1
|
Bigford GE, Garshick E. Systemic inflammation after spinal cord injury: A review of biological evidence, related health risks, and potential therapies. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2022; 67:102303. [PMID: 36206621 PMCID: PMC9929918 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2022.102303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Individuals with chronic traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) develop progressive multi-system health problems that result in clinical illness and disability. Systemic inflammation is associated with many of the common medical complications and acquired diseases that accompany chronic SCI, suggesting that it contributes to a number of comorbid pathological conditions. However, many of the mechanisms that promote persistent systemic inflammation and its consequences remain ill-defined. This review describes the significant biological factors that contribute to systemic inflammation, major organ systems affected, health risks, and the potential treatment strategies. We aim to highlight the need for a better understanding of inflammatory processes, and to establish appropriate strategies to address inflammation in SCI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory E Bigford
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
| | - Eric Garshick
- Pulmonary, Allergy, Sleep, and Critical Care Medicine Section, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
The Proteostasis Network: A Global Therapeutic Target for Neuroprotection after Spinal Cord Injury. Cells 2022; 11:cells11213339. [PMID: 36359735 PMCID: PMC9658791 DOI: 10.3390/cells11213339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteostasis (protein homeostasis) is critical for cellular as well as organismal survival. It is strictly regulated by multiple conserved pathways including the ubiquitin-proteasome system, autophagy, the heat shock response, the integrated stress response, and the unfolded protein response. These overlapping proteostasis maintenance modules respond to various forms of cellular stress as well as organismal injury. While proteostasis restoration and ultimately organism survival is the main evolutionary driver of such a regulation, unresolved disruption of proteostasis may engage pro-apoptotic mediators of those pathways to eliminate defective cells. In this review, we discuss proteostasis contributions to the pathogenesis of traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Most published reports focused on the role of proteostasis networks in acute/sub-acute tissue damage post-SCI. Those reports reveal a complex picture with cell type- and/or proteostasis mediator-specific effects on loss of neurons and/or glia that often translate into the corresponding modulation of functional recovery. Effects of proteostasis networks on such phenomena as neuro-repair, post-injury plasticity, as well as systemic manifestations of SCI including dysregulation of the immune system, metabolism or cardiovascular function are currently understudied. However, as potential interventions that target the proteostasis networks are expected to impact many cell types across multiple organ systems that are compromised after SCI, such therapies could produce beneficial effects across the wide spectrum of highly variable human SCI.
Collapse
|
3
|
Köhli P, Otto E, Jahn D, Reisener MJ, Appelt J, Rahmani A, Taheri N, Keller J, Pumberger M, Tsitsilonis S. Future Perspectives in Spinal Cord Repair: Brain as Saviour? TSCI with Concurrent TBI: Pathophysiological Interaction and Impact on MSC Treatment. Cells 2021; 10:2955. [PMID: 34831179 PMCID: PMC8616497 DOI: 10.3390/cells10112955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI), commonly caused by high energy trauma in young active patients, is frequently accompanied by traumatic brain injury (TBI). Although combined trauma results in inferior clinical outcomes and a higher mortality rate, the understanding of the pathophysiological interaction of co-occurring TSCI and TBI remains limited. This review provides a detailed overview of the local and systemic alterations due to TSCI and TBI, which severely affect the autonomic and sensory nervous system, immune response, the blood-brain and spinal cord barrier, local perfusion, endocrine homeostasis, posttraumatic metabolism, and circadian rhythm. Because currently developed mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-based therapeutic strategies for TSCI provide only mild benefit, this review raises awareness of the impact of TSCI-TBI interaction on TSCI pathophysiology and MSC treatment. Therefore, we propose that unravelling the underlying pathophysiology of TSCI with concomitant TBI will reveal promising pharmacological targets and therapeutic strategies for regenerative therapies, further improving MSC therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Köhli
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (P.K.); (E.O.); (D.J.); (M.-J.R.); (J.A.); (A.R.); (N.T.)
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Julius Wolff Institute, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ellen Otto
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (P.K.); (E.O.); (D.J.); (M.-J.R.); (J.A.); (A.R.); (N.T.)
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Julius Wolff Institute, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Denise Jahn
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (P.K.); (E.O.); (D.J.); (M.-J.R.); (J.A.); (A.R.); (N.T.)
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Julius Wolff Institute, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marie-Jacqueline Reisener
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (P.K.); (E.O.); (D.J.); (M.-J.R.); (J.A.); (A.R.); (N.T.)
| | - Jessika Appelt
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (P.K.); (E.O.); (D.J.); (M.-J.R.); (J.A.); (A.R.); (N.T.)
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Julius Wolff Institute, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Adibeh Rahmani
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (P.K.); (E.O.); (D.J.); (M.-J.R.); (J.A.); (A.R.); (N.T.)
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Julius Wolff Institute, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Nima Taheri
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (P.K.); (E.O.); (D.J.); (M.-J.R.); (J.A.); (A.R.); (N.T.)
| | - Johannes Keller
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany;
- University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Department of Trauma Surgery and Orthopaedics, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Pumberger
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (P.K.); (E.O.); (D.J.); (M.-J.R.); (J.A.); (A.R.); (N.T.)
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Julius Wolff Institute, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Serafeim Tsitsilonis
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (P.K.); (E.O.); (D.J.); (M.-J.R.); (J.A.); (A.R.); (N.T.)
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Julius Wolff Institute, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany;
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cao W, Liu F, Li RW, Yang R, Wang Y, Xue C, Tang Q. Triacylglycerol rich in docosahexaenoic acid regulated appetite via the mediation of leptin and intestinal epithelial functions in high-fat, high-sugar diet-fed mice. J Nutr Biochem 2021; 99:108856. [PMID: 34517098 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2021.108856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 04/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
High-fat, high-sugar diet (HFHS) induced leptin resistance and intestinal epithelial dysfunction is implicated in hyperphagia and metabolic disorders. Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of dietary interventions for reducing appetite. This study aims to investigate whether triacylglycerol rich in DHA (DHA-TG) could regulate appetite in mice fed with a HFHS diet and the mechanism by which it achieves that. DHA-TG could reduce food intake and regulate neuropeptides (POMC, AgRP, and NPY) expression in HFHS diet-fed mice. Hypothalamic transcriptome analysis reveals that these effects might be attributed to the role of DHA-TG in modulating hormone secretion and digestive system process. According to ELISA and RT-qPCR analysis, DHA-TG ameliorated leptin secretion and attenuated central leptin resistance induced by HFHS diet feeding. Besides, DHA-TG prevented the damage of intestinal epithelial barrier in nutritive obese mice by improving leptin sensitivity. Based on jejunal transcriptome analysis, DHA-TG also protected intestinal endocrine function, especially the secretion of another anorectic hormone, cholecystokinin (CCK), in HFHS diet-fed mice. Furthermore, DHA-TG was ineffective in repressing appetite, and improving gut leakage in leptin-deficient mice (ob/ob mice). In conclusion, DHA-TG has a potential to regulate appetite with the action of leptin, and intestinal epithelial functions in HFHS diet-fed mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wanxiu Cao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China; Marine Biomedical Research Institute of Qingdao, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Fang Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Robert W Li
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service (USDA-ARS), Animal Genomics and Improvement Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
| | - Ruili Yang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Yuming Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Changhu Xue
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Qingjuan Tang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bigford GE, Szeto A, Kimball J, Herderick EE, Mendez AJ, Nash MS. Cardiometabolic risks and atherosclerotic disease in ApoE knockout mice: Effect of spinal cord injury and Salsalate anti-inflammatory pharmacotherapy. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246601. [PMID: 33626069 PMCID: PMC7904230 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test in mice with a double mutation of the ApoE gene (ApoE-/-) whether spinal cord injury (SCI) hastens the native trajectory of, and established component risks for, atherosclerotic disease (AD), and whether Salsalate anti-inflammatory pharmacotherapy attenuates the impact of SCI. METHODS ApoE-/- mice were anesthetized and underwent a T9 laminectomy. Exposed spinal cords were given a contusion injury (70 k-dynes). Sham animals underwent all surgical procedures, excluding injury. Injured animals were randomized to 2 groups: SCI or SCI+Salsalate [120 mg/Kg/day i.p.]. Mice were serially sacrificed at 20-, 24-, and 28-weeks post-SCI, and body mass was recorded. At sacrifice, heart and aorta were harvested intact, fixed in 10% buffered formalin, cleaned and cut longitudinally for en face preparation. The aortic tree was stained with oil-red-O (ORO). AD lesion histomorphometry was calculated from the proportional area of ORO. Plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides and proatherogenic inflammatory cytokines (PAIC's) were analyzed. RESULTS AD lesion in the aortic arch progressively increased in ApoE-/-, significant at 24- and 28-weeks. AD in SCI is significantly greater at 24- and 28-weeks compared to time-controlled ApoE-/-. Salsalate treatment attenuates the SCI-induced increase at these time points. Body mass in all SCI groups are significantly reduced compared to time-controlled ApoE-/-. Cholesterol and triglycerides are significantly higher with SCI by 24- and 28-weeks, compared to ApoE-/-, and Salsalate reduces the SCI-induced effect on cholesterol. PAIC's interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 5 (CCL-5) are significantly greater with SCI compared to ApoE-/- at varying timepoints. Salsalate confers a marginal reducing effect on PAIC's by 28-weeks compared to SCI. Regression models determine that each PAIC is a significant and positive predictor of lesion. (p's <0.05). CONCLUSIONS SCI accelerates aortic AD and associated risk factors, and anti-inflammatory treatment may attenuate the impact of SCI on AD outcomes. PAIC's IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, MCP-1, and CCL-5 may be effective predictors of AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory E. Bigford
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Angela Szeto
- Department of Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - John Kimball
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | | | - Armando J. Mendez
- Department of Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mark S. Nash
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Chellappa K, Perron IJ, Naidoo N, Baur JA. The leptin sensitizer celastrol reduces age-associated obesity and modulates behavioral rhythms. Aging Cell 2019; 18:e12874. [PMID: 30821426 PMCID: PMC6516176 DOI: 10.1111/acel.12874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2018] [Revised: 08/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of obesity increases with age in humans and in rodents. Age‐related obesity is characterized by leptin resistance and associated with heightened risk of metabolic disorders. However, the effect of leptin resistance per se has been difficult to disentangle from other effects of aging. Here we demonstrate that celastrol, a natural phytochemical that was previously shown to act as a leptin sensitizer, induces weight loss in aged animals, but not in young controls. Celastrol reduces food intake and lowers fasting glucose without affecting energy expenditure. Unexpectedly, administration of celastrol just before the dark period disrupted circadian rhythms of sleep and activity. This regimen was also associated with loss of lean mass an outcome that would not be desirable in elderly patients. Adjusting the timing of celastrol administration by 12 hr, to the beginning of the light period, avoided interference with circadian rhythms while retaining the reductions in body weight and adiposity. Thus, targeting leptin signaling is an effective strategy to ameliorate age‐associated weight gain, and can profoundly impact circadian rhythms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karthikeyani Chellappa
- Department of Physiology and Institute for Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism Perelman School of Medicine University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Pennsylvania
| | - Isaac J. Perron
- Center for Sleep and Circadian Neurobiology Perelman School of Medicine University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Pennsylvania
| | - Nirinjini Naidoo
- Center for Sleep and Circadian Neurobiology Perelman School of Medicine University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Pennsylvania
| | - Joseph A. Baur
- Department of Physiology and Institute for Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism Perelman School of Medicine University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Pennsylvania
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bigford G, Nash MS. Nutritional Health Considerations for Persons with Spinal Cord Injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 2018; 23:188-206. [PMID: 29339895 DOI: 10.1310/sci2303-188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Chronic spinal cord injury (SCI) often results in morbidity and mortality due to all-cause cardiovascular disease (CVD) and comorbid endocrine disorders. Several component risk factors for CVD, described as the cardiometabolic syndrome (CMS), are prevalent in SCI, with the individual risks of obesity and insulin resistance known to advance the disease prognosis to a greater extent than other established risks. Notably, adiposity and insulin resistance are attributed in large part to a commonly observed maladaptive dietary/nutritional profile. Although there are no evidence-based nutritional guidelines to address the CMS risk in SCI, contemporary treatment strategies advocate more comprehensive lifestyle management that includes sustained nutritional guidance as a necessary component for overall health management. This monograph describes factors in SCI that contribute to CMS risks, the current nutritional profile and its contribution to CMS risks, and effective treatment strategies including the adaptability of the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) to SCI. Establishing appropriate nutritional guidelines and recommendations will play an important role in addressing the CMS risks in SCI and preserving optimal long-term health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Bigford
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida.,The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Mark S Nash
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida.,Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Associations between lean mass and leptin in men with chronic spinal cord injury: Results from the FRASCI-muscle study. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198969. [PMID: 29949600 PMCID: PMC6021064 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptin is an adipo-myokine that regulates appetite and energy expenditure by a neuroendocrine feedback loop. Leptin levels are positively correlated with BMI in the spinal cord injury population and leptin levels are greater in individuals with spinal cord injury compared to uninjured controls. Leptin is produced in multiple tissues, including fat, bone, and skeletal muscle and is a putative biomarker of sedentary behavior in older adults. We assessed body composition leptin, adiponectin, and IL-6 levels in 205 men with chronic spinal cord injury. We found no association between age, injury duration, injury level, injury completeness, or walking status and leptin. There was a significant positive association between lean mass and leptin in men with SCI that was independent of fat. Adjusting for body composition, leptin levels were positively associated with IL-6 and negatively associated with adiponectin levels. When considering men with SCI and sarcopenic obesity, only fat mass remained positively associated with leptin. We found no association between IL-6, adiponectin, or lean mass and leptin in the sarcopenic obesity group. Our findings suggest that lean mass is an under recognized, but substantial, source of circulating leptin. Furthermore, SCI-related sarcopenic obesity may result in dysregulated adipo-myokine metabolism with local and systemic physiologic effects.
Collapse
|
9
|
Hao M, Ji XR, Chen H, Zhang W, Zhang LC, Zhang LH, Tang PF, Lu N. Cell cycle and complement inhibitors may be specific for treatment of spinal cord injury in aged and young mice: Transcriptomic analyses. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:518-527. [PMID: 29623939 PMCID: PMC5900517 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.226405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have reported age-specific pathological and functional outcomes in young and aged patients suffering spinal cord injury, but the mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we examined mice with spinal cord injury. Gene expression profiles from the Gene Expression Omnibus database (accession number GSE93561) were used, including spinal cord samples from 3 young injured mice (2-3-months old, induced by Impactor at Th9 level) and 3 control mice (2-3-months old, no treatment), as well as 2 aged injured mice (15-18-months old, induced by Impactor at Th9 level) and 2 control mice (15-18-months old, no treatment). Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in spinal cord tissue from injured and control mice were identified using the Linear Models for Microarray data method, with a threshold of adjusted P < 0.05 and |logFC(fold change)| > 1.5. Protein-protein interaction networks were constructed using data from the STRING database, followed by module analysis by Cytoscape software to screen crucial genes. Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes pathway and Gene Ontology enrichment analyses were performed to investigate the underlying functions of DEGs using Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery. Consequently, 1,604 and 1,153 DEGs were identified between injured and normal control mice in spinal cord tissue of aged and young mice, respectively. Furthermore, a Venn diagram showed that 960 DEGs were shared among aged and young mice, while 644 and 193 DEGs were specific to aged and young mice, respectively. Functional enrichment indicates that shared DEGs are involved in osteoclast differentiation, extracellular matrix-receptor interaction, nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway, and focal adhesion. Unique genes for aged and young injured groups were involved in the cell cycle (upregulation of PLK1) and complement (upregulation of C3) activation, respectively. These findings were confirmed by functional analysis of genes in modules (common, 4; aged, 2; young, 1) screened from protein-protein interaction networks. Accordingly, cell cycle and complement inhibitors may be specific treatments for spinal cord injury in aged and young mice, respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ming Hao
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Xin-Ran Ji
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Hua Chen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Li-Cheng Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Li-Hai Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Pei-Fu Tang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Ning Lu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Multiple organ dysfunction and systemic inflammation after spinal cord injury: a complex relationship. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:260. [PMID: 27716334 PMCID: PMC5053065 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0736-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating event that results in significant physical disabilities for affected individuals. Apart from local injury within the spinal cord, SCI patients develop a variety of complications characterized by multiple organ dysfunction or failure. These disorders, such as neurogenic pain, depression, lung injury, cardiovascular disease, liver damage, kidney dysfunction, urinary tract infection, and increased susceptibility to pathogen infection, are common in injured patients, hinder functional recovery, and can even be life threatening. Multiple lines of evidence point to pathological connections emanating from the injured spinal cord, post-injury systemic inflammation, and immune suppression as important multifactorial mechanisms underlying post-SCI complications. SCI triggers systemic inflammatory responses marked by increased circulation of immune cells and pro-inflammatory mediators, which result in the infiltration of inflammatory cells into secondary organs and persistence of an inflammatory microenvironment that contributes to organ dysfunction. SCI also induces immune deficiency through immune organ dysfunction, resulting in impaired responsiveness to pathogen infection. In this review, we summarize current evidence demonstrating the relevance of inflammatory conditions and immune suppression in several complications frequently seen following SCI. In addition, we highlight the potential pathways by which inflammatory and immune cues contribute to multiple organ failure and dysfunction and discuss current anti-inflammatory approaches used to alleviate post-SCI complications. A comprehensive review of this literature may provide new insights into therapeutic strategies against complications after SCI by targeting systemic inflammation.
Collapse
|
11
|
Wang L, Sun S, Yang L, Lu C, Cao XJ. Effects of leptin on femoral fracture in rats. J Biomed Res 2016; 32:130-135. [PMID: 28550273 PMCID: PMC5895567 DOI: 10.7555/jbr.31.20160077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, our objective was to evaluate effects of leptin on fracture healing in rats. Seventy two male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomized into 3 groups. Standardized femoral fractures were created in all the rats. Group A was treated with 1 mL normal saline (NS), group B with 0.3 μg/kg leptin in 1 mL NS, and group C with 0.5 μg/kg leptin in 1 mL NS for 2 weeks intraperitoneally. Each group was divided into three subgroups including 8 rats for evaluation at 2, 4 and 8 weeks. Radiological evaluation showed that callus formation of group B and C was all significantly higher than group A at 8 weeks (P=0.04 and P=0.013, respectively). There was no statistically significant difference in fracture healing between group B and group C at 8 weeks (P=0.197). Histological evaluation revealed fracture healing of group B and C was better than group A at 4 weeks (P=0.01 and P=0.002, respectively) and 8 weeks (P=0.008 and P=0.003, respectively). Micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) analysis demonstrated that greater amounts of bony callus and evidence of bone fusion were observed in group B and C at 4 weeks (P=0.02 and P=0.04, respectively) and 8 weeks (P=0.005 and P=0.001, respectively) compared to group A. Group C also had better fracture healing than group B at 8 weeks (P=0.01). In conclusion, leptin has a positive effect on rat femoral fracture healing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Sixin Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Lei Yang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Chun Lu
- Department of Immunology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Xiao-Jian Cao
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Sadagurski M, Landeryou T, Cady G, Bartke A, Bernal-Mizrachi E, Miller RA. Transient early food restriction leads to hypothalamic changes in the long-lived crowded litter female mice. Physiol Rep 2015; 3:e12379. [PMID: 25907790 PMCID: PMC4425981 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2015] [Revised: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Transient nutrient restriction in the 3 weeks between birth and weaning (producing "crowded litter" or CL mice) leads to a significant increase in lifespan and is associated with permanent changes in energy homeostasis, leptin, and insulin sensitivity. Here, we show this brief period of early food restriction leads to permanent modulation of the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARH), markedly increasing formation of both orexigenic agouti-related peptide (AgRP) and anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin (POMC) projections to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH). An additional 4 weeks of caloric restriction, after weaning, does not further intensify the formation of AgRP and POMC projections. Acute leptin stimulation of 12-month-old mice leads to a stronger increase in the levels of hypothalamic pStat3 and cFos activity in CL mice than in controls, suggesting that preweaning food restriction leads to long-lasting enhancement of leptin signaling. In contrast, FoxO1 nuclear exclusion in response to insulin is equivalent in young adult CL and control mice, suggesting that hypothalamic insulin signaling is not modulated by the crowded litter intervention. Markers of hypothalamic reactive gliosis associated with aging, such as Iba1-positive microglia and GFAP-positive astrocytes, are significantly reduced in CL mice as compared to controls at 12 and 22 months of age. Lastly, age-associated overproduction of TNF-α in microglial cells is reduced in CL mice than in age-matched controls. Together, these results suggest that transient early life nutrient deprivation leads to long-term hypothalamic changes which may contribute to the longevity of CL mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marianna Sadagurski
- Division of Geriatric and Palliative Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Taylor Landeryou
- Department of Pathology and Geriatrics Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Gillian Cady
- Department of Pathology and Geriatrics Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Andrzej Bartke
- Department of Internal Medicine-Geriatrics Research, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, Illinois
| | - Ernesto Bernal-Mizrachi
- Division of Metabolism Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan Endocrinology Section, Medical Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Richard A Miller
- Department of Pathology and Geriatrics Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Schwab JM, Zhang Y, Kopp MA, Brommer B, Popovich PG. The paradox of chronic neuroinflammation, systemic immune suppression, autoimmunity after traumatic chronic spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2014; 258:121-129. [PMID: 25017893 PMCID: PMC4099970 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 04/19/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
During the transition from acute to chronic stages of recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI), there is an evolving state of immunologic dysfunction that exacerbates the problems associated with the more clinically obvious neurologic deficits. Since injury directly affects cells embedded within the "immune privileged/specialized" milieu of the spinal cord, maladaptive or inefficient responses are likely to occur. Collectively, these responses qualify as part of the continuum of "SCI disease" and are important therapeutic targets to improve neural repair and neurological outcome. Generic immune suppressive therapies have been largely unsuccessful, mostly because inflammation and immunity exert both beneficial (plasticity enhancing) and detrimental (e.g. glia- and neurodegenerative; secondary damage) effects and these functions change over time. Moreover, "compartimentalized" investigations, limited to only intraspinal inflammation and associated cellular or molecular changes in the spinal cord, neglect the reality that the structure and function of the CNS are influenced by systemic immune challenges and that the immune system is 'hardwired' into the nervous system. Here, we consider this interplay during the progression from acute to chronic SCI. Specifically, we survey impaired/non-resolving intraspinal inflammation and the paradox of systemic inflammatory responses in the context of ongoing chronic immune suppression and autoimmunity. The concepts of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), compensatory anti-inflammatory response syndrome (CARS) and "neurogenic" spinal cord injury-induced immune depression syndrome (SCI-IDS) are discussed as determinants of impaired "host-defense" and trauma-induced autoimmunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan M. Schwab
- Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology, Clinical and Experimental Spinal Cord Injury Research (Neuroparaplegiology), Charite - Universitatsmedizin Berlin, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Trauma Hospital Berlin, D-12683 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yi Zhang
- Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Department of Neuroscience, Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Marcel A. Kopp
- Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology, Clinical and Experimental Spinal Cord Injury Research (Neuroparaplegiology), Charite - Universitatsmedizin Berlin, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Benedikt Brommer
- Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology, Clinical and Experimental Spinal Cord Injury Research (Neuroparaplegiology), Charite - Universitatsmedizin Berlin, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Phillip G. Popovich
- Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Department of Neuroscience, Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Neuroendocrine and cardiac metabolic dysfunction and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in adipose tissue and pancreas following chronic spinal cord injury in the mouse. ASN Neuro 2013; 5:243-55. [PMID: 23924318 PMCID: PMC3789215 DOI: 10.1042/an20130021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
CVD (cardiovascular disease) represents a leading cause of mortality in chronic SCI (spinal cord injury). Several component risk factors are observed in SCI; however, the underlying mechanisms that contribute to these risks have not been defined. Central and peripheral chronic inflammation is associated with metabolic dysfunction and CVD, including adipokine regulation of neuroendocrine and cardiac function and inflammatory processes initiated by the innate immune response. We use female C57 Bl/6 mice to examine neuroendocrine, cardiac, adipose and pancreatic signaling related to inflammation and metabolic dysfunction in response to experimentally induced chronic SCI. Using immuno-histochemical, -precipitation, and -blotting analysis, we show decreased POMC (proopiomelanocortin) and increased NPY (neuropeptide-Y) expression in the hypothalamic ARC (arcuate nucleus) and PVN (paraventricular nucleus), 1-month post-SCI. Long-form leptin receptor (Ob-Rb), JAK2 (Janus kinase)/STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3)/p38 and RhoA/ROCK (Rho-associated kinase) signaling is significantly increased in the heart tissue post-SCI, and we observe the formation and activation of the NLRP3 (NOD-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3) inflammasome in VAT (visceral adipose tissue) and pancreas post-SCI. These data demonstrate neuroendocrine signaling peptide alterations, associated with central inflammation and metabolic dysfunction post-SCI, and provide evidence for the peripheral activation of signaling mechanisms involved in cardiac, VAT and pancreatic inflammation and metabolic dysfunction post-SCI. Further understanding of biological mechanisms contributing to SCI-related inflammatory processes and metabolic dysfunction associated with CVD pathology may help to direct therapeutic and rehabilitation countermeasures.
Collapse
|
15
|
Thaler JP, Guyenet SJ, Dorfman MD, Wisse BE, Schwartz MW. Hypothalamic inflammation: marker or mechanism of obesity pathogenesis? Diabetes 2013; 62:2629-34. [PMID: 23881189 PMCID: PMC3717869 DOI: 10.2337/db12-1605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua P. Thaler
- Diabetes and Obesity Center of Excellence and Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington
| | - Stephan J. Guyenet
- Diabetes and Obesity Center of Excellence and Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington
| | - Mauricio D. Dorfman
- Diabetes and Obesity Center of Excellence and Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington
| | - Brent E. Wisse
- Diabetes and Obesity Center of Excellence and Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington
| | - Michael W. Schwartz
- Diabetes and Obesity Center of Excellence and Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington
| |
Collapse
|