CoMFA, and CoMSIA approaches, pharmacophore mapping followed by virtual screening, docking, and dynamic simulation may be effective approaches for designing new potent anti-aromatase molecules.
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28
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Abstract
Biosynthesis of estrogens from androgens is catalyzed by cytochrome P450 aromatase. Aromatase inhibition by the triazole compounds letrozole (LTZ) and anastrozole is a prevalent therapy for estrogen-dependent postmenopausal breast cancer. Azoles are widely used as agricultural fungicides and antimycotic drugs that target 14α-demethylase. Some were previously shown to inhibit aromatase, thereby raising the possibility of endocrine disruptive effects. However, mechanistic analysis of their inhibition has never been undertaken. We have evaluated the inhibitory effects of 3 common fungicides, bifonazole, imazalil, and flusilazole, in human aromatase purified from placenta and compared them with LTZ, the most potent inhibitor of aromatase. Bifonazole exhibits strong inhibitory effects with an IC50 of 270nM and Ki (Michaeles-Menten inhibition constant) of 68nM, compared with 10nM and 13nM, respectively, for LTZ. The IC50 and Ki are 1100nM and 278nM for imazilil and 3200nM and 547nM for flusilazole, respectively. Analyses of inhibition kinetics suggest that the modes of inhibition by azole fungicides are mixed or competitive, whereas LTZ inhibition could be noncompetitive or mixed. We interpret the inhibition mechanism in the context of the x-ray structure of aromatase-androstenedione complex. Structural data show that aromatase has 3 binding pockets in relation to the heme. The substrate-binding cavity at the heme-distal site closely compliments the structures of the natural substrate, androstenedione, and steroidal aromatase inhibitors. Because the structures of LTZ and the azole fungicides are entirely dissimilar to the androstenedione backbone, the azoles possibly inhibit by binding to a structurally rearranged active site, the 2 other catalytically important sites, or both, in agreement with the kinetics data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chinaza Egbuta
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York 13210
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29
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Ghorbanpoor S, Garcia-Segura LM, Haeri-Rohani A, Khodagholi F, Jorjani M. Aromatase inhibition exacerbates pain and reactive gliosis in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord of female rats caused by spinothalamic tract injury. Endocrinology 2014; 155:4341-55. [PMID: 25105782 DOI: 10.1210/en.2014-1158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Central pain syndrome is characterized by severe and excruciating pain resulting from a lesion in the central nervous system. Previous studies have shown that estradiol decreases pain and that inhibitors of the enzyme aromatase, which synthesizes estradiol from aromatizable androgens, increases pain sensitivity. In this study we have assessed whether aromatase expression in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord is altered in a rat model of central pain syndrome, induced by the unilateral electrolytic lesion of the spinothalamic tract. Protein and mRNA levels of aromatase, as well as the protein and mRNA levels of estrogen receptors α and β, were increased in the dorsal horn of female rats after spinothalamic tract injury, suggesting that the injury increased estradiol synthesis and signaling in the dorsal horn. To determine whether the increased aromatase expression in this pain model may participate in the control of pain, mechanical allodynia thresholds were determined in both hind paws after the intrathecal administration of letrozole, an aromatase inhibitor. Aromatase inhibition enhanced mechanical allodynia in both hind paws. Because estradiol is known to regulate gliosis we assessed whether the spinothalamic tract injury and aromatase inhibition regulated gliosis in the dorsal horn. The proportion of microglia with a reactive phenotype and the number of glial fibrillary acidic protein-immunoreactive astrocytes were increased by the injury in the dorsal horn. Aromatase inhibition enhanced the effect of the injury on gliosis. Furthermore, a significant a positive correlation of mechanical allodynia and gliosis in the dorsal horn was detected. These findings suggest that aromatase is up-regulated in the dorsal horn in a model of central pain syndrome and that aromatase activity in the spinal cord reduces mechanical allodynia by controlling reactive gliosis in the dorsal horn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samar Ghorbanpoor
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology (S.G.), Department of Animal Biology (A.H.-R.), School of Biology, College of Science (S.G.), University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran; Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (L.M.G.-S.), Instituto Cajal, E-28002 Madrid, Spain; Neurobiology Research Center (F.K., M.J.), Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; and Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine (M.J.), Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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30
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Sgrignani J, Bon M, Colombo G, Magistrato A. Computational approaches elucidate the allosteric mechanism of human aromatase inhibition: a novel possible route to Small-molecule regulation of CYP450s activities? J Chem Inf Model 2014; 54:2856-68. [PMID: 25178092 DOI: 10.1021/ci500425y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Human aromatase (HA) is a P450 cytochrome (CYP) with an essential role in estrogen biosynthesis. Since more than 70% of breast cancers are positive for estrogenic receptor (ER), the reduction of estrogen physiological concentrations through HA inhibition is one of most important therapeutic strategies against this cancer type. Recently, experimental evidence showed that selected taxmoxifen metabolites, which are typically used as estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), inhibit HA through an allosteric mechanism. In this work, we present a computational protocol to (i) characterize the structural framework and (ii) define the atomistic details of the determinants for the noncompetitive inhibition mechanism. Our calculations identify two putative binding sites able to efficiently bind all tamoxifen metabolites. Analysis of long-scale molecular dynamics simulations reveal that endoxifen, the most effective noncompetitive inhibitor, induces significant enzyme rigidity by binding in one of the possible peripheral sites. The consequence of this binding event is the suppression of one of the functional enzymatic collective motions associated with breathing of the substrate access channel. Moreover, an internal dynamics-based alignment of HA with six other human cytochromes shows that this collective motion is common to other members of the CYP450 protein family. On this basis, our findings may thus be of help for the development of new (pan)inhibitors for the therapeutic treatment of cancer, targeting and modulating the activity of HA and of estrogen receptor, and may also stimulate the development of new drug design strategies for chemoprevention and chemoprotection via allosteric inhibition of CYP450 proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo Sgrignani
- Istituto di Chimica del Riconoscimento Molecolare, CNR, Via Mario Bianco 9, 20131 Milano, Milano, Italy
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31
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Di Nardo G, Gilardi G. Human aromatase: perspectives in biochemistry and biotechnology. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2014; 60:92-101. [PMID: 23586996 DOI: 10.1002/bab.1088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2012] [Accepted: 12/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Aromatase (CYP19) is involved in steroidogenesis, catalyzing the conversion of androgens into estrogens through a unique reaction that causes the aromatization of the A ring of the steroid. The enzyme is widely distributed and well conserved among species as it plays a crucial role in physiological processes such as control of reproduction and neuroprotection. It has also been a subject of intense research both at the biotechnological level in drug development due to its involvement in estrogen-dependent tumors and at a fundamental biochemical level because there are numerous questions regarding its reaction mechanism. This review will report the great progress made in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Di Nardo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
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32
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Di Nardo G, Breitner M, Sadeghi SJ, Castrignanò S, Mei G, Di Venere A, Nicolai E, Allegra P, Gilardi G. Dynamics and flexibility of human aromatase probed by FTIR and time resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82118. [PMID: 24349198 PMCID: PMC3859599 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Human aromatase (CYP19A1) is a steroidogenic cytochrome P450 converting androgens into estrogens. No ligand-free crystal structure of the enzyme is available to date. The crystal structure in complex with the substrate androstenedione and the steroidal inhibitor exemestane shows a very compact conformation of the enzyme, leaving unanswered questions on the conformational changes that must occur to allow access of the ligand to the active site. As H/D exchange kinetics followed by FTIR spectroscopy can provide information on the conformational changes in proteins where solvent accessibility is affected, here the amide I region was used to measure the exchange rates of the different elements of the secondary structure for aromatase in the ligand-free form and in the presence of the substrate androstenedione and the inhibitor anastrozole. Biphasic exponential functions were found to fit the H/D exchange data collected as a function of time. Two exchange rates were assigned to two populations of protons present in different flexible regions of the protein. The addition of the substrate androstenedione and the inhibitor anastrozole lowers the H/D exchange rates of the α-helices of the enzyme when compared to the ligand-free form. Furthermore, the presence of the inhibitor anastrozole lowers exchange rate constant (k1) for β-sheets from 0.22±0.06 min−1 for the inhibitor-bound enzyme to 0.12±0.02 min−1 for the free protein. Dynamics effects localised in helix F were studied by time resolved fluorescence. The data demonstrate that the fluorescence lifetime component associated to Trp224 emission undergoes a shift toward longer lifetimes (from ≈5.0 to ≈5.5 ns) when the substrate or the inhibitor are present, suggesting slower dynamics in the presence of ligands. Together the results are consistent with different degrees of flexibility of the access channel and therefore different conformations adopted by the enzyme in the free, substrate- and inhibitor-bound forms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Di Nardo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Maximilian Breitner
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Sheila J. Sadeghi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Silvia Castrignanò
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Giampiero Mei
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome ‘Tor Vergata’, Italy
| | - Almerinda Di Venere
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome ‘Tor Vergata’, Italy
| | - Eleonora Nicolai
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome ‘Tor Vergata’, Italy
| | - Paola Allegra
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Gilardi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
- * E-mail:
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Berka K, Paloncýová M, Anzenbacher P, Otyepka M. Behavior of human cytochromes P450 on lipid membranes. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:11556-64. [PMID: 23987570 DOI: 10.1021/jp4059559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Human cytochromes P450 (CYPs) are membrane-anchored enzymes involved in biotransformation of many marketed drugs. We constructed atomic models of six human CYPs (CYP1A2, 2A6, 2C9, 2D6, 2E1, and 3A4) anchored to a lipid bilayer to investigate the positions and orientations of CYPs on a membrane. We equilibrated the models by molecular dynamics simulations on a 100+ ns time scale. Catalytic domains of all studied CYPs were found to be partially immersed in the lipid bilayer, whereas the N-terminal part and F'/G' loop are deeply immersed. The proximal side of the enzyme faces the cytosol, whereas the distal side, where openings of substrate access and product release channels to the active site are primarily located, points toward the lipid bilayer. Access channels with openings in the vicinity of the B/C and F/G loops are typically positioned below the lipid head groups, whereas the solvent channel points toward the membrane-water interface. We found that the access channel opening positions match the preferred substrate positions, whereas the product release channel exit positions correspond closely with the positions of the products. This may indicate that membrane-anchored CYPs have evolutionarily adapted to facilitate uptake of nonpolar substrates from the membrane and uptake/release of polar substrates or products from/to the membrane-water interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karel Berka
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc , tř. 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic
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Thomas MP, Potter BVL. The structural biology of oestrogen metabolism. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2013; 137:27-49. [PMID: 23291110 PMCID: PMC3866684 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2012.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2012] [Revised: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/12/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Many enzymes catalyse reactions that have an oestrogen as a substrate and/or a product. The reactions catalysed include aromatisation, oxidation, reduction, sulfonation, desulfonation, hydroxylation and methoxylation. The enzymes that catalyse these reactions must all recognise and bind oestrogen but, despite this, they have diverse structures. This review looks at each of these enzymes in turn, describing the structure and discussing the mechanism of the catalysed reaction. Since oestrogen has a role in many disease states inhibition of the enzymes of oestrogen metabolism may have an impact on the state or progression of the disease and inhibitors of these enzymes are briefly discussed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'CSR 2013'.
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Key Words
- 17β-HSD
- 17β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase
- 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase
- 3,5-dinitrocatechol
- 3-(((8R,9S,13S,14S,16R,17S)-3,17-dihydroxy-13-methyl-7,8,9,11,12,13,14,15,16,17-decahydro-6H-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-16-yl)methyl)benzamide
- 3′-phosphoadenosine-5′-phosphate
- 3′-phosphoadenosine-5′-phosphosulfate
- Aromatase
- COMT
- DHEA(S)
- DHETNA
- DNC
- E1(S)
- E2(S)
- E2B
- E3
- E4
- ER
- FAD/FMN
- FG
- HFG(S)
- NADP(+)
- NADPH
- O5′-[9-(3,17β-dihydroxy-1,3,5(10)-estratrien-16β-yl)-nonanoyl]adenosine
- Oestrogen
- PAP
- PAPS
- Protein structure
- Reaction mechanism
- S-adenosyl methionine
- SAM
- SDR
- Sulfatase
- Sulfotransferase
- catechol-O-methyl transferase
- dehydroepiandrosterone (sulfate)
- estetrol
- estradiol (sulfate)
- estriol
- estrogen receptor
- estrone (sulfate)
- flavin adenine dinucleotide/flavin mononucleotide
- formylglycine
- hydroxyformylglycine (sulfate)
- mb-COMT
- membrane-bound COMT
- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (oxidised)
- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced)
- s-COMT
- short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase
- soluble COMT
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark P Thomas
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
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35
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Lo J, Di Nardo G, Griswold J, Egbuta C, Jiang W, Gilardi G, Ghosh D. Structural basis for the functional roles of critical residues in human cytochrome p450 aromatase. Biochemistry 2013; 52:5821-9. [PMID: 23899247 DOI: 10.1021/bi400669h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 aromatase (CYP19A1) is the only enzyme known to catalyze the biosynthesis of estrogens from androgens. The crystal structure of human placental aromatase (pArom) has paved the way toward understanding the structure-function relationships of this remarkable enzyme. Using an amino terminus-truncated recombinant human aromatase (rArom) construct, we investigate the roles of key amino acids in the active site, at the intermolecular interface, inside the access channel, and at the lipid-protein boundary for their roles in enzyme function and higher-order organization. Replacing the active site residue D309 with an N yields an inactive enzyme, consistent with its proposed involvement in aromatization. Mutation of R192 at the lipid interface, pivotal to the proton relay network in the access channel, results in the loss of enzyme activity. In addition to the distal catalytic residues, we show that mutation of K440 and Y361 of the heme-proximal region critically interferes with substrate binding, enzyme activity, and heme stability. The D-E loop deletion mutant Del7 that disrupts the intermolecular interaction significantly reduces enzyme activity. However, the less drastic Del4 and point mutants E181A and E181K do not. Furthermore, native gel electrophoresis, size-exclusion chromatography, and analytical ultracentrifugation are used to show that mutations in the intermolecular interface alter the quaternary organization of the enzyme in solution. As a validation for interpretation of the mutational results in the context of the innate molecule, we determine the crystal structure of rArom to show that the active site, tertiary, and quaternary structures are identical to those of pArom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Lo
- Department of Pharmacology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York 13210, United States
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36
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Tralau T, Luch A. The evolution of our understanding of endo-xenobiotic crosstalk and cytochrome P450 regulation and the therapeutic implications. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2013; 9:1541-54. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2013.828692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Park J, Czapla L, Amaro RE. Molecular simulations of aromatase reveal new insights into the mechanism of ligand binding. J Chem Inf Model 2013; 53:2047-56. [PMID: 23927370 DOI: 10.1021/ci400225w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
CYP19A1, also known as aromatase or estrogen synthetase, is the rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of estrogens from their corresponding androgens. Several clinically used breast cancer therapies target aromatase. In this work, explicitly solvated all-atom molecular dynamics simulations of aromatase with a model of the lipid bilayer and the transmembrane helix are performed. The dynamics of aromatase and the role of titration of an important amino acid residue involved in aromatization of androgens are investigated via two 250-ns long simulations. One simulation treats the protonated form of the catalytic aspartate 309, which appears more consistent with crystallographic data for the active site, while the simulation of the deprotonated form shows some notable conformational shifts. Ensemble-based computational solvent mapping experiments indicate possible novel druggable binding sites that could be utilized by next-generation inhibitors. In addition, the effects of protonation on the ligand positioning and channel dynamics are investigated using geometrical models that estimate the opening width of critical channels. Significant differences in channel dynamics between the protonated and deprotonated trajectories are exhibited, suggesting that the mechanism for substrate and product entry and the aromatization process may be coupled to a "locking" mechanism and channel opening. Our results may be particularly relevant in the design of novel drugs, which may be useful therapeutic treatments of cancers such as those of the breast and prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiho Park
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, USA
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38
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Ghosh D, Lo J, Morton D, Valette D, Xi J, Griswold J, Hubbell S, Egbuta C, Jiang W, An J, Davies HML. Novel aromatase inhibitors by structure-guided design. J Med Chem 2012; 55:8464-76. [PMID: 22951074 DOI: 10.1021/jm300930n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Human cytochrome P450 aromatase catalyzes with high specificity the synthesis of estrogens from androgens. Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) such as exemestane, 6-methylideneandrosta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione, are preeminent drugs for the treatment of estrogen-dependent breast cancer. The crystal structure of human placental aromatase has shown an androgen-specific active site. By utilization of the structural data, novel C6-substituted androsta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione inhibitors have been designed. Several of the C6-substituted 2-alkynyloxy compounds inhibit purified placental aromatase with IC(50) values in the nanomolar range. Antiproliferation studies in a MCF-7 breast cancer cell line demonstrate that some of these compounds have EC(50) values better than 1 nM, exceeding that for exemestane. X-ray structures of aromatase complexes of two potent compounds reveal that, per their design, the novel side groups protrude into the opening to the access channel unoccupied in the enzyme-substrate/exemestane complexes. The observed structure-activity relationship is borne out by the X-ray data. Structure-guided design permits utilization of the aromatase-specific interactions for the development of next generation AIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debashis Ghosh
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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39
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Sgrignani J, Magistrato A. Influence of the Membrane Lipophilic Environment on the Structure and on the Substrate Access/Egress Routes of the Human Aromatase Enzyme. A Computational Study. J Chem Inf Model 2012; 52:1595-606. [DOI: 10.1021/ci300151h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo Sgrignani
- CNR-IOM-Democritos National Simulation Center c/o International Studies for Advanced Studies (SISSA/ISAS), via Bonomea 265, 34165 Trieste
(TS), Italy
| | - Alessandra Magistrato
- CNR-IOM-Democritos National Simulation Center c/o International Studies for Advanced Studies (SISSA/ISAS), via Bonomea 265, 34165 Trieste
(TS), Italy
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