1
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Wu J, Steward RL. Disturbed fluid flow reinforces endothelial tractions and intercellular stresses. J Biomech 2024; 169:112156. [PMID: 38761747 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2024.112156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Disturbed fluid flow is well understood to have significant ramifications on endothelial function, but the impact disturbed flow has on endothelial biomechanics is not well understood. In this study, we measured tractions, intercellular stresses, and cell velocity of endothelial cells exposed to disturbed flow using a custom-fabricated flow chamber. Our flow chamber exposed cells to disturbed fluid flow within the following spatial zones: zone 1 (inlet; length 0.676-2.027 cm): 0.0037 ± 0.0001 Pa; zone 2 (middle; length 2.027-3.716 cm): 0.0059 ± 0.0005 Pa; and zone 3 (outlet; length 3.716-5.405 cm): 0.0051 ± 0.0025 Pa. Tractions and intercellular stresses were observed to be highest in the middle of the chamber (zone 2) and lowest at the chamber outlet (zone 3), while cell velocity was highest near the chamber inlet (zone 1), and lowest near the middle of the chamber (zone 2). Our findings suggest endothelial biomechanical response to disturbed fluid flow to be dependent on not only shear stress magnitude, but the spatial shear stress gradient as well. We believe our results will be useful to a host of fields including endothelial cell biology, the cardiovascular field, and cellular biomechanics in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwen Wu
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, United States
| | - R L Steward
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, United States.
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2
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Nejad MR, Ruske LJ, McCord M, Zhang J, Zhang G, Notbohm J, Yeomans JM. Stress-shape misalignment in confluent cell layers. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3628. [PMID: 38684651 PMCID: PMC11059169 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47702-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
In tissue formation and repair, the epithelium undergoes complex patterns of motion driven by the active forces produced by each cell. Although the principles governing how the forces evolve in time are not yet clear, it is often assumed that the contractile stresses within the cell layer align with the axis defined by the body of each cell. Here, we simultaneously measured the orientations of the cell shape and the cell-generated contractile stresses, observing correlated, dynamic domains in which the stresses were systematically misaligned with the cell body. We developed a continuum model that decouples the orientations of contractile stress and cell body. The model recovered the spatial and temporal dynamics of the regions of misalignment in the experiments. These findings reveal that the cell controls its contractile forces independently from its shape, suggesting that the physical rules relating cell forces and cell shape are more flexible than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehrana R Nejad
- The Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PU, United Kingdom.
| | - Liam J Ruske
- The Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PU, United Kingdom
| | - Molly McCord
- Biophysics Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jun Zhang
- Biophysics Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Guanming Zhang
- Center for Soft Matter Research, Department of Physics, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Simons Center for Computational Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Jacob Notbohm
- Biophysics Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
- Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
| | - Julia M Yeomans
- The Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PU, United Kingdom.
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3
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Milivojevic M, McClintock PVE. Role of viscoelasticity in the appearance of low-Reynolds turbulence: considerations for modelling. J Biol Eng 2024; 18:24. [PMID: 38589891 DOI: 10.1186/s13036-024-00415-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Inertial effects caused by perturbations of dynamical equilibrium during the flow of soft matter constitute a hallmark of turbulence. Such perturbations are attributable to an imbalance between energy storage and energy dissipation. During the flow of Newtonian fluids, kinetic energy can be both stored and dissipated, while the flow of viscoelastic soft matter systems, such as polymer fluids, induces the accumulation of both kinetic and elastic energies. The accumulation of elastic energy causes local stiffening of stretched polymer chains, which can destabilise the flow. Migrating multicellular systems are hugely complex and are capable of self-regulating their viscoelasticity and mechanical stress generation, as well as controlling their energy storage and energy dissipation. Since the flow perturbation of viscoelastic systems is caused by the inhomogeneous accumulation of elastic energy, rather than of kinetic energy, turbulence can occur at low Reynolds numbers.This theoretical review is focused on clarifying the role of viscoelasticity in the appearance of low-Reynolds turbulence. Three types of system are considered and compared: (1) high-Reynolds turbulent flow of Newtonian fluids, (2) low and moderate-Reynolds flow of polymer solutions, and (3) migration of epithelial collectives, discussed in terms of two model systems. The models considered involve the fusion of two epithelial aggregates, and the free expansion of epithelial monolayers on a substrate matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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4
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Eftimie R, Milivojevic M, Bordas SPA. Segregation of co-cultured multicellular systems: review and modeling consideration. Q Rev Biophys 2024; 57:e5. [PMID: 38351868 DOI: 10.1017/s0033583524000015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Cell segregation caused by collective cell migration (CCM) is crucial for morphogenesis, functional development of tissue parts, and is an important aspect in other diseases such as cancer and its metastasis process. Efficiency of the cell segregation depends on the interplay between: (1) biochemical processes such as cell signaling and gene expression and (2) physical interactions between cells. Despite extensive research devoted to study the segregation of various co-cultured systems, we still do not understand the role of physical interactions in cell segregation. Cumulative effects of these physical interactions appear in the form of physical parameters such as: (1) tissue surface tension, (2) viscoelasticity caused by CCM, and (3) solid stress accumulated in multicellular systems. These parameters primarily depend on the interplay between the state of cell-cell adhesion contacts and cell contractility. The role of these physical parameters on the segregation efficiency is discussed on model systems such as co-cultured breast cell spheroids consisting of two subpopulations that are in contact. This review study aims to: (1) summarize biological aspects related to cell segregation, mechanical properties of cell collectives, effects along the biointerface between cell subpopulations and (2) describe from a biophysical/mathematical perspective the same biological aspects summarized before. So that overall it can illustrate the complexity of the biological systems that translate into very complex biophysical/mathematical equations. Moreover, by presenting in parallel these two seemingly different parts (biology vs. equations), this review aims to emphasize the need for experiments to estimate the variety of parameters entering the resulting complex biophysical/mathematical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Beograd, Serbia
| | - Raluca Eftimie
- Laboratoire Mathematiques de Besançon, UMR-CNRS 6623, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comte, Besançon, France
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Beograd, Serbia
| | - Stéphane P A Bordas
- Faculty of Science, Technology and Communication, University of Luxembourg, Institute for Computational Engineering, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
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5
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Yeh YT, Del Álamo JC, Caffrey CR. Biomechanics of parasite migration within hosts. Trends Parasitol 2024; 40:164-175. [PMID: 38172015 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The dissemination of protozoan and metazoan parasites through host tissues is hindered by cellular barriers, dense extracellular matrices, and fluid forces in the bloodstream. To overcome these diverse biophysical impediments, parasites implement versatile migratory strategies. Parasite-exerted mechanical forces and upregulation of the host's cellular contractile machinery are the motors for these strategies, and these are comparably better characterized for protozoa than for helminths. Using the examples of the protozoans, Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium, and the metazoan, Schistosoma mansoni, we highlight how quantitative tools such as traction force and reflection interference contrast microscopies have improved our understanding of how parasites alter host mechanobiology to promote their migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ting Yeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
| | - Juan C Del Álamo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Division of Cardiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 93093, USA
| | - Conor R Caffrey
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC0657, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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6
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Atia L, Fredberg JJ. A life off the beaten track in biomechanics: Imperfect elasticity, cytoskeletal glassiness, and epithelial unjamming. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2023; 4:041304. [PMID: 38156333 PMCID: PMC10751956 DOI: 10.1063/5.0179719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Textbook descriptions of elasticity, viscosity, and viscoelasticity fail to account for certain mechanical behaviors that typify soft living matter. Here, we consider three examples. First, strong empirical evidence suggests that within lung parenchymal tissues, the frictional stresses expressed at the microscale are fundamentally not of viscous origin. Second, the cytoskeleton (CSK) of the airway smooth muscle cell, as well as that of all eukaryotic cells, is more solid-like than fluid-like, yet its elastic modulus is softer than the softest of soft rubbers by a factor of 104-105. Moreover, the eukaryotic CSK expresses power law rheology, innate malleability, and fluidization when sheared. For these reasons, taken together, the CSK of the living eukaryotic cell is reminiscent of the class of materials called soft glasses, thus likening it to inert materials such as clays, pastes slurries, emulsions, and foams. Third, the cellular collective comprising a confluent epithelial layer can become solid-like and jammed, fluid-like and unjammed, or something in between. Esoteric though each may seem, these discoveries are consequential insofar as they impact our understanding of bronchospasm and wound healing as well as cancer cell invasion and embryonic development. Moreover, there are reasons to suspect that certain of these phenomena first arose in the early protist as a result of evolutionary pressures exerted by the primordial microenvironment. We have hypothesized, further, that each then became passed down virtually unchanged to the present day as a conserved core process. These topics are addressed here not only because they are interesting but also because they track the journey of one laboratory along a path less traveled by.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lior Atia
- Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
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7
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Milivojevic M. Cell jamming-to-unjamming transitions and vice versa in development: Physical aspects. Biosystems 2023; 234:105045. [PMID: 37813238 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2023.105045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Collective cell migration is essential for a wide range of biological processes such as: morphogenesis, wound healing, and cancer spreading. However, it is well known that migrating epithelial collectives frequently undergo jamming, stay trapped some period of time, and then start migration again. Consequently, only a part of epithelial cells actively contributes to the tissue development. In contrast to epithelial cells, migrating mesenchymal collectives successfully avoid the jamming. It has been confirmed that the epithelial unjamming cannot be treated as the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Some other mechanism is responsible for the epithelial jamming/unjamming. Despite extensive research devoted to study the cell jamming/unjamming, we still do not understand the origin of this phenomenon. The origin is connected to physical factors such as: the cell compressive residual stress accumulation and surface characteristics of migrating (unjamming) and resting (jamming) epithelial clusters which depend primarily on the strength of cell-cell adhesion contacts and cell contractility. The main goal of this theoretical consideration is to clarify these cause-consequence relations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade University, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade University, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, Serbia
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8
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Li Q, Chen Z, Zhang Y, Ding S, Ding H, Wang L, Xie Z, Fu Y, Wei M, Liu S, Chen J, Wang X, Gu Z. Imaging cellular forces with photonic crystals. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7369. [PMID: 37963911 PMCID: PMC10646022 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43090-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Current techniques for visualizing and quantifying cellular forces have limitations in live cell imaging, throughput, and multi-scale analysis, which impede progress in cell force research and its practical applications. We developed a photonic crystal cellular force microscopy (PCCFM) to image vertical cell forces over a wide field of view (1.3 mm ⨯ 1.0 mm, a 10 ⨯ objective image) at high speed (about 20 frames per second) without references. The photonic crystal hydrogel substrate (PCS) converts micro-nano deformations into perceivable color changes, enabling in situ visualization and quantification of tiny vertical cell forces with high throughput. It enabled long-term, cross-scale monitoring from subcellular focal adhesions to tissue-level cell sheets and aggregates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zaozao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- Institute of Biomaterials and Medical Devices, Southeast University, 215163, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shuang Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Haibo Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Luping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, 315211, Ningbo, China
| | - Zhuoying Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yifu Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mengxiao Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shengnan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jialun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhongze Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, 210096, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
- Institute of Biomaterials and Medical Devices, Southeast University, 215163, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China.
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9
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Milivojevic M. Physics of collective cell migration. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL : EBJ 2023; 52:625-640. [PMID: 37707627 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-023-01681-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Movement of cell clusters along extracellular matrices (ECM) during tissue development, wound healing, and early stage of cancer invasion involve various inter-connected migration modes such as: (1) cell movement within clusters, (2) cluster extension (wetting) and compression (de-wetting), and (3) directional cluster movement. It has become increasingly evident that dilational and volumetric viscoelasticity of cell clusters and their surrounding substrate significantly influence these migration modes through physical parameters such as: tissue and matrix surface tensions, interfacial tension between cells and substrate, gradients of surface and interfacial tensions, as well as, the accumulation of cell and matrix residual stresses. Inhomogeneous distribution of tissue surface tension along the cell-matrix biointerface can appear as a consequence of different contractility of various cluster regions. While the directional cell migration caused by the matrix stiffness gradient (i.e., durotaxis) has been widely elaborated, the structural changes of matrix surface caused by cell tractions which lead to the generation of the matrix surface tension gradient has not been considered yet. The main goal of this theoretical consideration is to clarify the roles of various physical parameters in collective cell migration based on the formulation of a biophysical model. This complex phenomenon is discussed with the help of model systems such as the movement of cell clusters on a collagen I gel matrix, simultaneously reviewing various experimental data with and without cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade University, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade University, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, Serbia
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10
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SubramanianBalachandar V, Islam MM, Steward RL. A machine learning approach to predict cellular mechanical stresses in response to chemical perturbation. Biophys J 2023; 122:3413-3424. [PMID: 37496269 PMCID: PMC10502424 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2023.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanical stresses generated at the cell-cell level and cell-substrate level have been suggested to be important in a host of physiological and pathological processes. However, the influence various chemical compounds have on the mechanical stresses mentioned above is poorly understood, hindering the discovery of novel therapeutics, and representing a barrier in the field. To overcome this barrier, we implemented two approaches: 1) monolayer boundary predictor and 2) discretized window predictor utilizing either stepwise linear regression or quadratic support vector machine machine learning model to predict the dose-dependent response of tractions and intercellular stresses to chemical perturbation. We used experimental traction and intercellular stress data gathered from samples subject to 0.2 or 2 μg/mL drug concentrations along with cell morphological properties extracted from the bright-field images as predictors to train our model. To demonstrate the predictive capability of our machine learning models, we predicted tractions and intercellular stresses in response to 0 and 1 μg/mL drug concentrations which were not utilized in the training sets. Results revealed the discretized window predictor trained just with four samples (292 images) to best predict both intercellular stresses and tractions using the quadratic support vector machine and stepwise linear regression models, respectively, for the unseen sample images.
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Affiliation(s)
- VigneshAravind SubramanianBalachandar
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida; Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Md Mydul Islam
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
| | - R L Steward
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida; Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
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11
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Ruppel A, Wörthmüller D, Misiak V, Kelkar M, Wang I, Moreau P, Méry A, Révilloud J, Charras G, Cappello G, Boudou T, Schwarz US, Balland M. Force propagation between epithelial cells depends on active coupling and mechano-structural polarization. eLife 2023; 12:e83588. [PMID: 37548995 PMCID: PMC10511242 DOI: 10.7554/elife.83588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell-generated forces play a major role in coordinating the large-scale behavior of cell assemblies, in particular during development, wound healing, and cancer. Mechanical signals propagate faster than biochemical signals, but can have similar effects, especially in epithelial tissues with strong cell-cell adhesion. However, a quantitative description of the transmission chain from force generation in a sender cell, force propagation across cell-cell boundaries, and the concomitant response of receiver cells is missing. For a quantitative analysis of this important situation, here we propose a minimal model system of two epithelial cells on an H-pattern ('cell doublet'). After optogenetically activating RhoA, a major regulator of cell contractility, in the sender cell, we measure the mechanical response of the receiver cell by traction force and monolayer stress microscopies. In general, we find that the receiver cells show an active response so that the cell doublet forms a coherent unit. However, force propagation and response of the receiver cell also strongly depend on the mechano-structural polarization in the cell assembly, which is controlled by cell-matrix adhesion to the adhesive micropattern. We find that the response of the receiver cell is stronger when the mechano-structural polarization axis is oriented perpendicular to the direction of force propagation, reminiscent of the Poisson effect in passive materials. We finally show that the same effects are at work in small tissues. Our work demonstrates that cellular organization and active mechanical response of a tissue are key to maintain signal strength and lead to the emergence of elasticity, which means that signals are not dissipated like in a viscous system, but can propagate over large distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artur Ruppel
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhyGrenobleFrance
| | - Dennis Wörthmüller
- Institute for Theoretical Physics, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
- BioQuant–Center for Quantitative Biology, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
| | | | - Manasi Kelkar
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Irène Wang
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhyGrenobleFrance
| | | | - Adrien Méry
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhyGrenobleFrance
| | | | - Guillaume Charras
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
- Institute for the Physics of Living Systems, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | | | - Thomas Boudou
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhyGrenobleFrance
| | - Ulrich S Schwarz
- Institute for Theoretical Physics, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
- BioQuant–Center for Quantitative Biology, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
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12
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Marín-Llauradó A, Kale S, Ouzeri A, Golde T, Sunyer R, Torres-Sánchez A, Latorre E, Gómez-González M, Roca-Cusachs P, Arroyo M, Trepat X. Mapping mechanical stress in curved epithelia of designed size and shape. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4014. [PMID: 37419987 PMCID: PMC10329037 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38879-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The function of organs such as lungs, kidneys and mammary glands relies on the three-dimensional geometry of their epithelium. To adopt shapes such as spheres, tubes and ellipsoids, epithelia generate mechanical stresses that are generally unknown. Here we engineer curved epithelial monolayers of controlled size and shape and map their state of stress. We design pressurized epithelia with circular, rectangular and ellipsoidal footprints. We develop a computational method, called curved monolayer stress microscopy, to map the stress tensor in these epithelia. This method establishes a correspondence between epithelial shape and mechanical stress without assumptions of material properties. In epithelia with spherical geometry we show that stress weakly increases with areal strain in a size-independent manner. In epithelia with rectangular and ellipsoidal cross-section we find pronounced stress anisotropies that impact cell alignment. Our approach enables a systematic study of how geometry and stress influence epithelial fate and function in three-dimensions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariadna Marín-Llauradó
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sohan Kale
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
- Center for Soft Matter and Biological Physics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
| | - Adam Ouzeri
- LaCàN, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya-BarcelonaTech, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Tom Golde
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raimon Sunyer
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- Facultat de Medicina, Universitat de Barcelona, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alejandro Torres-Sánchez
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- LaCàN, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya-BarcelonaTech, Barcelona, Spain
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Barcelona, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ernest Latorre
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manuel Gómez-González
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pere Roca-Cusachs
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- Facultat de Medicina, Universitat de Barcelona, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marino Arroyo
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
- LaCàN, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya-BarcelonaTech, Barcelona, Spain.
- Centre Internacional de Mètodes Numèrics en Enginyeria (CIMNE), 08034, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Xavier Trepat
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
- Facultat de Medicina, Universitat de Barcelona, 08036, Barcelona, Spain.
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain.
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13
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Zhou Z, Peng H, Li J, Chen Z, Huo J, Zhou T. Real-time monitoring of the contractile properties of H9C2 cardiomyocytes by double resonator piezoelectric cytometry. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2023; 15:2839-2852. [PMID: 37272335 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay00254c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Testing the mechanical properties of cardiomyocytes plays an important role in the study of the physiological and pathological processes of constant contraction and diastole of the cardiovascular system. However, there is currently no satisfactory and dynamic technology to measure the mechanical properties of cardiomyocytes in a sustained manner, greatly affecting their practical application in clinical diagnosis and treatment evaluation. Herein, a double resonator piezoelectric cytometry (DRPC) technique was employed for dynamic monitoring of H9C2 cardiomyocyte adhesion and the effects of two cardiovascular drugs on the contractile properties of H9C2 cardiomyocytes, i.e., isoprenaline (ISO, a positive inotropic agent) and verapamil (VRP, a negative inotropic agent). Specifically, we used 9 MHz AT and BT-cut bare gold and transparent ITO electrodes and compared their dynamic adhesion to the two electrodes modified with RGD and gelatin respectively versus unmodified to measure the cell generated stress (ΔS) exerted on the quartz crystal surface by a population of cells and the cell viscoelastic index (CVI). We found that the DRPC technique can quantitatively measure the magnitude and direction of the generated forces during the adhesion process of the cells and under the effect of drugs. In conclusion, the technique presented in this study can be used for the simultaneous measurement of cell adhesion, traction force and viscoelasticity of living cells in a noninvasive, dynamic and continuous way, making it an ideal tool for assessing the population contractility of cardiomyocytes and evaluating the efficacy and toxicity of cardiovascular drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Zhou
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China.
- Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Cell Mechanics and Function Analysis, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Hange Peng
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China.
- Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Cell Mechanics and Function Analysis, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Jiali Li
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China.
- Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Cell Mechanics and Function Analysis, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Zhihui Chen
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China.
- Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Cell Mechanics and Function Analysis, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Jingyi Huo
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China.
- Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Cell Mechanics and Function Analysis, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Tiean Zhou
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China.
- Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Cell Mechanics and Function Analysis, Changsha 410128, China
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14
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Impact of baculoviral transduction of fluorescent actin on cellular forces. Eur J Cell Biol 2023; 102:151294. [PMID: 36791652 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2023.151294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Live staining of actin brings valuable information in the field of mechanobiology. Gene transfer of GFP-actin has been reported to disturb cell rheological properties while gene transfer of fluorescent actin binding proteins was not. However the influence of gene transfer on cellular forces in adhered cells has never been investigated. This would provide a more complete picture of mechanical disorders induced by actin live staining for mechanobiology studies. Indeed, most of these techniques were shown to alter cell morphology. Change in cell morphology may in itself be sufficient to perturb cellular forces. Here we focus on quantifying the alterations of cellular stresses that result from baculoviral transduction of GFP-actin in MDCK cell line. We report that GFP-actin transduction increases the proportion of cells with large intracellular or surface stresses, especially in epithelia with low cell density. We show that the enhancement of the mechanical stresses is accompanied by small perturbations of cell shape, but not by a significant change in cell size. We thus conclude that this live staining method enhances the cellular forces but only brings subtle shape alterations.
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15
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Milivojevic M. Active wetting of epithelial tissues: modeling considerations. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL : EBJ 2023; 52:1-15. [PMID: 36593348 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-022-01625-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Morphogenesis, tissue regeneration, and cancer invasion involve transitions in tissue morphology. These transitions, caused by collective cell migration (CCM), have been interpreted as active wetting/de-wetting transitions. This phenomenon is considered based on a model system as wetting of a cell aggregate on a rigid substrate, which includes cell aggregate movement and isotropic/anisotropic spreading of a cell monolayer around the aggregate depending on the substrate rigidity and aggregate size. This model system accounts for the transition between 3D epithelial aggregate and 2D cell monolayer as a product of: (1) tissue surface tension, (2) surface tension of substrate matrix, (3) cell-matrix interfacial tension, (4) interfacial tension gradient, (5) viscoelasticity caused by CCM, and (6) viscoelasticity of substrate matrix. These physical parameters depend on the cell contractility and state of cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion contacts, as well as the stretching/compression of cellular systems caused by CCM. Despite extensive research devoted to study cell wetting, we still do not understand the interplay among these physical parameters which induces an oscillatory trend of cell rearrangement. This review focuses on these physical parameters in governing the cell rearrangement in the context of epithelial aggregate wetting/de-wetting, and on modeling approaches aimed at reproducing and understanding these biological systems. In this context, we not only review previously published biophysical models for cell rearrangement caused by CCM, but also propose new extensions of those models to point out the interrelation between cell-matrix interfacial tension and epithelial viscoelasticity and the role of the interfacial tension gradient in cell spreading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia
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16
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SubramanianBalachandar V, Steward RL. Extracellular Matrix Composition Alters Endothelial Force Transmission. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-2499973. [PMID: 36747754 PMCID: PMC9900979 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2499973/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
ECM composition is important in a host of pathophysiological processes such as angiogenesis, atherosclerosis, and diabetes, for example and during each of these processes ECM composition has been reported to change over time. However, the impact ECM composition has on the endothelium’s ability to respond mechanically is currently unknown. Therefore, in this study we seeded human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) onto soft hydrogels coated with an ECM concentration of 0.1 mg/mL at the following collagen I (Col-I) and fibronectin (FN) ratios: 100%Col-I, 75%Col-I-25%FN, 50%Col-I-50%FN, 25%Col-I-75%FN, and 100%FN. We subsequently measured tractions, intercellular stresses, strain energy, cell morphology, and cell velocity. Our results revealed huvecs seeded on gels coated with 50% Col-I - 50% FN to have the highest intercellular stresses, tractions, strain energies, but the lowest velocities and cell circularity. Huvecs seeded on 100% Col-I had the lowest tractions, cell area while havingthe highest velocities and cell circularity. In addition, cells cultured on 25% Col-I and 75% FN had the lowest intercellular stresses, but the highest cell area. Huvecs cultured on 100% FN yielded the lowest strain energies. We believe these results will be of great importance to the cardiovascular field, biomedical field, and cell mechanics. Summary: Study the influence of different Col-I - FN ECM compositions on endothelial cell mechanics and morphology.
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17
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Eftimie R, Milivojevic M, Bordas SPA. The dynamics along the biointerface between the epithelial and cancer mesenchymal cells: Modeling consideration. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 147:47-57. [PMID: 36631334 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Epithelial cancer is the one of most lethal cancer type worldwide. Targeting the early stage of disease would allow dramatic improvements in the survival of cancer patients. The early stage of the disease is related to cancer cell spreading across surrounding healthy epithelium. Consequently, deeper insight into cell dynamics along the biointerface between epithelial and cancer (mesenchymal) cells is necessary in order to control the disease as soon as possible. Cell dynamics along this epithelial-cancer biointerface is the result of the interplay between various biological and physical mechanisms. Despite extensive research devoted to study cancer cell spreading across the epithelium, we still do not understand the physical mechanisms which influences the dynamics along the biointerface. These physical mechanisms are related to the interplay between physical parameters such as: (1) interfacial tension between cancer and epithelial subpopulations, (2) established interfacial tension gradients, (3) the bending rigidity of the biointerface and its impact on the interfacial tension, (4) surface tension of the subpopulations, (5) viscoelasticity caused by collective cell migration, and (6) cell residual stress accumulation. The main goal of this study is to review some of these physical parameters in the context of the epithelial/cancer biointerface elaborated on the model system such as the biointerface between breast epithelial MCF-10A cells and cancer MDA-MB-231 cells and then to incorporate these parameters into a new biophysical model that could describe the dynamics of the biointerface. We conclude by discussing three biophysical scenarios for cell dynamics along the biointerface, which can occur depending on the magnitude of the generated shear stress: a smooth biointerface, a slightly-perturbed biointerface and an intensively-perturbed biointerface in the context of the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. These scenarios are related to the probability of cancer invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- University of Belgrade, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, Serbia.
| | - Raluca Eftimie
- Laboratoire Mathematiques de Besançon, UMR-CNRS 6623, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comte, 16 Route de Gray, Besançon 25000, France
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- University of Belgrade, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, Serbia
| | - Stéphane P A Bordas
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Institute for Computational Engineering, Faculty of Science, Technology and Communication, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
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18
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Issler M, Colin-York H, Fritzsche M. Quantifying Immune Cell Force Generation Using Traction Force Microscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2654:363-373. [PMID: 37106194 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3135-5_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
Immune cells rely on the generation of mechanical force to carry out their function. Consequently, there is a pressing need for quantitative methodologies that permit the probing of the spatio-temporal distribution of mechanical forces generated by immune cells. In this chapter, we provide a guide to quantify immune cell force generation using traction force microscopy (TFM), with a specific focus on its application to the study of the T-cell immunological synapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Issler
- Kennedy Institute for Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Institute of Biology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Huw Colin-York
- Kennedy Institute for Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Marco Fritzsche
- Kennedy Institute for Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- Rosalind Franklin Institute, Harwell Campus, Didcot, UK.
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19
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Leavesley SJ, Johnson S, Paudel SS, Knighten J, Tambe DT, Francis M, Gong N, Taylor MS, Rich TC. Combined hyperspectral imaging, monolayer stress microscopy, and S8 image analysis approaches for simultaneously interrogating cellular signals and biomechanics. PROCEEDINGS OF SPIE--THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR OPTICAL ENGINEERING 2023; 12383:123830D. [PMID: 37051186 PMCID: PMC10084657 DOI: 10.1117/12.2650653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
Second messenger signals, e.g., Ca2+ and cyclic nucleotides, orchestrate a wide range of cellular events. The methods by which second messenger signals determine specific physiological responses are complex. Recent studies point to the importance of temporal and spatial encoding in determining signal specificity. Studies also indicate the importance of mechanical stimuli, substrate stiffness, and mechanical responses - the "mechanosome" - in regulating physiology. Hence, approaches that probe both chemical and mechanical signals are needed. Here, we report preliminary efforts to combine hyperspectral imaging for second messenger signal measurements, monolayer stress microscopy for mechanical force measurements, and S8 analysis software for quantifying localized signals - specifically, Ca2+ dynamics and mechanical forces in human airway smooth muscle cells (HASMCs). HASMCs were prepared as confluent monolayers on 11 kPa gels with embedded fluorescent microparticles that serve as fiducial markers as well as smaller microparticles to measure deformation (strain). Imaging was performed using a custom excitation-scanning hyperspectral microscope. Hyperspectral images were unmixed to identify signals from cellular fluorescent labels (e.g., CAL 590-AM) and fluorescent microparticles. Images were analyzed to quantify localized force dynamics through monolayer stress microscopy. S8 software was used to identify, track, and quantify spatially-localized Ca2+ activity. Results indicate that localized and transient cellular signals and forces can be quantified and mapped within cell populations. Importantly, these results establish a method for simultaneous interrogation of cellular signals and mechanical forces that may play synergistic roles in regulating downstream cellular physiology in confluent monolayers. This work was supported by NIH P01HL066299, R01HL137030, R01HL058506, and NSF MRI1725937. Drs. Leavesley and Rich disclose financial interest in a university start-up company, SpectraCyte LLC, to commercialize spectral imaging technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silas J Leavesley
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
- Department of Pharmacology
- Center for Lung Biology
| | | | - Sunita S Paudel
- Center for Lung Biology
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology
| | | | - Dhananjay T Tambe
- Department of Pharmacology
- Center for Lung Biology
- William B. Burnsed Jr. Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering
| | - Michael Francis
- Center for Lung Biology
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology
| | - Na Gong
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA 36688
| | - Mark S Taylor
- Center for Lung Biology
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology
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20
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Muenkel M, Aparicio-Yuste R, Tal MC, Kraiczy P, Bastounis EE. Spatiotemporal characterization of endothelial cell motility and physical forces during exposure to Borrelia burgdorferi. STAR Protoc 2022; 3:101832. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2022.101832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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21
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Wu MC, Yu HW, Chen YQ, Ou MH, Serrano R, Huang GL, Wang YK, Lin KH, Fan YJ, Wu CC, del Álamo JC, Chiou A, Chien S, Kuo JC. Early committed polarization of intracellular tension in response to cell shape determines the osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells. Acta Biomater 2022; 163:287-301. [PMID: 36328121 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.10.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Within the heterogeneous tissue architecture, a comprehensive understanding of how cell shapes regulate cytoskeletal mechanics by adjusting focal adhesions (FAs) signals to correlate with the lineage commitment of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) remains obscure. Here, via engineered extracellular matrices, we observed that the development of mature FAs, coupled with a symmetrical pattern of radial fiber bundles, appeared at the right-angle vertices in cells with square shape. While circular cells aligned the transverse fibers parallel to the cell edge, and moved them centripetally in a counter-clockwise direction, symmetrical bundles of radial fibers at the vertices of square cells disrupted the counter-clockwise swirling and bridged the transverse fibers to move centripetally. In square cells, the contractile force, generated by the myosin IIA-enriched transverse fibers, were concentrated and transmitted outwards along the symmetrical bundles of radial fibers, to the extracellular matrix through FAs, and thereby driving FA organization and maturation. The symmetrical radial fiber bundles concentrated the transverse fibers contractility inward to the linkage between the actin cytoskeleton and the nuclear envelope. The tauter cytoskeletal network adjusted the nuclear-actomyosin force balance to cause nuclear deformability and to increase nuclear translocation of the transcription co-activator YAP, which in turn modulated the switch in MSC commitment. Thus, FAs dynamically respond to geometric cues and remodel actin cytoskeletal network to re-distribute intracelluar tension towards the cell nucleus, and thereby controlling YAP mechanotransduction signaling in regulating MSC fate decision. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: We decipher how cellular mechanics is self-organized depending on extracellular geometric features to correlate with mesenchymal stromal cell lineage commitment. In response to geometry constrains on cell morphology, symmetrical radial fiber bundles are assembled and clustered depending on the maturation state of focal adhesions and bridge with the transverse fibers, and thereby establishing the dynamic cytoskeletal network. Contractile force, generated by the myosin-IIA-enriched transverse fibers, is transmitted and dynamically drives the retrograde movement of the actin cytoskeletal network, which appropriately adjusts the nuclear-actomyosin force balance and deforms the cell nucleus for YAP mechano-transduction signaling in regulating mesenchymal stromal cell fate decision.
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22
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Lucia SE, Jeong H, Shin JH. Cell segregation via differential collision modes between heterotypic cell populations. Mol Biol Cell 2022; 33:ar129. [PMID: 36129759 PMCID: PMC9634969 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e22-03-0097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
In tissue development and regeneration, the establishment of sharp boundaries between heterotypic cells is essential for the differentiation of tissue functions. During the dynamic rearrangements of constituent cells that result from cell division and collective migration, the segregation boundary encounters various challenges. Several studies have suggested that cortical actomyosin structures play a crucial role in the maintenance of the boundary interface of segregated cell populations, implicating actin-mediated stresses. Examining physical cellular properties such as motility, traction, and intercellular stress, we investigated the formation and maintenance of the stable segregation between epithelial and mesenchymal cell populations devoid of heterotypic adhesions. At the contact boundary, the homotypic adhesion-mediated epithelial aggregates exerted collision-mediated compression against the surrounding mesenchymal cells. Our results demonstrated that heterotypic cell populations established a robust interfacial boundary by accumulating stress from active collisions and repulsions between two dissimilar cell types. Furthermore, the moment of the heterotypic collisions was identified by the existence of a sharp rise in maximum shear stress within the cell cluster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephani Edwina Lucia
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyuntae Jeong
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Jennifer H. Shin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 34141, Republic of Korea,*Address correspondence to: Jennifer H. Shin ()
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23
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Barbacena P, Dominguez-Cejudo M, Fonseca CG, Gómez-González M, Faure LM, Zarkada G, Pena A, Pezzarossa A, Ramalho D, Giarratano Y, Ouarné M, Barata D, Fortunato IC, Misikova LH, Mauldin I, Carvalho Y, Trepat X, Roca-Cusachs P, Eichmann A, Bernabeu MO, Franco CA. Competition for endothelial cell polarity drives vascular morphogenesis in the mouse retina. Dev Cell 2022; 57:2321-2333.e9. [PMID: 36220082 PMCID: PMC9552591 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2022.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Blood-vessel formation generates unique vascular patterns in each individual. The principles governing the apparent stochasticity of this process remain to be elucidated. Using mathematical methods, we find that the transition between two fundamental vascular morphogenetic programs-sprouting angiogenesis and vascular remodeling-is established by a shift of collective front-to-rear polarity of endothelial cells in the mouse retina. We demonstrate that the competition between biochemical (VEGFA) and mechanical (blood-flow-induced shear stress) cues controls this collective polarity shift. Shear stress increases tension at focal adhesions overriding VEGFA-driven collective polarization, which relies on tension at adherens junctions. We propose that vascular morphogenetic cues compete to regulate individual cell polarity and migration through tension shifts that translates into tissue-level emergent behaviors, ultimately leading to uniquely organized vascular patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Barbacena
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Maria Dominguez-Cejudo
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Catarina G Fonseca
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Manuel Gómez-González
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), the Barcelona Institute of Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura M Faure
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), the Barcelona Institute of Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Georgia Zarkada
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Andreia Pena
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Anna Pezzarossa
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal; Champalimaud Foundation, Champalimaud Research, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Daniela Ramalho
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ylenia Giarratano
- Centre for Medical Informatics, Usher Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Marie Ouarné
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - David Barata
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Isabela C Fortunato
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Lenka Henao Misikova
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ian Mauldin
- Centre for Medical Informatics, Usher Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; School of Informatics, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Yulia Carvalho
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Xavier Trepat
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), the Barcelona Institute of Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain; Facultat de Medicina, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pere Roca-Cusachs
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), the Barcelona Institute of Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain; Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anne Eichmann
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Université de Paris, PARCC, INSERM, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Miguel O Bernabeu
- Centre for Medical Informatics, Usher Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; The Bayes Centre, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Cláudio A Franco
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal; Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Católica Medical School, Católica Biomedical Research Centre, Lisbon, Portugal.
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24
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Donker L, Houtekamer R, Vliem M, Sipieter F, Canever H, Gómez-González M, Bosch-Padrós M, Pannekoek WJ, Trepat X, Borghi N, Gloerich M. A mechanical G2 checkpoint controls epithelial cell division through E-cadherin-mediated regulation of Wee1-Cdk1. Cell Rep 2022; 41:111475. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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25
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Eftimie R, Milivojevic M, Bordas SPA. The rearrangement of co-cultured cellular model systems via collective cell migration. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2022; 147:34-46. [PMID: 36307358 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Cancer invasion through the surrounding epithelium and extracellular matrix (ECM) is the one of the main characteristics of cancer progression. While significant effort has been made to predict cancer cells response under various drug therapies, much less attention has been paid to understand the physical interactions between cancer cells and their microenvironment, which are essential for cancer invasion. Considering these physical interactions on various co-cultured in vitro model systems by emphasizing the role of viscoelasticity, the tissue surface tension, solid stress, and their inter-relations is a prerequisite for establishing the main factors that influence cancer cell spread and develop an efficient strategy to suppress it. This review focuses on the role of viscoelasticity caused by collective cell migration (CCM) in the context of mono-cultured and co-cultured cancer systems, and on the modeling approaches aimed at reproducing and understanding these biological systems. In this context, we do not only review previously-published biophysics models for collective cell migration, but also propose new extensions of those models to include solid stress accumulated within the spheroid core region and cell residual stress accumulation caused by CCM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- University of Belgrade, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, Serbia.
| | - Raluca Eftimie
- Laboratoire Mathematiques de Besançon, UMR-CNRS 6623, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comte, 16 Route de Gray, Besançon 25000, France
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- University of Belgrade, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, Serbia
| | - Stéphane P A Bordas
- Institute for Computational Engineering, Faculty of Science, Technology and Communication, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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26
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Sivagurunathan S, Vahabikashi A, Yang H, Zhang J, Vazquez K, Rajasundaram D, Politanska Y, Abdala-Valencia H, Notbohm J, Guo M, Adam SA, Goldman RD. Expression of vimentin alters cell mechanics, cell-cell adhesion, and gene expression profiles suggesting the induction of a hybrid EMT in human mammary epithelial cells. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:929495. [PMID: 36200046 PMCID: PMC9527304 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.929495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Vimentin is a Type III intermediate filament (VIF) cytoskeletal protein that regulates the mechanical and migratory behavior of cells. Its expression is considered to be a marker for the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) that takes place in tumor metastasis. However, the molecular mechanisms regulated by the expression of vimentin in the EMT remain largely unexplored. We created MCF7 epithelial cell lines expressing vimentin from a cumate-inducible promoter to address this question. When vimentin expression was induced in these cells, extensive cytoplasmic VIF networks were assembled accompanied by changes in the organization of the endogenous keratin intermediate filament networks and disruption of desmosomes. Significant reductions in intercellular forces by the cells expressing VIFs were measured by quantitative monolayer traction force and stress microscopy. In contrast, laser trapping micro-rheology revealed that the cytoplasm of MCF7 cells expressing VIFs was stiffer than the uninduced cells. Vimentin expression activated transcription of genes involved in pathways responsible for cell migration and locomotion. Importantly, the EMT related transcription factor TWIST1 was upregulated only in wild type vimentin expressing cells and not in cells expressing a mutant non-polymerized form of vimentin, which only formed unit length filaments (ULF). Taken together, our results suggest that vimentin expression induces a hybrid EMT correlated with the upregulation of genes involved in cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suganya Sivagurunathan
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Amir Vahabikashi
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Haiqian Yang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , MA, United States
| | - Jun Zhang
- Biophysics Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Kelly Vazquez
- Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Dhivyaa Rajasundaram
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Yuliya Politanska
- Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Hiam Abdala-Valencia
- Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Jacob Notbohm
- Biophysics Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Ming Guo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , MA, United States
| | - Stephen A Adam
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Robert D Goldman
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
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27
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Paudel SS, deWeever A, Sayner S, Stevens T, Tambe DT. Substrate stiffness modulates migration and local intercellular membrane motion in pulmonary endothelial cell monolayers. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 323:C936-C949. [PMID: 35912996 PMCID: PMC9467474 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00339.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The pulmonary artery endothelium forms a semipermeable barrier that limits macromolecular flux through intercellular junctions. This barrier is maintained by an intrinsic forward protrusion of the interacting membranes between adjacent cells. However, the dynamic interactions of these membranes have been incompletely quantified. Here, we present a novel technique to quantify the motion of the peripheral membrane of the cells, called paracellular morphological fluctuations (PMFs), and to assess the impact of substrate stiffness on PMFs. Substrate stiffness impacted large-length scale morphological changes such as cell size and motion. Cell size was larger on stiffer substrates, whereas the speed of cell movement was decreased on hydrogels with stiffness either larger or smaller than 1.25 kPa, consistent with cells approaching a jammed state. Pulmonary artery endothelial cells moved fastest on 1.25 kPa hydrogel, a stiffness consistent with a healthy pulmonary artery. Unlike these large-length scale morphological changes, the baseline of PMFs was largely insensitive to the substrate stiffness on which the cells were cultured. Activation of store-operated calcium channels using thapsigargin treatment triggered a transient increase in PMFs beyond the control treatment. However, in hypocalcemic conditions, such an increase in PMFs was absent on 1.25 kPa hydrogel but was present on 30 kPa hydrogel-a stiffness consistent with that of a hypertensive pulmonary artery. These findings indicate that 1) PMFs occur in cultured endothelial cell clusters, irrespective of the substrate stiffness; 2) PMFs increase in response to calcium influx through store-operated calcium entry channels; and 3) stiffer substrate promotes PMFs through a mechanism that does not require calcium influx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunita Subedi Paudel
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
- Department of Mechanical Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
- Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
| | - Althea deWeever
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
- Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
| | - Sarah Sayner
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
- Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
| | - Troy Stevens
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
- Department of Mechanical Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
| | - Dhananjay T Tambe
- Department of Mechanical Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
- Department of Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
- Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
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Zambarda C, Pérez González C, Schoenit A, Veits N, Schimmer C, Jung R, Ollech D, Christian J, Roca-Cusachs P, Trepat X, Cavalcanti-Adam EA. Epithelial cell cluster size affects force distribution in response to EGF-induced collective contractility. Eur J Cell Biol 2022; 101:151274. [PMID: 36152392 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2022.151274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Several factors present in the extracellular environment regulate epithelial cell adhesion and dynamics. Among them, growth factors such as EGF, upon binding to their receptors at the cell surface, get internalized and directly activate the acto-myosin machinery. In this study we present the effects of EGF on the contractility of epithelial cancer cell colonies in confined geometry of different sizes. We show that the extent to which EGF triggers contractility scales with the cluster size and thus the number of cells. Moreover, the collective contractility results in a radial distribution of traction forces, which are dependent on integrin β1 peripheral adhesions and transmitted to neighboring cells through adherens junctions. Taken together, EGF-induced contractility acts on the mechanical crosstalk and linkage between the cell-cell and cell-matrix compartments, regulating collective responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Zambarda
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Carlos Pérez González
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain; University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andreas Schoenit
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Nisha Veits
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Clara Schimmer
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Raimund Jung
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dirk Ollech
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Joel Christian
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Pere Roca-Cusachs
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain; University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Trepat
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain; University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería (CIBER-BBN), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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29
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Milivojevic M. Marangoni effect and cell spreading. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL : EBJ 2022; 51:419-429. [PMID: 35930028 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-022-01612-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Cells are very sensitive to the shear stress (SS). However, undesirable SS is generated during physiological process such as collective cell migration (CCM) and influences the biological processes such as morphogenesis, wound healing and cancer invasion. Despite extensive research devoted to study the SS generation caused by CCM, we still do not fully understand the main cause of SS appearance. An attempt is made here to offer some answers to these questions by considering the rearrangement of cell monolayers. The SS generation represents a consequence of natural and forced convection. While forced convection is dependent on cell speed, the natural convection is induced by the gradient of tissue surface tension. The phenomenon is known as the Marangoni effect. The gradient of tissue surface tension induces directed cell spreading from the regions of lower tissue surface tension to the regions of higher tissue surface tension and leads to the cell sorting. This directional cell migration is described by the Marangoni flux. The phenomenon has been recognized during the rearrangement of (1) epithelial cell monolayers and (2) mixed cell monolayers made by epithelial and mesenchymal cells. The consequence of the Marangoni effect is an intensive spreading of cancer cells through an epithelium. In this work, a review of existing literature about SS generation caused by CCM is given along with the assortment of published experimental findings, to invite experimentalists to test given theoretical considerations in multicellular systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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Mechanical coupling of supracellular stress amplification and tissue fluidization during exit from quiescence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2201328119. [PMID: 35914175 PMCID: PMC9371707 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2201328119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Most cells in the human body reside in a dormant state characterized by slow growth and minimal motility. During episodes such as wound healing, stem cell activation, and cancer growth, cells adapt to a more dynamic behavior characterized by proliferation and migration. However, little is known about the mechanical forces controlling the transition from static to motile following exit from dormancy. We demonstrate that keratinocyte monolayers install a mechanical system during dormancy that produces a coordinated burst of intercellular mechanical tension only minutes after dormancy exit. The activated forces are essential for large-scale displacements of otherwise motility-restricted cell sheets. Thus, cells sustain a mechanical system during dormancy that idles in anticipation of cell cycle entry and prompt activation of motion. Cellular quiescence is a state of reversible cell cycle arrest that is associated with tissue dormancy. Timely regulated entry into and exit from quiescence is important for processes such as tissue homeostasis, tissue repair, stem cell maintenance, developmental processes, and immunity. However, little is known about processes that control the mechanical adaption to cell behavior changes during the transition from quiescence to proliferation. Here, we show that quiescent human keratinocyte monolayers sustain an actinomyosin-based system that facilitates global cell sheet displacements upon serum-stimulated exit from quiescence. Mechanistically, exposure of quiescent cells to serum-borne mitogens leads to rapid amplification of preexisting contractile sites, leading to a burst in monolayer tension that subsequently drives large-scale displacements of otherwise motility-restricted monolayers. The stress level after quiescence exit correlates with the level of quiescence depth at the time of activation, and a critical stress magnitude must be reached to overcome the cell sheet displacement barrier. The study shows that static quiescent cell monolayers are mechanically poised for motility, and it identifies global stress amplification as a mechanism for overcoming motility restrictions in confined confluent cell monolayers.
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Anisotropy profoundly alters stress fields within contractile cells and cell aggregates. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2022; 21:1357-1370. [PMID: 35829977 PMCID: PMC10187583 DOI: 10.1007/s10237-022-01595-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Many biological phenomena such as cell proliferation and death are correlated with stress fields within cells. Stress fields are quantified using computational methods which rely on fundamental assumptions about local mechanical properties. Most existing methods such as Monolayer Stress Microscopy assume isotropic properties, yet experimental observations strongly suggest anisotropy. We first model anisotropy in circular cells analytically using Eshelby's inclusion method. Our solution reveals that uniform anisotropy cannot exist in cells due to the occurrence of substantial stress concentration in the central region. A more realistic non-uniform anisotropy model is then introduced based on experimental observations and implemented numerically which interestingly clears out stress concentration. Stresses within the entire aggregate also drastically change compared to the isotropic case, resulting in better agreement with observed biomarkers. We provide a physics-based mechanism to explain the low alignment of stress fibers in the center of cells, which might explain certain biological phenomena e.g., existence of disrupted rounded cells, and higher apoptosis rate at the center of circular aggregates.
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32
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Huang J, Cochran JO, Fielding SM, Marchetti MC, Bi D. Shear-Driven Solidification and Nonlinear Elasticity in Epithelial Tissues. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2022; 128:178001. [PMID: 35570431 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.128.178001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Biological processes, from morphogenesis to tumor invasion, spontaneously generate shear stresses inside living tissue. The mechanisms that govern the transmission of mechanical forces in epithelia and the collective response of the tissue to bulk shear deformations remain, however, poorly understood. Using a minimal cell-based computational model, we investigate the constitutive relation of confluent tissues under simple shear deformation. We show that an initially undeformed fluidlike tissue acquires finite rigidity above a critical applied strain. This is akin to the shear-driven rigidity observed in other soft matter systems. Interestingly, shear-driven rigidity can be understood by a critical scaling analysis in the vicinity of the second order critical point that governs the liquid-solid transition of the undeformed system. We further show that a solidlike tissue responds linearly only to small strains and but then switches to a nonlinear response at larger stains, with substantial stiffening. Finally, we propose a mean-field formulation for cells under shear that offers a simple physical explanation of shear-driven rigidity and nonlinear response in a tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junxiang Huang
- Department of Physics, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - James O Cochran
- Department of Physics, Durham University, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
| | - Suzanne M Fielding
- Department of Physics, Durham University, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
| | - M Cristina Marchetti
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA
| | - Dapeng Bi
- Department of Physics, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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Bracamonte JH, Saunders SK, Wilson JS, Truong UT, Soares JS. Patient-Specific Inverse Modeling of In Vivo Cardiovascular Mechanics with Medical Image-Derived Kinematics as Input Data: Concepts, Methods, and Applications. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022; 12:3954. [PMID: 36911244 PMCID: PMC10004130 DOI: 10.3390/app12083954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Inverse modeling approaches in cardiovascular medicine are a collection of methodologies that can provide non-invasive patient-specific estimations of tissue properties, mechanical loads, and other mechanics-based risk factors using medical imaging as inputs. Its incorporation into clinical practice has the potential to improve diagnosis and treatment planning with low associated risks and costs. These methods have become available for medical applications mainly due to the continuing development of image-based kinematic techniques, the maturity of the associated theories describing cardiovascular function, and recent progress in computer science, modeling, and simulation engineering. Inverse method applications are multidisciplinary, requiring tailored solutions to the available clinical data, pathology of interest, and available computational resources. Herein, we review biomechanical modeling and simulation principles, methods of solving inverse problems, and techniques for image-based kinematic analysis. In the final section, the major advances in inverse modeling of human cardiovascular mechanics since its early development in the early 2000s are reviewed with emphasis on method-specific descriptions, results, and conclusions. We draw selected studies on healthy and diseased hearts, aortas, and pulmonary arteries achieved through the incorporation of tissue mechanics, hemodynamics, and fluid-structure interaction methods paired with patient-specific data acquired with medical imaging in inverse modeling approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johane H. Bracamonte
- Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
| | - Sarah K. Saunders
- Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
| | - John S. Wilson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Pauley Heart Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23219, USA
| | - Uyen T. Truong
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Children’s Hospital of Richmond at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23219, USA
| | - Joao S. Soares
- Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
- Correspondence:
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Watching a cell sheet transform from soft to stiff. Biophys J 2022; 121:1349-1351. [PMID: 35288122 PMCID: PMC9072575 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2022.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Vazquez K, Saraswathibhatla A, Notbohm J. Effect of substrate stiffness on friction in collective cell migration. Sci Rep 2022; 12:2474. [PMID: 35169196 PMCID: PMC8847350 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-06504-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In collective cell migration, the motion results from forces produced by each cell and transmitted to the neighboring cells and to the substrate. Because inertia is negligible and the migration occurs over long time scales, the cell layer exhibits viscous behavior, where force and motion are connected by an apparent friction that results from the breaking and forming of adhesive bonds at the cell–cell and cell–substrate interfaces. Most theoretical models for collective migration include an apparent friction to connect force and motion, with many models making predictions that depend on the ratio of cell–cell and cell–substrate friction. However, little is known about factors that affect friction, leaving predictions of many theoretical models untested. Here, we considered how substrate stiffness and the number of adhesions affected friction at the cell–substrate interface. The experimental data were interpreted through prior theoretical models, which led to the same conclusion, that increased substrate stiffness increased the number of cell–substrate adhesions and caused increased cell–substrate friction. In turn, the friction affected the collective migration by altering the curvature at the edge of the cell layer. By revealing underlying factors affecting friction and demonstrating how friction perturbs the collective migration, this work provides experimental evidence supporting prior theoretical models and motivates the study of other ways to alter the collective migration by changing friction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Vazquez
- Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | | | - Jacob Notbohm
- Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA. .,Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
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36
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Mierke CT. Viscoelasticity, Like Forces, Plays a Role in Mechanotransduction. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:789841. [PMID: 35223831 PMCID: PMC8864183 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.789841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Viscoelasticity and its alteration in time and space has turned out to act as a key element in fundamental biological processes in living systems, such as morphogenesis and motility. Based on experimental and theoretical findings it can be proposed that viscoelasticity of cells, spheroids and tissues seems to be a collective characteristic that demands macromolecular, intracellular component and intercellular interactions. A major challenge is to couple the alterations in the macroscopic structural or material characteristics of cells, spheroids and tissues, such as cell and tissue phase transitions, to the microscopic interferences of their elements. Therefore, the biophysical technologies need to be improved, advanced and connected to classical biological assays. In this review, the viscoelastic nature of cytoskeletal, extracellular and cellular networks is presented and discussed. Viscoelasticity is conceptualized as a major contributor to cell migration and invasion and it is discussed whether it can serve as a biomarker for the cells’ migratory capacity in several biological contexts. It can be hypothesized that the statistical mechanics of intra- and extracellular networks may be applied in the future as a powerful tool to explore quantitatively the biomechanical foundation of viscoelasticity over a broad range of time and length scales. Finally, the importance of the cellular viscoelasticity is illustrated in identifying and characterizing multiple disorders, such as cancer, tissue injuries, acute or chronic inflammations or fibrotic diseases.
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Saraswathibhatla A, Zhang J, Notbohm J. Coordination of contractile tension and cell area changes in an epithelial cell monolayer. Phys Rev E 2022; 105:024404. [PMID: 35291100 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.105.024404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
During tissue development and repair, cells contract and expand in coordination with their neighbors, giving rise to tissue deformations that occur on length scales far larger than that of a single cell. The biophysical mechanisms by which the contractile forces of each cell cause deformations on multicellular length scales are not fully clear. To investigate this question, we began with the principle of force equilibrium, which dictates a balance of tensile forces between neighboring cells. Based on this principle, we hypothesized that coordinated changes in cell area result from tension transmitted across the cell layer. To test this hypothesis, spatial correlations of both contractile tension and the divergence of cell velocities were measured as readouts of coordinated contractility and collective area changes, respectively. Experiments were designed to alter the spatial correlation of contractile tension using three different methods, including disrupting cell-cell adhesions, modulating the alignment of actomyosin stress fibers between neighboring cells, and changing the size of the cell monolayer. In all experiments, the spatial correlations of both tension and divergence increased or decreased together, in agreement with our hypothesis. To relate our findings to the intracellular mechanism connecting changes in cell area to contractile tension, we disrupted activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), which is known to mediate the intracellular relationship between cell area and contraction. Consistent with prior knowledge, a temporal cross-correlation between cell area and tension revealed that ERK was responsible for a proportional relationship between cell area and contraction. Inhibition of ERK activation reduced the spatial correlations of the divergence of cell velocity but not of tension. Together, our findings suggest that coordination of cell contraction and expansion requires transfer of cell tension over space and ERK-mediated coordination between cell area and contraction in time.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jun Zhang
- Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
- Biophysics Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
| | - Jacob Notbohm
- Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
- Biophysics Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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38
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Gifre-Renom L, Daems M, Luttun A, Jones EAV. Organ-Specific Endothelial Cell Differentiation and Impact of Microenvironmental Cues on Endothelial Heterogeneity. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031477. [PMID: 35163400 PMCID: PMC8836165 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Endothelial cells throughout the body are heterogeneous, and this is tightly linked to the specific functions of organs and tissues. Heterogeneity is already determined from development onwards and ranges from arterial/venous specification to microvascular fate determination in organ-specific differentiation. Acknowledging the different phenotypes of endothelial cells and the implications of this diversity is key for the development of more specialized tissue engineering and vascular repair approaches. However, although novel technologies in transcriptomics and proteomics are facilitating the unraveling of vascular bed-specific endothelial cell signatures, still much research is based on the use of insufficiently specialized endothelial cells. Endothelial cells are not only heterogeneous, but their specialized phenotypes are also dynamic and adapt to changes in their microenvironment. During the last decades, strong collaborations between molecular biology, mechanobiology, and computational disciplines have led to a better understanding of how endothelial cells are modulated by their mechanical and biochemical contexts. Yet, because of the use of insufficiently specialized endothelial cells, there is still a huge lack of knowledge in how tissue-specific biomechanical factors determine organ-specific phenotypes. With this review, we want to put the focus on how organ-specific endothelial cell signatures are determined from development onwards and conditioned by their microenvironments during adulthood. We discuss the latest research performed on endothelial cells, pointing out the important implications of mimicking tissue-specific biomechanical cues in culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laia Gifre-Renom
- Centre for Molecular and Vascular Biology, Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven), BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium; (L.G.-R.); (M.D.); (A.L.)
| | - Margo Daems
- Centre for Molecular and Vascular Biology, Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven), BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium; (L.G.-R.); (M.D.); (A.L.)
| | - Aernout Luttun
- Centre for Molecular and Vascular Biology, Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven), BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium; (L.G.-R.); (M.D.); (A.L.)
| | - Elizabeth A. V. Jones
- Centre for Molecular and Vascular Biology, Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven), BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium; (L.G.-R.); (M.D.); (A.L.)
- Department of Cardiology, CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
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Blumberg JW, Schwarz US. Comparison of direct and inverse methods for 2.5D traction force microscopy. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0262773. [PMID: 35051243 PMCID: PMC8775276 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0262773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Essential cellular processes such as cell adhesion, migration and division strongly depend on mechanical forces. The standard method to measure cell forces is traction force microscopy (TFM) on soft elastic substrates with embedded marker beads. While in 2D TFM one only reconstructs tangential forces, in 2.5D TFM one also considers normal forces. Here we present a systematic comparison between two fundamentally different approaches to 2.5D TFM, which in particular require different methods to deal with noise in the displacement data. In the direct method, one calculates strain and stress tensors directly from the displacement data, which in principle requires a divergence correction. In the inverse method, one minimizes the difference between estimated and measured displacements, which requires some kind of regularization. By calculating the required Green's functions in Fourier space from Boussinesq-Cerruti potential functions, we first derive a new variant of 2.5D Fourier Transform Traction Cytometry (FTTC). To simulate realistic traction patterns, we make use of an analytical solution for Hertz-like adhesion patches. We find that FTTC works best if only tangential forces are reconstructed, that 2.5D FTTC is more precise for small noise, but that the performance of the direct method approaches the one of 2.5D FTTC for larger noise, before both fail for very large noise. Moreover we find that a divergence correction is not really needed for the direct method and that it profits more from increased resolution than the inverse method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes W. Blumberg
- Heidelberg University, Institute for Theoretical Physics and Bioquant, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ulrich S. Schwarz
- Heidelberg University, Institute for Theoretical Physics and Bioquant, Heidelberg, Germany
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Milivojevic M. Mechanical waves caused by collective cell migration: generation. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL : EBJ 2022; 51:1-13. [PMID: 35072747 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-021-01581-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Long-timescale viscoelasticity caused by collective cell migration (CCM) significantly influences cell rearrangement and induces generation of mechanical waves. The phenomenon represents a product of the active turbulence occurring at low Reynolds number. The generation of mechanical waves has been a subject of intensive research primarily in 2D multicellular systems, while 3D systems have not been considered in this context. The aim of this contribution is to discuss the generation of mechanical waves during 3D CCM in two model systems: (1) the fusion of two-cell aggregates and (2) cell aggregate rounding after uni-axial compression, pointing out that mechanical waves represent a characteristic of CCM in general. Such perturbations are also involved in various biological processes, such as embryogenesis, wound healing and cancer invasion. The inter-relation between the viscoelasticity and the appearance of active turbulence remains poorly understood even in 2D. The phenomenon represents a consequence of the competition between the viscoelastic force and the surface tension force which induces successive stiffening and softening of parts of multicellular systems. The viscoelastic force is a product of the residual cell stress accumulation and its inhomogeneous distribution caused by CCM. This modeling consideration represents a powerful tool to address the generation of mechanical waves in CCM towards an understanding of this important but still controversial topic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade University, Belgrade, Serbia
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Boghdady CM, Kalashnikov N, Mok S, McCaffrey L, Moraes C. Revisiting tissue tensegrity: Biomaterial-based approaches to measure forces across length scales. APL Bioeng 2021; 5:041501. [PMID: 34632250 PMCID: PMC8487350 DOI: 10.1063/5.0046093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-generated forces play a foundational role in tissue dynamics and homeostasis and are critically important in several biological processes, including cell migration, wound healing, morphogenesis, and cancer metastasis. Quantifying such forces in vivo is technically challenging and requires novel strategies that capture mechanical information across molecular, cellular, and tissue length scales, while allowing these studies to be performed in physiologically realistic biological models. Advanced biomaterials can be designed to non-destructively measure these stresses in vitro, and here, we review mechanical characterizations and force-sensing biomaterial-based technologies to provide insight into the mechanical nature of tissue processes. We specifically and uniquely focus on the use of these techniques to identify characteristics of cell and tissue “tensegrity:” the hierarchical and modular interplay between tension and compression that provide biological tissues with remarkable mechanical properties and behaviors. Based on these observed patterns, we highlight and discuss the emerging role of tensegrity at multiple length scales in tissue dynamics from homeostasis, to morphogenesis, to pathological dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nikita Kalashnikov
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montréal, Québec H3A 0C5, Canada
| | - Stephanie Mok
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montréal, Québec H3A 0C5, Canada
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42
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Bizanti A, Chandrashekar P, Steward R. Culturing astrocytes on substrates that mimic brain tumors promotes enhanced mechanical forces. Exp Cell Res 2021; 406:112751. [PMID: 34363813 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2021.112751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes are essential to brain homeostasis and their dysfunction can have devastating consequences on human quality of life. Such deleterious effects are generally due in part to changes that occur at the cellular level, which may be biochemical or biomechanical in nature. One biomechanical change that can occur is a change in tissue stiffness. Brain tumors are generally associated with increased brain tissue stiffness, but the impact increased tissue stiffness has on astrocyte biomechanical behavior is poorly understood. Therefore, in this study we cultured human astrocytes on flexible substrates with stiffness that mimicked the healthy human brain (1 kPa), meningioma (4 kPa), and glioma (11 kPa) and investigated astrocyte biomechanical behavior by measuring cell-substrate tractions, strain energies, cell-cell intercellular stresses, and cellular velocities. In general, tractions, intercellular stresses, and strain energy was observed to increase as a function of increased substrate stiffness, while cell velocities were observed to decrease with increased substrate stiffness. We believe this study will be of great importance to the fields of brain pathology and brain physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariege Bizanti
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Priyanka Chandrashekar
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Robert Steward
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA; Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA.
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pyTFM: A tool for traction force and monolayer stress microscopy. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008364. [PMID: 34153027 PMCID: PMC8248623 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular force generation and force transmission are of fundamental importance for numerous biological processes and can be studied with the methods of Traction Force Microscopy (TFM) and Monolayer Stress Microscopy. Traction Force Microscopy and Monolayer Stress Microscopy solve the inverse problem of reconstructing cell-matrix tractions and inter- and intra-cellular stresses from the measured cell force-induced deformations of an adhesive substrate with known elasticity. Although several laboratories have developed software for Traction Force Microscopy and Monolayer Stress Microscopy computations, there is currently no software package available that allows non-expert users to perform a full evaluation of such experiments. Here we present pyTFM, a tool to perform Traction Force Microscopy and Monolayer Stress Microscopy on cell patches and cell layers grown in a 2-dimensional environment. pyTFM was optimized for ease-of-use; it is open-source and well documented (hosted at https://pytfm.readthedocs.io/) including usage examples and explanations of the theoretical background. pyTFM can be used as a standalone Python package or as an add-on to the image annotation tool ClickPoints. In combination with the ClickPoints environment, pyTFM allows the user to set all necessary analysis parameters, select regions of interest, examine the input data and intermediary results, and calculate a wide range of parameters describing forces, stresses, and their distribution. In this work, we also thoroughly analyze the accuracy and performance of the Traction Force Microscopy and Monolayer Stress Microscopy algorithms of pyTFM using synthetic and experimental data from epithelial cell patches. The analysis of cellular force generation and transmission is an increasingly important aspect in the field of biological research. However, most methods for studying cellular force generation or transmission require complex calculations and have not yet been implemented in comprehensive, easy-to-use software. This is a major hurdle preventing a wider application in the field. Here we present pyTFM, an open-source Python package with a graphical user interface that can be used to evaluate cellular force generation in cells and cell colonies and force transfer within small cell patches and larger cell layers grown on the surface of an elastic substrate. In combination with the image annotation and tool ClickPoints, pyTFM allows the user to set all necessary analysis parameters, select regions of interest, examine the input data and intermediary results, and calculate a wide range of parameters describing cellular forces, stresses, and their distribution. Additionally, pyTFM can be used as standalone python library. pyTFM comes with an extensive documentation (hosted at https://pytfm.readthedocs.io/) including usage examples and explanations of the theoretical background.
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Kwon TY, Jeong J, Park E, Cho Y, Lim D, Ko UH, Shin JH, Choi J. Physical analysis reveals distinct responses of human bronchial epithelial cells to guanidine and isothiazolinone biocides. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2021; 424:115589. [PMID: 34029620 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2021.115589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Changes in the physical state of the cells can serve as important indicators of stress responses because they are closely linked with the changes in the pathophysiological functions of the cells. Physical traits can be conveniently assessed by analyzing the morphological features and the stresses at the cell-matrix and cell-cell adhesions in both single-cell and monolayer model systems in 2D. In this study, we investigated the mechano-stress responses of human bronchial epithelial cells, BEAS-2B, to two functionally distinct groups of biocides identified during the humidifier disinfectant accident, namely, guanidine (PHMG) and isothiazolinone (CMIT/MIT). We analyzed the physical traits, including cell area, nuclear area, and nuclear shape. While the results showed inconsistent average responses to the biocides, the degree of dispersion in the data set, measured by standard deviation, was remarkably higher in CMIT/MIT treated cells for all traits. As mechano-stress endpoints, traction and intercellular stresses were also measured, and the cytoskeletal actin structures were analyzed using immunofluorescence. This study demonstrates the versatility of the real-time imaging-based biomechanical analysis, which will contribute to identifying the temporally sensitive cellular behaviors as well as the emergence of heterogeneity in response to exogenously imposed stress factors. This study will also shed light on a comparative understanding of less studied substance, CMIT/MIT, in relation to a more studied substance, PHMG, which will further contribute to more strategic planning for proper risk management of the ingredients involved in toxicological accidents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Yoon Kwon
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehakro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34034, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaeseong Jeong
- School of Environmental Engineering, University of Seoul, 163 Seoulsiripdae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02504, Republic of Korea
| | - Eunyoung Park
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehakro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34034, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngbin Cho
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehakro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34034, Republic of Korea
| | - Dongyoung Lim
- School of Environmental Engineering, University of Seoul, 163 Seoulsiripdae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02504, Republic of Korea
| | - Ung Hyun Ko
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehakro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34034, Republic of Korea
| | - Jennifer H Shin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehakro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34034, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jinhee Choi
- School of Environmental Engineering, University of Seoul, 163 Seoulsiripdae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02504, Republic of Korea.
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45
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Feyen DAM, McKeithan WL, Bruyneel AAN, Spiering S, Hörmann L, Ulmer B, Zhang H, Briganti F, Schweizer M, Hegyi B, Liao Z, Pölönen RP, Ginsburg KS, Lam CK, Serrano R, Wahlquist C, Kreymerman A, Vu M, Amatya PL, Behrens CS, Ranjbarvaziri S, Maas RGC, Greenhaw M, Bernstein D, Wu JC, Bers DM, Eschenhagen T, Metallo CM, Mercola M. Metabolic Maturation Media Improve Physiological Function of Human iPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes. Cell Rep 2021; 32:107925. [PMID: 32697997 PMCID: PMC7437654 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs) have enormous potential for the study of human cardiac disorders. However, their physiological immaturity severely limits their utility as a model system and their adoption for drug discovery. Here, we describe maturation media designed to provide oxidative substrates adapted to the metabolic needs of human iPSC (hiPSC)-CMs. Compared with conventionally cultured hiPSC-CMs, metabolically matured hiPSC-CMs contract with greater force and show an increased reliance on cardiac sodium (Na+) channels and sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium (Ca2+) cycling. The media enhance the function, long-term survival, and sarcomere structures in engineered heart tissues. Use of the maturation media made it possible to reliably model two genetic cardiac diseases: long QT syndrome type 3 due to a mutation in the cardiac Na+ channel SCN5A and dilated cardiomyopathy due to a mutation in the RNA splicing factor RBM20. The maturation media should increase the fidelity of hiPSC-CMs as disease models. Physiological immaturity of iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes limits their fidelity as disease models. Feyen et al. developed a low glucose, high oxidative substrate media that increase maturation of ventricular-like hiPSC-CMs in 2D and 3D cultures relative to standard protocols. Improved characteristics include a low resting Vm, rapid depolarization, and increased Ca2+ dependence and force generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dries A M Feyen
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Cardiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Wesley L McKeithan
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Sanford-Burnham-Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Arne A N Bruyneel
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Sean Spiering
- Sanford-Burnham-Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Larissa Hörmann
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bärbel Ulmer
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Francesca Briganti
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Michaela Schweizer
- Electron Microscopy Unit, Center for Molecular Neurobiology Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bence Hegyi
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Zhandi Liao
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | - Kenneth S Ginsburg
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Chi Keung Lam
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ricardo Serrano
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Christine Wahlquist
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Sanford-Burnham-Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Alexander Kreymerman
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Michelle Vu
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Prashila L Amatya
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Charlotta S Behrens
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sara Ranjbarvaziri
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Renee G C Maas
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Cardiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Matthew Greenhaw
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Daniel Bernstein
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Joseph C Wu
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Donald M Bers
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Thomas Eschenhagen
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christian M Metallo
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Mark Mercola
- Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Sanford-Burnham-Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA.
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46
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Schwartz AB, Campos OA, Criado-Hidalgo E, Chien S, Del Álamo JC, Lasheras JC, Yeh YT. Elucidating the Biomechanics of Leukocyte Transendothelial Migration by Quantitative Imaging. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:635263. [PMID: 33855018 PMCID: PMC8039384 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.635263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Leukocyte transendothelial migration is crucial for innate immunity and inflammation. Upon tissue damage or infection, leukocytes exit blood vessels by adhering to and probing vascular endothelial cells (VECs), breaching endothelial cell-cell junctions, and transmigrating across the endothelium. Transendothelial migration is a critical rate-limiting step in this process. Thus, leukocytes must quickly identify the most efficient route through VEC monolayers to facilitate a prompt innate immune response. Biomechanics play a decisive role in transendothelial migration, which involves intimate physical contact and force transmission between the leukocytes and the VECs. While quantifying these forces is still challenging, recent advances in imaging, microfabrication, and computation now make it possible to study how cellular forces regulate VEC monolayer integrity, enable efficient pathfinding, and drive leukocyte transmigration. Here we review these recent advances, paying particular attention to leukocyte adhesion to the VEC monolayer, leukocyte probing of endothelial barrier gaps, and transmigration itself. To offer a practical perspective, we will discuss the current views on how biomechanics govern these processes and the force microscopy technologies that have enabled their quantitative analysis, thus contributing to an improved understanding of leukocyte migration in inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy B Schwartz
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Obed A Campos
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Ernesto Criado-Hidalgo
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Shu Chien
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Juan C Del Álamo
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States.,Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Juan C Lasheras
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Yi-Ting Yeh
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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47
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Milivojevic M. Multiscale nature of cell rearrangement caused by collective cell migration. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2021; 50:1-14. [PMID: 33495939 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-021-01496-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Collective cell migration (CCM), a highly coordinated and fine-tuned migratory mode, is involved in a plethora of biological processes, such as embryogenesis, tissue repair and cancer invasion. Although a good comprehension of how cells collectively migrate by following molecular rules has been generated, the impact of cellular rearrangements on collective migration remains less understood. Thus, considering CCM from a multi-scale quantitative approach could result in a powerful tool to address the contribution of cellular rearrangements in CCM and help to understand this important but still controversial topic. In this work, a review of existing literature in CCM modeling at different scales is given along with assortment of published experimental findings, to invite experimentalists to test given theoretical considerations in multicellular systems. In addition, three different time and space scales (free or weakly connected cells, cluster of cells and collision fronts of different cells clusters) are considered and the multi-scale nature of those processes was discussed with special emphasis of jamming and unjamming states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade University, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade University, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, Serbia
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48
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Abstract
Gap closure to eliminate physical discontinuities and restore tissue integrity is a fundamental process in normal development and repair of damaged tissues and organs. Here, we demonstrate a nonadhesive gap closure model in which collective cell migration, large-scale actin-network fusion, and purse-string contraction orchestrate to restore the gap. Proliferative pressure drives migrating cells to attach onto the gap front at which a pluricellular actin ring is already assembled. An actin-ring segment switching process then occurs by fusion of actin fibers from the newly attached cells into the actin cable and defusion from the previously lined cells, thereby narrowing the gap. Such actin-cable segment switching occurs favorably at high curvature edges of the gap, yielding size-dependent gap closure. Cellular force microscopies evidence that a persistent rise in the radial component of inward traction force signifies successful actin-cable segment switching. A kinetic model that integrates cell proliferation, actin fiber fusion, and purse-string contraction is formulated to quantitatively account for the gap-closure dynamics. Our data reveal a previously unexplored mechanism in which cells exploit multifaceted strategies in a highly cooperative manner to close nonadhesive gaps.
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49
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Zhang G, Mueller R, Doostmohammadi A, Yeomans JM. Active inter-cellular forces in collective cell motility. J R Soc Interface 2020; 17:20200312. [PMID: 32781933 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The collective behaviour of confluent cell sheets is strongly influenced both by polar forces, arising through cytoskeletal propulsion, and by active inter-cellular forces, which are mediated by interactions across cell-cell junctions. We use a phase-field model to explore the interplay between these two contributions and compare the dynamics of a cell sheet when the polarity of the cells aligns to (i) their main axis of elongation, (ii) their velocity and (iii) when the polarity direction executes a persistent random walk. In all three cases, we observe a sharp transition from a jammed state (where cell rearrangements are strongly suppressed) to a liquid state (where the cells can move freely relative to each other) when either the polar or the inter-cellular forces are increased. In addition, for case (ii) only, we observe an additional dynamical state, flocking (solid or liquid), where the majority of the cells move in the same direction. The flocking state is seen for strong polar forces, but is destroyed as the strength of the inter-cellular activity is increased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanming Zhang
- The Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, UK
| | - Romain Mueller
- The Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, UK
| | - Amin Doostmohammadi
- The Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 17, 2100 Copenhagen, DK
| | - Julia M Yeomans
- The Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, UK
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50
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Pajic-Lijakovic I, Milivojevic M. Collective cell migration and residual stress accumulation: Rheological consideration. J Biomech 2020; 108:109898. [PMID: 32636009 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2020.109898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Stress generation during collective cell migration represents one of the key factors which influence the configuration of migrating cells, viscoelasticity of multicellular systems and their inter-relation. Local generation of stress (normal and shear) is significant even in 2D. Normal stress is primarily accumulated within a core region of migrating cell clusters during their movement through the dense environment and during the collisions of migrating cell clusters caused by uncorrelated motility. Shear stress can be significant within perturbed boundary layers around migrating clusters. Cells are more sensitive to the action of shear stress compared with normal stress. Shear stress of a few Pa significantly influences cell state. Prior studies have shown that collectively migrating cells move in such a way to minimize this stress, but it has not yet been determined how cells effectively minimize it. Deeper insight into possible cell mechanisms for minimizing undesirable shear stress would be of great importance because it may help to direct morphogenesis, accelerate wound healing or prevent cancer invasion. In the proposed model three primary mechanisms in which cells may reduce shear are given: decreasing speed, tissue thickening, and/or reducing slip effects. Suggestions obtained from the proposed model indicate a need for further experimental studies that will reveal whether the heterogeneity in the cell-cell adhesion types correlates well with the stiffness inhomogeneity, or changes in the adhesion clustering, cytoskeletal linkage or some other modification to the adhesion complex (adherens junctions or tight junctions) are occurring to influence overall adhesive strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Pajic-Lijakovic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade University, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Milan Milivojevic
- Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Belgrade University, Karnegijeva 4, Belgrade, Serbia
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