Intracellular electric field and pH optimize protein localization and movement

Induced electric fields inhibit breast cancer growth and metastasis by modulating the immune tumor microenvironment

Despite tremendous advances in oncology, metastatic triple-negative breast cancer remains difficult to treat and manage with established therapies. Here, we show in mice with orthotopic triple-negative breast tumors that alternating (100 kHz), and low intensity (<1 mV/cm) induced electric fields (iEFs) significantly reduced primary tumor growth and distant lung metastases. Non-contact iEF treatment can be delivered safely and non-invasively in vivo via a hollow, rectangular solenoid coil. We discovered that iEF treatment enhances anti-tumor immune responses at both the primary breast and secondary lung sites. In addition, iEF reduces immunosuppressive TME by reducing effector CD8+ T cell exhaustion and the infiltration of immunosuppressive immune cells. Furthermore, iEF treatment reduced lung metastasis by increasing CD8+ T cells and reducing immunosuppressive Gr1+ neutrophils in the lung microenvironment. We also observed that iEFs reduced the metastatic potential of cancer cells by inhibiting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. By introducing a non-invasive and non-toxic electrotherapeutic for inhibiting metastatic outgrowth and enhancing anti-tumor immune response in vivo, treatment with iEF technology could add to a paradigm-shifting strategy for cancer therapy.

The significance of bioelectricity on all levels of organization of an organism. Part 1: From the subcellular level to cells

Bioelectricity plays an essential role in the structural and functional organization of biological organisms. In this first article of our three-part series, we summarize the importance of bioelectricity for the basic structural level of biological organization, i.e. from the subcellular level (charges, ion channels, molecules and cell organelles) to cells.

Tumor treating fields: An emerging treatment modality for thoracic and abdominal cavity cancers

Tumor treating fields (TTFields)-an intermediate-frequency, electric field therapy-has emerged as a promising alternative therapy for the treatment of solid cancers. Since the first publication describing the anticancer effects of TTFields in 2004 there have been numerous follow-up studies by other groups, either to confirm the efficacy of TTFields or to study the primary mechanism of interaction. The overwhelming conclusion from these in vitro studies is that TTFields reduce the viability of aggressively replicating cell lines. However, there is still speculation as to the primary mechanism for this effect; moreover, observations both in vitro and in vivo of inhibited migration and metastases have been made, which may be unrelated to the originally proposed hypothesis of replication stress. Adding to this, the in vivo environment is much more complex spatially, structurally, and involves intricate networks of cell signaling, all of which could change the efficacy of TTFields in the same way pharmaceutical interventions often struggle transitioning in vivo. Despite this, TTFields have shown promise in clinical practice on multiple cancer types, which begs the question: has the primary mechanism carried over from in vitro to in vivo or are there new mechanisms at play? The goal of this review is to highlight the current proposed mechanism of action of TTFields based primarily on in vitro experiments and animal models, provide a summary of the clinical efficacy of TTFields, and finally, propose future directions of research to identify all possible mechanisms in vivo utilizing novel tumor-on-a-chip platforms.

A Rice Immunophilin Homolog, OsFKBP12, Is a Negative Regulator of Both Biotic and Abiotic Stress Responses

A class of proteins that were discovered to bind the immunosuppressant drug FK506, called FK506-binding proteins (FKBPs), are members of a sub-family of immunophilins. Although they were first identified in human, FKBPs exist in all three domains of life. In this report, a rice FKBP12 homolog was first identified as a biotic stress-related gene through suppression subtractive hybridization screening. By ectopically expressing OsFKBP12 in the heterologous model plant system, Arabidopsis thaliana, for functional characterization, OsFKBP12 was found to increase susceptibility of the plant to the pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pst DC3000). This negative regulatory role of FKBP12 in biotic stress responses was also demonstrated in the AtFKBP12-knockout mutant, which exhibited higher resistance towards Pst DC3000. Furthermore, this higher-plant FKBP12 homolog was also shown to be a negative regulator of salt tolerance. Using yeast two-hybrid tests, an ancient unconventional G-protein, OsYchF1, was identified as an interacting partner of OsFKBP12. OsYchF1 was previously reported as a negative regulator of both biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, OsFKBP12 probably also plays negative regulatory roles at the convergence of biotic and abiotic stress response pathways in higher plants.

Applied electric fields suppress osimertinib-induced cytotoxicity via inhibiting FOXO3a nuclear translocation through AKT activation

Osimertinib is a third-generation epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor against T790M-mutant non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Acquired resistance to osimertinib is a growing clinical challenge that is not fully understood. Endogenous electric fields (EFs), components of the tumor microenvironment, are associated with cancer cell migration and proliferation. However, the impact of EFs on drug efficiency has not been studied. In this study, we observed that EFs counteracted the effects of osimertinib. EFs of 100 mV/mm suppressed osimertinib-induced cell death and promoted cell proliferation. Transcriptional analysis revealed that the expression pattern induced by osimertinib was altered by EFs stimulation. KEGG analysis showed that differential expression genes were mostly enriched in PI3K-AKT pathway. Then, we found that osimertinib inhibited AKT phosphorylation, while EFs stimulation resulted in significant activation of AKT, which could override the effects generated by osimertinib. Importantly, pharmacological inhibition of PI3K/AKT by LY294002 diminished EF-induced activation of AKT and restored the cytotoxicity of osimertinib suppressed by EFs, which proved that AKT activation was essential for EFs to attenuate the efficacy of osimertinib. Furthermore, activation of AKT by EFs led to phosphorylation of forkhead box O3a (FOXO3a), and reduction in nuclear translocation of FOXO3a induced by osimertinib, resulting in decreased expression of Bim and attenuated cytotoxicity of osimertinib. Taken together, we demonstrated that EFs suppressed the antitumor activity of osimertinib through AKT/FOXO3a/Bim pathway, and combination of PI3K/AKT inhibitor with osimertinib counteracted the effects of EFs. Our findings provided preliminary data for therapeutic strategies to enhance osimertinib efficacy in NSCLC patients.

Genomics, molecular and evolutionary perspective of NAC transcription factors

NAC (NAM, ATAF1,2, and CUC2) transcription factors are one of the largest transcription factor families found in the plants and are involved in diverse developmental and signalling events. Despite the availability of comprehensive genomic information from diverse plant species, the basic genomic, biochemical, and evolutionary details of NAC TFs have not been established. Therefore, NAC TFs family proteins from 160 plant species were analyzed in the current study. Study revealed, Brassica napus (410) encodes highest number and Klebsormidium flaccidum (3) encodes the lowest number of TFs. The study further revealed the presence of NAC TF in the Charophyte algae K. flaccidum. On average, the monocot plants encode higher number (141.20) of NAC TFs compared to the eudicots (125.04), gymnosperm (75), and bryophytes (22.66). Furthermore, our analysis revealed that several NAC TFs are membrane bound and contain monopartite, bipartite, and multipartite nuclear localization signals. NAC TFs were also found to encode several novel chimeric proteins and regulate a complex interactome network. In addition to the presence of NAC domain, several NAC proteins were found to encode other functional signature motifs as well. Relative expression analysis of NAC TFs in A. thaliana revealed root tissue treated with urea and ammonia showed higher level of expression and leaf tissues treated with urea showed lower level of expression. The synonymous codon usage is absent in the NAC TFs and it appears that they have evolved from orthologous ancestors and undergone vivid duplications to give rise to paralogous NAC TFs. The presence of novel chimeric NAC TFs are of particular interest and the presence of chimeric NAC domain with other functional signature motifs in the NAC TF might encode novel functional properties in the plants.

The Role of Cell Membrane Information Reception, Processing, and Communication in the Structure and Function of Multicellular Tissue

Investigations of information dynamics in eukaryotic cells focus almost exclusively on heritable information in the genome. Gene networks are modeled as “central processors” that receive, analyze, and respond to intracellular and extracellular signals with the nucleus described as a cell’s control center. Here, we present a model in which cellular information is a distributed system that includes non-genomic information processing in the cell membrane that may quantitatively exceed that of the genome. Within this model, the nucleus largely acts a source of macromolecules and processes information needed to synchronize their production with temporal variations in demand. However, the nucleus cannot produce microsecond responses to acute, life-threatening perturbations and cannot spatially resolve incoming signals or direct macromolecules to the cellular regions where they are needed. In contrast, the cell membrane, as the interface with its environment, can rapidly detect, process, and respond to external threats and opportunities through the large amounts of potential information encoded within the transmembrane ion gradient. Our model proposes environmental information is detected by specialized protein gates within ion-specific transmembrane channels. When the gate receives a specific environmental signal, the ion channel opens and the received information is communicated into the cell via flow of a specific ion species (i.e., K⁺, Na⁺, Cl⁻, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) along electrochemical gradients. The fluctuation of an ion concentration within the cytoplasm adjacent to the membrane channel can elicit an immediate, local response by altering the location and function of peripheral membrane proteins. Signals that affect a larger surface area of the cell membrane and/or persist over a prolonged time period will produce similarly cytoplasmic changes on larger spatial and time scales. We propose that as the amplitude, spatial extent, and duration of changes in cytoplasmic ion concentrations increase, the information can be communicated to the nucleus and other intracellular structure through ion flows along elements of the cytoskeleton to the centrosome (via microtubules) or proteins in the nuclear membrane (via microfilaments). These dynamics add spatial and temporal context to the more well-recognized information communication from the cell membrane to the nucleus following ligand binding to membrane receptors. Here, the signal is transmitted and amplified through transduction by the canonical molecular (e.g., Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPK) pathways. Cytoplasmic diffusion allows this information to be broadly distributed to intracellular organelles but at the cost of loss of spatial and temporal information also contained in ligand binding.

Signal transmission through elements of the cytoskeleton form an optimized information network in eukaryotic cells

Multiple prior empirical and theoretical studies have demonstrated wire-like flow of electrons and ions along elements of the cytoskeleton but this has never been linked to a biological function. Here we propose that eukaryotes use this mode of signal transmission to convey spatial and temporal environmental information from the cell membrane to the nucleus. The cell membrane, as the interface between intra- and extra-cellular environments, is the site at which much external information is received. Prior studies have demonstrated that transmembrane ion gradients permit information acquisition when an environmental signal interacts with specialized protein gates in membrane ion channels and producing specific ions to flow into or out of the cell along concentration gradients. The resulting localized change in cytoplasmic ion concentrations and charge density can alter location and enzymatic function of peripheral membrane proteins. This allows the cell to process the information and rapidly deploy a local response. Here we investigate transmission of information received and processed in and around the cell membrane by elements of the cytoskeleton to the nucleus to alter gene expression. We demonstrate signal transmission by ion flow along the cytoskeleton is highly optimized. In particular, microtubules, with diameters of about 30 nm, carry coarse-grained Shannon information to the centrosome adjacent to the nucleus with minimum loss of input source information. And, microfilaments, with diameters of about 4 nm, transmit maximum Fisher (fine-grained) information to protein complexes in the nuclear membrane. These previously unrecognized information dynamics allow continuous integration of spatial and temporal environmental signals with inherited information in the genome.

Native DNA electronics: is it a matter of nanoscale assembly?

The genomic DNA is enveloped by nanotubes formed by the nuclear aggregates of polyamines (NAPs) that induce DNA conformational changes and provide protection and increased interaction abilities for the double strands. In a physiological environment, the nanotube arrangement is initiated by spontaneous interaction among the terminal amino groups of the polyamines and the phosphate ions, with the consequent formation of cyclic monomers that hook at the DNA grooves. The polymer thus formed has the morphological features of an organic semiconductor and therefore, it can be considered to be able to conduct electric charges. Phosphate ions positioned on the NAP external surface could regulate, as in a physical electric circuit, both linear and rotational (histones) protein motion, in accordance with the basilar principles of the electronics. A model of a carrier system for protein motion along the polymer wrapping the DNA strands, based on the phosphate-phosphate complexation, is proposed.

Voltage-Induced Misfolding of Zinc-Replete ALS Mutant Superoxide Dismutase-1

The monomerization of Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) is an early step along pathways of misfolding linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Monomerization requires the reversal of two post-translational modifications that are thermodynamically favorable: (i) dissociation of active-site metal ions and (ii) reduction of intramolecular disulfide bonds. This study found, using amide hydrogen/deuterium (H/D) exchange, capillary electrophoresis, and lysine-acetyl protein charge ladders, that ALS-linked A4V SOD1 rapidly monomerizes and partially unfolds in an external electric field (of physiological strength), without loss of metal ions, exposure to disulfide-reducing agents, or Joule heating. Voltage-induced monomerization was not observed for metal-free A4V SOD1, metal-free WT SOD1, or metal-loaded WT SOD1. Computational modeling suggested a mechanism for this counterintuitive effect: subunit macrodipoles of dimeric SOD1 are antiparallel and amplified 2-fold by metal coordination, which increases torque at the dimer interface as subunits rotate to align with the electric field.

The 4D nucleome: Evidence for a dynamic nuclear landscape based on co-aligned active and inactive nuclear compartments

Recent methodological advancements in microscopy and DNA sequencing-based methods provide unprecedented new insights into the spatio-temporal relationships between chromatin and nuclear machineries. We discuss a model of the underlying functional nuclear organization derived mostly from electron and super-resolved fluorescence microscopy studies. It is based on two spatially co-aligned, active and inactive nuclear compartments (ANC and INC). The INC comprises the compact, transcriptionally inactive core of chromatin domain clusters (CDCs). The ANC is formed by the transcriptionally active periphery of CDCs, called the perichromatin region (PR), and the interchromatin compartment (IC). The IC is connected to nuclear pores and serves nuclear import and export functions. The ANC is the major site of RNA synthesis. It is highly enriched in epigenetic marks for transcriptionally competent chromatin and RNA Polymerase II. Marks for silent chromatin are enriched in the INC. Multi-scale cross-correlation spectroscopy suggests that nuclear architecture resembles a random obstacle network for diffusing proteins. An increased dwell time of proteins and protein complexes within the ANC may help to limit genome scanning by factors or factor complexes to DNA exposed within the ANC.

Pyruvate sensitizes pancreatic tumors to hypoxia-activated prodrug TH-302

Background

Hypoxic niches in solid tumors harbor therapy-resistant cells. Hypoxia-activated prodrugs (HAPs) have been designed to overcome this resistance and, to date, have begun to show clinical efficacy. However, clinical HAPs activity could be improved. In this study, we sought to identify non-pharmacological methods to acutely exacerbate tumor hypoxia to increase TH-302 activity in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) tumor models.

Results

Three human PDAC cell lines with varying sensitivity to TH-302 (Hs766t > MiaPaCa-2 > SU.86.86) were used to establish PDAC xenograft models. PDAC cells were metabolically profiled in vitro and in vivo using the Seahorse XF system and hyperpolarized ¹³C pyruvate MRI, respectively, in addition to quantitative immunohistochemistry. The effect of exogenous pyruvate on tumor oxygenation was determined using electroparamagnetic resonance (EPR) oxygen imaging. Hs766t and MiaPaCa-2 cells exhibited a glycolytic phenotype in comparison to TH-302 resistant line SU.86.86. Supporting this observation is a higher lactate/pyruvate ratio in Hs766t and MiaPaCa xenografts as observed during hyperpolarized pyruvate MRI studies in vivo. Coincidentally, response to exogenous pyruvate both in vitro (Seahorse oxygen consumption) and in vivo (EPR oxygen imaging) was greatest in Hs766t and MiaPaCa models, possibly due to a higher mitochondrial reserve capacity. Changes in oxygen consumption and in vivo hypoxic status to pyruvate were limited in the SU.86.86 model. Combination therapy of pyruvate plus TH-302 in vivo significantly decreased tumor growth and increased survival in the MiaPaCa model and improved survival in Hs766t tumors.

Conclusions

Using metabolic profiling, functional imaging, and computational modeling, we show improved TH-302 activity by transiently increasing tumor hypoxia metabolically with exogenous pyruvate. Additionally, this work identified a set of biomarkers that may be used clinically to predict which tumors will be most responsive to pyruvate + TH-302 combination therapy. The results of this study support the concept that acute increases in tumor hypoxia can be beneficial for improving the clinical efficacy of HAPs and can positively impact the future treatment of PDAC and other cancers.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40170-014-0026-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The structural and functional coordination of glycolytic enzymes in muscle: evidence of a metabolon?

Metabolism sustains life through enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions within the cells of all organisms. The coupling of catalytic function to the structural organization of enzymes contributes to the kinetic optimization important to tissue-specific and whole-body function. This coupling is of paramount importance in the role that muscle plays in the success of Animalia. The structure and function of glycolytic enzyme complexes in anaerobic metabolism have long been regarded as a major regulatory element necessary for muscle activity and whole-body homeostasis. While the details of this complex remain to be elucidated through in vivo studies, this review will touch on recent studies that suggest the existence of such a complex and its structure. A potential model for glycolytic complexes and related subcomplexes is introduced.

Automated Segmentation and Object Classification of CT Images: Application to In Vivo Molecular Imaging of Avian Embryos

Background. Although chick embryogenesis has been studied extensively, there has been growing interest in the investigation of skeletogenesis. In addition to improved poultry health and minimized economic loss, a greater understanding of skeletal abnormalities can also have implications for human medicine. True in vivo studies require noninvasive imaging techniques such as high-resolution microCT. However, the manual analysis of acquired images is both time consuming and subjective. Methods. We have developed a system for automated image segmentation that entails object-based image analysis followed by the classification of the extracted image objects. For image segmentation, a rule set was developed using Definiens image analysis software. The classification engine was implemented using the WEKA machine learning tool. Results. Our system reduces analysis time and observer bias while maintaining high accuracy. Applying the system to the quantification of long bone growth has allowed us to present the first true in ovo data for bone length growth recorded in the same chick embryos. Conclusions. The procedures developed represent an innovative approach for the automated segmentation, classification, quantification, and visualization of microCT images. MicroCT offers the possibility of performing longitudinal studies and thereby provides unique insights into the morpho- and embryogenesis of live chick embryos.

Online CKD education for medical students, residents, and fellows: training in a new era

CKD and its complications are associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Studies have highlighted significant deficiencies in resident knowledge and awareness of CKD and its complications. There is a need to improve CKD education through medical school and residency. There is also a need to provide alternatives to traditional teaching methods to meet the challenges of learning in the context of work-hour restrictions and increasing workload among residents and fellows. Internet-based learning resources offer various educational tools, including websites, kidney blogs, online modules, and smartphone applications, which could potentially and efficiently advance CKD knowledge among medical trainees. In this review, we describe several online resources for CKD education that could be useful for medical students, residents, and fellows. Increased awareness of these tools and their utilization may significantly influence and hopefully improve the recognition and management of patients with CKD. Future studies may help evaluate the effectiveness of these online learning methods and their effect on CKD patient outcomes. In addition, in light of increased concern about nephrology workforce issues, the potential for these online tools to augment interest in nephrology careers should be investigated.

Cytoplasmic electric fields and electroosmosis: possible solution for the paradoxes of the intracellular transport of biomolecules

The objective of the paper is to show that electroosmotic flow might play an important role in the intracellular transport of biomolecules. The paper presents two mathematical models describing the role of electroosmosis in the transport of the negatively charged messenger proteins to the negatively charged nucleus and in the recovery of the fluorescence after photobleaching. The parameters of the models were derived from the extensive review of the literature data. Computer simulations were performed within the COMSOL 4.2a software environment. The first model demonstrated that the presence of electroosmosis might intensify the flux of messenger proteins to the nucleus and allow the efficient transport of the negatively charged phosphorylated messenger proteins against the electrostatic repulsion of the negatively charged nucleus. The second model revealed that the presence of the electroosmotic flow made the time of fluorescence recovery dependent on the position of the bleaching spot relative to cellular membrane. The magnitude of the electroosmotic flow effect was shown to be quite substantial, i.e. increasing the flux of the messengers onto the nucleus up to 4-fold relative to pure diffusion and resulting in the up to 3-fold change in the values of fluorescence recovery time, and therefore the apparent diffusion coefficient determined from the fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments. Based on the results of the modeling and on the universal nature of the electroosmotic flow, the potential wider implications of electroosmotic flow in the intracellular and extracellular biological processes are discussed. Both models are available for download at ModelDB.