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Chlamydia trachomatis Alters Mitochondrial Protein Composition and Secretes Effector Proteins That Target Mitochondria. mSphere 2022; 7:e0042322. [PMID: 36286535 PMCID: PMC9769516 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00423-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are critical cellular organelles that perform a wide variety of functions, including energy production and immune regulation. To perform these functions, mitochondria contain approximately 1,500 proteins, the majority of which are encoded in the nuclear genome, translated in the cytoplasm, and translocated to the mitochondria using distinct mitochondrial targeting sequences (MTS). Bacterial proteins can also contain MTS and localize to the mitochondria. For the obligate intracellular human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis, interaction with various host cell organelles promotes intracellular replication. However, the extent and mechanisms through which Chlamydia cells interact directly with mitochondria remain unclear. We investigated the presence of MTS in the C. trachomatis genome and discovered 30 genes encoding proteins with around 70% or greater probability of mitochondrial localization. Five are translocated to the mitochondria upon ectopic expression in HeLa cells. Mass spectrometry of isolated mitochondria from infected cells revealed that two of these proteins localize to the mitochondria during infection. Comparison of mitochondria from infected and uninfected cells suggests that chlamydial infection affects the mitochondrial protein composition. Around 125 host proteins were significantly decreased or absent in mitochondria from infected cells. Among these were proapoptotic factors and those related to mitochondrial fission/fusion dynamics. Conversely, 82 host proteins were increased in or specific to mitochondria of infected cells, many of which act as antiapoptotic factors and upregulators of cellular metabolism. These data support the notion that C. trachomatis specifically targets host mitochondria to manipulate cell fate decisions and metabolic function to support pathogen survival and replication. IMPORTANCE Obligate intracellular bacteria have evolved multiple means to promote their intracellular survival and replication within the otherwise harsh environment of the eukaryotic cell. Nutrient acquisition and avoidance of cellular defense mechanisms are critical to an intracellular lifestyle. Mitochondria are critical organelles that produce energy in the form of ATP and regulate programmed cell death responses to invasive pathogenic microbes. Cell death prior to completion of replication would be detrimental to the pathogen. C. trachomatis produces at least two and possibly more proteins that target the mitochondria. Collectively, C. trachomatis infection modulates the mitochondrial protein composition, favoring a profile suggestive of downregulation of apoptosis.
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Sixt BS. Host cell death during infection with Chlamydia: a double-edged sword. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2021; 45:5902849. [PMID: 32897321 PMCID: PMC7794043 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuaa043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The phylum Chlamydiae constitutes a group of obligate intracellular bacteria that infect a remarkably diverse range of host species. Some representatives are significant pathogens of clinical or veterinary importance. For instance, Chlamydia trachomatis is the leading infectious cause of blindness and the most common bacterial agent of sexually transmitted diseases. Chlamydiae are exceptionally dependent on their eukaryotic host cells as a consequence of their developmental biology. At the same time, host cell death is an integral part of the chlamydial infection cycle. It is therefore not surprising that the bacteria have evolved exquisite and versatile strategies to modulate host cell survival and death programs to their advantage. The recent introduction of tools for genetic modification of Chlamydia spp., in combination with our increasing awareness of the complexity of regulated cell death in eukaryotic cells, and in particular of its connections to cell-intrinsic immunity, has revived the interest in this virulence trait. However, recent advances also challenged long-standing assumptions and highlighted major knowledge gaps. This review summarizes current knowledge in the field and discusses possible directions for future research, which could lead us to a deeper understanding of Chlamydia's virulence strategies and may even inspire novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara S Sixt
- The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
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Okude M, Matsuo J, Yamazaki T, Saito K, Furuta Y, Nakamura S, Thapa J, Okubo T, Higashi H, Yamaguchi H. Distribution of amoebal endosymbiotic environmental chlamydia Neochlamydia S13 via amoebal cytokinesis. Microbiol Immunol 2021; 65:115-124. [PMID: 33368645 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
We previously isolated a symbiotic environmental amoeba, harboring an environmental chlamydia, Neochlamydia S13. Interestingly, this bacterium failed to survive outside of host cells and was immediately digested inside other amoebae, indicating bacterial distribution via cytokinesis. This may provide a model for understanding organelle development and chlamydial pathogenesis and evolution; therefore, we assessed our hypothesis of Neochlamydia S13 distribution via cytokinesis by comparative analysis with other environmental Chlamydiae (Protochlamydia R18 and Parachlamydia Bn9 ). Dual staining with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole and phalloidin revealed that the progeny of Neochlamydia S13 and Protochlamydia R18 existed in both daughter cells with a contractile ring on the verge of separation. However, in contrast to other environmental Chlamydiae, little Neochlamydia S13 16S ribosomal DNA was amplified from the culture supernatant. Interestingly, Neochlamydia S13 failed to infect aposymbiotic amoebae, indicating an intimate interaction with the host cells. Furthermore, its infectious rates in cultures expanded from a single amoeba were always maintained at 100%, indicating distribution via cytokinesis. We concluded that unlike other environmental Chlamydiae, Neochlamydia S13 has a unique ability to divide its progeny only via host amoebal cytokinesis. This may be a suitable model to elucidate the mechanism of cell organelle distribution and of chlamydial pathogenesis and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miho Okude
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Junji Matsuo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.,School of Medical Technology, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Yamazaki
- School of Medical Technology, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Kentaro Saito
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Furuta
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Shinji Nakamura
- Division of Biomedical Imaging Research, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jeewan Thapa
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Torahiko Okubo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hideaki Higashi
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Yamaguchi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Sun Y, Zhou P, Chen S, Hu C, Bai Q, Wu H, Chen Y, Zhou P, Zeng X, Liu Z, Chen L. The JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway mediates inhibition of host cell apoptosis by Chlamydia psittaci infection. Pathog Dis 2018; 75:4062151. [PMID: 28981630 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftx088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The JAK-STAT3 signaling pathway is a key regulator of cell growth, motility, migration, invasion and apoptosis in mammalian cells. Infection with intracellular pathogens of the genus Chlamydia can inhibit host cell apoptosis, and here we asked whether the JAK-STAT3 pathway participates in chlamydial anti-apoptotic activity. We found that, compared with uninfected cells, levels of JAK1 and STAT3 mRNA as well as total and phosphorylated JAK1 and STAT3 protein, were significantly increased in C. psittaci-infected HeLa cells. Moreover, the apoptosis rate of infected cells was higher after treatment with the tyrosine kinase inhibitor AG-490 (2-cyano-3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl)-N-(phenylmethyl)-2-propenamide). Immunoblotting of apoptosis-related proteins showed that C. psittaci infection reduces Bax, but increases Bcl-2, protein levels, resulting in reduced activation of caspase-3, caspase-7, caspase-9 and PARP; AG490 attenuates these effects. Together, our data suggest that the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway facilitates the anti-apoptotic effect of C. psittaci infection by reducing the Bax/Bcl-2 apoptotic switch ratio, and by inhibiting the intracellular activation of key pro-apoptotic enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanbin Sun
- College of Public Health, University of South China, 28 West Changsheng Rd., Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Peng Zhou
- College of Public Health, University of South China, 28 West Changsheng Rd., Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Shenghua Chen
- Medical college, University of South China, 28 West Changsheng Rd., Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Chunsheng Hu
- Outpatient Department, Hunan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Provention, Changsha 421000, China
| | - Qinqin Bai
- College of Public Health, University of South China, 28 West Changsheng Rd., Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Haiying Wu
- The second Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, 28 West Changsheng Rd., Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Yuyu Chen
- Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 421000, China
| | - Pufan Zhou
- College of Public Health, University of South China, 28 West Changsheng Rd., Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Xindian Zeng
- College of Public Health, University of South China, 28 West Changsheng Rd., Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Ziqing Liu
- College of Public Health, University of South China, 28 West Changsheng Rd., Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Lili Chen
- College of Public Health, University of South China, 28 West Changsheng Rd., Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
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Watanabe T, Yamazaki S, Maita C, Matushita M, Matsuo J, Okubo T, Yamaguchi H. Lateral Gene Transfer Between Protozoa-Related Giant Viruses of Family Mimiviridae and Chlamydiae. Evol Bioinform Online 2018; 14:1176934318788337. [PMID: 30038484 PMCID: PMC6050620 DOI: 10.1177/1176934318788337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Obligate intracellular chlamydiae diverged into pathogenic and environmental
chlamydiae 0.7-1.4 billion years ago. While pathogenic chlamydiae have adapted
to a wide range of vertebrates, environmental chlamydiae inhabit unicellular
amoebae, the free-living Acanthamoeba. However, how and why
this divergence occurred remains unclear. Meanwhile, giant viruses consisting of
protozoa-related and protozoa-unrelated viruses have been discovered, with the
former group being suggested to have more influenced environmental chlamydiae
during their evolution while cohabiting host amoebae. Against this background,
we attempted to visualize genes of giant viruses in chlamydial genomes by
bioinformatic analysis mainly with comparative genome and phylogenic analysis,
seeking genes present in chlamydiae that are specifically shared with
protozoa-related giant viruses. As a result, in contrast to protozoa-unrelated
giant viruses, the genes of protozoa-related giant viruses were significantly
shared in both the chlamydia genomes depending on the giant virus type. In
particular, the prevalence of Mimiviridae genes among the
protozoa-related giant virus genes in chlamydial genomes was significantly high.
Meanwhile, the prevalence of protozoa-related giant virus genes in pathogenic
chlamydia genomes was consistently higher than those of environmental
chlamydiae; the actual number of sequences similar to giant virus was also
significantly predominant compared with those in the environmental chlamydial
genomes. Among them, the most prevalent of giant virus was in the case of
chlamydiae with Megavirus chiliensis; total of 1338 genes of
the chlamydiae were found to be shared with the virus (444 genes specific to
environmental chlamydiae, 892 genes shared between both chlamydiae, only two
genes in the pathogenic chlamydiae). Phylogenic analysis with most prevalent
sets (Megavirus chiliensis and Protochlamydia
EI2 or Chlamydia trachomatis L2 434Bu) showed the presence of
orthologs between these with several clustered. In addition, Pearson’s single
regression analysis revealed that almost the prevalence of the genes from the
giant viruses in chlamydial genomes was negatively and specifically correlated
with the number of chlamydial open reading frames (ORFs). Thus, these results
indicated the trace of lateral gene transfer between protozoa-related giant
viruses of family Mimiviridae and chlamydiae. This is the first
demonstration of a putative linkage between chlamydiae and the giant viruses,
providing us with a hint to understand chlamydial evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takanori Watanabe
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Sumire Yamazaki
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Chinatsu Maita
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Mizue Matushita
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Junji Matsuo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Torahiko Okubo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Yamaguchi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Venkatasubramanian S, Tripathi D, Tucker T, Paidipally P, Cheekatla S, Welch E, Raghunath A, Jeffers A, Tvinnereim AR, Schechter ME, Andrade BB, Mackman N, Idell S, Vankayalapati R. Tissue factor expression by myeloid cells contributes to protective immune response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Eur J Immunol 2016; 46:464-79. [PMID: 26471500 PMCID: PMC4740218 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201545817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Tissue factor (TF) is a transmembrane glycoprotein that plays an essential role in hemostasis by activating coagulation. TF is also expressed by monocytes/macrophages as part of the innate immune response to infections. In the current study, we determined the role of TF expressed by myeloid cells during Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) infection by using mice lacking the TF gene in myeloid cells (TF(Δ) ) and human monocyte derived macrophages (MDMs). We found that during M. tb infection, a deficiency of TF in myeloid cells was associated with reduced inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression, enhanced arginase 1 (Arg1) expression, enhanced IL-10 production and reduced apoptosis in infected macrophages, which augmented M. tb growth. Our results demonstrate that a deficiency of TF in myeloid cells promotes M2-like phenotype in M .tb infected macrophages. A deficiency in TF expression by myeloid cells was also associated with reduced fibrin deposition and increased matrix metalloproteases (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 mediated inflammation in M. tb infected lungs. Our studies demonstrate that TF expressed by myeloid cells has newly recognized abilities to polarize macrophages and to regulate M. tb growth.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Deepak Tripathi
- Department of Pulmonary Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
| | - Torry Tucker
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
| | - Padmaja Paidipally
- Department of Pulmonary Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
| | - Satyanarayana Cheekatla
- Department of Pulmonary Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
| | - Elwyn Welch
- Department of Pulmonary Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
| | - Anjana Raghunath
- Department of Pulmonary Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
| | - Ann Jeffers
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
| | - Amy R. Tvinnereim
- Department of Pulmonary Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
| | - Melissa E Schechter
- Clinical Research Directorate/Clinical Monitoring Research Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Bruno B Andrade
- Investigative Medicine Branch, Laboratory of Immune Regulation, Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz (CPqGM), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Salvador, Bahia, 40296-710, Brazil
- Research Center, Brazilian Institute for Tuberculosis Research, Salvador, Bahia, 45204-040, Brazil
| | - Nizel Mackman
- Department of Medicine, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, NC 27516, USA
| | - Steven Idell
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
| | - Ramakrishna Vankayalapati
- Department of Pulmonary Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
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Linder SM, Rosenfeldt AB, Rasanow M, Alberts JL. Forced Aerobic Exercise Enhances Motor Recovery After Stroke: A Case Report. Am J Occup Ther 2015; 69:6904210010p1-8. [PMID: 26114455 DOI: 10.5014/ajot.2015.015636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Previously, we demonstrated that forced aerobic exercise (FE) increases the pattern of neural activation in Parkinson's disease. We sought to evaluate whether FE, when coupled with repetitive task practice, could promote motor recovery poststroke. METHOD A 46-yr-old man with ischemic stroke exhibited chronic residual upper-extremity deficits, scoring 35/66 on the Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA) at baseline. He completed 24 training sessions comprising 45 min of FE on a motorized stationary bicycle followed by 45 min of upper-extremity repetitive task practice. RESULTS From baseline to end of treatment, the FMA score improved by 20 points, perceived level of recovery on the Stroke Impact Scale increased by 20 percentage points, and cardiovascular function measured by peak oxygen uptake improved 30%. These improvements persisted 4 wk after the intervention ceased. CONCLUSION FE may be a safe and feasible rehabilitation approach to augment recovery of motor and nonmotor function while improving aerobic fitness in people with chronic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Linder
- Susan M. Linder, PT, DPT, NCS, is Research Scientist, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH;
| | - Anson B Rosenfeldt
- Anson B. Rosenfeldt, PT, DPT, MBA, is Senior Physical Therapist, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH
| | - Matthew Rasanow
- Matthew Rasanow is Research Assistant, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH
| | - Jay L Alberts
- Jay L. Alberts, PhD, is Staff, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cleveland Clinic, and Investigator, Cleveland FES Center, L. Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, OH
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Linder SM, Rosenfeldt AB, Bay RC, Sahu K, Wolf SL, Alberts JL. Improving Quality of Life and Depression After Stroke Through Telerehabilitation. Am J Occup Ther 2015; 69:6902290020p1-10. [PMID: 26122686 DOI: 10.5014/ajot.2015.014498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to determine the effects of home-based robot-assisted rehabilitation coupled with a home exercise program compared with a home exercise program alone on depression and quality of life in people after stroke. METHOD A multisite randomized controlled clinical trial was completed with 99 people<6 mo after stroke who had limited access to formal therapy. Participants were randomized into one of two groups, (1) a home exercise program or (2) a robot-assisted therapy+home exercise program, and participated in an 8-wk home intervention. RESULTS We observed statistically significant changes in all but one domain on the Stroke Impact Scale and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale for both groups. CONCLUSION A robot-assisted intervention coupled with a home exercise program and a home exercise program alone administered using a telerehabilitation model may be valuable approaches to improving quality of life and depression in people after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Linder
- Susan M. Linder, PT, DPT, NCS, is Physical Therapist and Research Scientist, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Center for Neurological Restoration, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH
| | - Anson B Rosenfeldt
- Anson B. Rosenfeldt, PT, DPT, MBA, is Physical Therapist, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Center for Neurological Restoration, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH
| | - R Curtis Bay
- R. Curtis Bay, PhD, is Biostatistician, Arizona School of Health Sciences, A. T. Still University, Mesa, AZ
| | - Komal Sahu
- Komal Sahu, MPH, OTR/L, is Occupational Therapist, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Steven L Wolf
- Steven L. Wolf, PhD, PT, FAPTA, FAHA, is Physical Therapist and Professor, Division of Physical Therapy, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, and Senior Research Scientist, Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA
| | - Jay L Alberts
- Jay L. Alberts, PhD, is Vice Chair, Health Enablement Technology, Neurological Institute, and Staff, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Center for Neurological Restoration, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH;
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Amoebal endosymbiont Parachlamydia acanthamoebae Bn9 can grow in immortal human epithelial HEp-2 cells at low temperature; an in vitro model system to study chlamydial evolution. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0116486. [PMID: 25643359 PMCID: PMC4314085 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ancient chlamydiae diverged into pathogenic and environmental chlamydiae 0.7–1.4 billion years ago. However, how pathogenic chlamydiae adapted to mammalian cells that provide a stable niche at approximately 37°C, remains unknown, although environmental chlamydiae have evolved as endosymbionts of lower eukaryotes in harsh niches of relatively low temperatures. Hence, we assessed whether an environmental chlamydia, Parachlamydia Bn9, could grow in human HEp-2 cells at a low culture temperature of 30°C. The assessment of inclusion formation by quantitative RT-PCR revealed that the numbers of bacterial inclusion bodies and the transcription level of 16SrRNA significantly increased after culture at 30°C compared to at 37°C. Confocal microscopy showed that the bacteria were located close to HEp-2 nuclei and were actively replicative. Transmission electron microscopy also revealed replicating bacteria consisting of reticular bodies, but with a few elementary bodies. Cytochalasin D and rifampicin inhibited inclusion formation. Lactacystin slightly inhibited bacterial inclusion formation. KEGG analysis using a draft genome sequence of the bacteria revealed that it possesses metabolic pathways almost identical to those of pathogenic chlamydia. Interestingly, comparative genomic analysis with pathogenic chlamydia revealed that the Parachlamydia similarly possess the genes encoding Type III secretion system, but lacking genes encoding inclusion membrane proteins (IncA to G) required for inclusion maturation. Taken together, we conclude that ancient chlamydiae had the potential to grow in human cells, but overcoming the thermal gap was a critical event for chlamydial adaptation to human cells.
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Subtil A, Collingro A, Horn M. Tracing the primordial Chlamydiae: extinct parasites of plants? TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 19:36-43. [PMID: 24210739 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2013.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Revised: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacteria found as symbionts and pathogens in a wide range of eukaryotes, including protists, invertebrates, and vertebrates. It was recently proposed that an ancient chlamydial symbiont facilitated the establishment of primary plastids in a tripartite symbiosis with cyanobacteria and early eukaryotes. In this review, we summarize recent advances in understanding of the lifestyle and the evolutionary history of extant Chlamydiae. We reconstruct and describe key features of the ancient chlamydial symbiont. We propose that it was already adapted to an intracellular lifestyle before the emergence of Archaeplastida, and that several observations are compatible with an essential contribution of Chlamydiae to the evolution of algae and plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agathe Subtil
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Biologie des Interactions Cellulaires, Paris, France; CNRS URA2582, Paris, France.
| | - Astrid Collingro
- University of Vienna, Division of Microbial Ecology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Horn
- University of Vienna, Division of Microbial Ecology, Vienna, Austria
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Sampo A, Matsuo J, Yamane C, Yagita K, Nakamura S, Shouji N, Hayashi Y, Yamazaki T, Yoshida M, Kobayashi M, Ishida K, Yamaguchi H. High-temperature adapted primitive Protochlamydia found in Acanthamoeba isolated from a hot spring can grow in immortalized human epithelial HEp-2 cells. Environ Microbiol 2013; 16:486-97. [PMID: 24460765 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Revised: 08/03/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
To elucidate how ancient pathogenic chlamydiae could overcome temperature barriers to adapt to human cells, we characterized a primitive chlamydia found in HS-T3 amoebae (Acanthamoeba) isolated from a hot spring. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the primitive species to be Protochlamydia. In situ hybridization staining showed broad distribution into the amoebal cytoplasm, which was supported by transmission electron microscopic analysis showing typical chlamydial features, with inclusion bodies including both elementary and reticular bodies. Interestingly, although most amoebae isolated from natural environments show reduced growth at 37°C, the HS-T3 amoebae harbouring the Protochlamydia grew well at body temperature. Although infection with Protochlamydia did not confer temperature tolerance to the C3 amoebae, the number of infectious progenies rapidly increased at 37°C with amoebal lysis. In immortalized human epithelial HEp-2 cells, fluorescence microscopic study revealed atypical inclusion of the Protochlamydia, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analyses also showed an increase in 16S ribosomal RNA DNA amounts. Together, these results showed that the Protochlamydia found in HS-T3 amoebae isolated from a hot spring successfully adapted to immortalized human HEp-2 cells at 37°C, providing further information on the evolution of ancient Protochlamydia to the present pathogenic chlamydiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya Sampo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, North-12, West-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0812, Japan
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