Intestinal anti-inflammatory activity of lentinan: influence on IL-8 and TNFR1 expression in intestinal epithelial cells

Yoyo Dieting, Post-Obesity Weight Loss, and Their Relationship with Gut Health

Excessive body weight is associated with many chronic metabolic diseases and weight loss, so far, remains the gold standard treatment. However, despite tremendous efforts exploring optimal treatments for obesity, many individuals find losing weight and maintaining a healthy body weight difficult. Weight loss is often not sustainable resulting in weight regain and subsequent efforts to lose weight. This cyclic pattern of weight loss and regain is termed "yoyo dieting" and predisposes individuals to obesity and metabolic comorbidities. How yoyo dieting might worsen obesity complications during the weight recurrence phase remains unclear. In particular, there is limited data on the role of the gut microbiome in yoyo dieting. Gut health distress, especially gut inflammation and microbiome perturbation, is strongly associated with metabolic dysfunction and disturbance of energy homeostasis in obesity. In this review, we summarise current evidence of the crosstalk between the gastrointestinal system and energy balance, and the effects of yoyo dieting on gut inflammation and gut microbiota reshaping. Finally, we focus on the potential effects of post-dieting weight loss in improving gut health and identify current knowledge gaps within the field, including gut-derived peptide hormones and their potential suitability as targets to combat weight regain, and how yoyo dieting and associated changes in the microbiome affect the gut barrier and the enteric nervous system, which largely remain to be determined.

Fasting-Induced Molting Impacts the Intestinal Health by Altering the Gut Microbiota

Fasting-induced molting (FIM) is a common method used to improve the laying performance of aged laying hens. Nevertheless, this approach may impose various stresses on chickens, such as disruptions in intestinal flora and inflammation issues within the intestines. However, the impact of an imbalance in intestinal flora on intestinal health during the FIM process remains elusive. Therefore, intestinal injury, the microbiome, and the metabolome were analyzed individually and integrated to elucidate the impact of the intestinal flora on intestinal health during the FIM process. The findings indicated that fasting resulted in a notable reduction in villus height and villus/crypt ratio, coupled with elevated levels of intestinal inflammation and permeability. During the fasting period, microbiota compositions changed. The abundance of Escherichia_Shigella increased, while the abundance of Ruminococcaceae_UCG-013 and Lactobacillus decreased. Escherichia_Shigella was positively correlated with Citrinin and Sterobilin, which lead to intestinal inflammation. Ruminococcaceae_UCG-013 and Lactobacillus exhibited positive correlations with Lanthionine and reduced Glutathione, thereby reducing intestinal inflammation. This study screened the intestinal probiotics, Ruminococcaceae UCG-013 and Lactobacillus, that influence gut health during the fasting period, providing an experimental basis for improving gut microbiota and reducing intestinal inflammation during the FIM process.

The Effects of Lentinan on the Hematological and Immune Indices of Dairy Cows

In this study, we investigated the effects of lentinan (LNT) on hematological parameters, immune indices, and metabolite levels in dairy cows. We randomly assigned forty Holstein cows to four treatment groups. The treatments consisted of 0, 5, 10, and 15 g/d of LNT. Compared with the control group, the addition of 10 g/d of LNT decreased the content of ALT and IL-8 but simultaneously increased the content of IL-4 in the cows' serum. Supplementation with 10 g/d of LNT decreased the levels of lymphocyte, RDW, ALT, AST, TC, IL-2, and IL-8, but, concurrently, in-creased the levels of granulocytes and IL-4 in their serum. In addition, supplementation with 15 g/d of LNT decreased the levels of RDW, TC, IL-2, and IL-8, but, at the same time, increased the levels of IL-4 and IgM in their serum. For the metabolomic analysis, cows fed with 0 and 10 g/d of LNT were selected. The results showed that 10 metabolites, including reduced nicotinamide riboside and trehalose, were upregulated in the 10 g/d group. These differential metabolites were enriched in tyrosine metabolism and trehalose degradation and altered two metabolic pathways of ubiquinone and other terpene quinone biosynthesis, as well as starch and sucrose metabolism. These findings provide evidence that LNT could be used to reduce the risk of inflammation in dairy cows.

Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties of polysaccharides in mushrooms

Mushrooms are distinguished as important food-containing polysaccharides possessing potent anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating properties. These compounds belong mostly to polysaccharides that are mostly β-D-glucans. Among them, β-1,3-glucan with β-1,6 side chains of glucose residues, has more important roles in their properties. In this review, we have introduced polysaccharides mainly from Lentinula edodes and Pleurotus citrinopileatus with anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating properties. In addition, the mechanisms of activation of their physiological properties and signal cascade are also reviewed.

Lentinan progress in inflammatory diseases and tumor diseases

Shiitake mushrooms are a fungal food that has been recorded in Chinese medicine to nourish the blood and qi. Lentinan (lLNT) is an active substance extracted from shiitake mushrooms with powerful antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor functions. Inflammatory diseases and cancers are the leading causes of death worldwide, posing a serious threat to human life and health and posing enormous challenges to global health systems. There is still a lack of effective treatments for inflammatory diseases and cancer. LNT has been approved as an adjunct to chemotherapy in China and Japan. Studies have shown that LNT plays an important role in the treatment of inflammatory diseases as well as oncological diseases. Moreover, clinical experiments have confirmed that LNT combined with chemotherapy drugs has a significant effect in improving the prognosis of patients, enhancing their immune function and reducing the side effects of chemotherapy in lung cancer, colorectal cancer and gastric cancer. However, the relevant mechanism of action of the LNT signaling pathway in inflammatory diseases and cancer. Therefore, this article reviews the mechanism and clinical research of LNT in inflammatory diseases and tumor diseases in recent years.

Advances in Plant Polysaccharides as Antiaging Agents: Effects and Signaling Mechanisms

Aging refers to the gradual physiological changes that occur in an organism after reaching adulthood, resulting in senescence and a decline in biological functions, ultimately leading to death. Epidemiological evidence shows that aging is a driving factor in the developing of various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, immune system disorders, cancer, and chronic low-grade inflammation. Natural plant polysaccharides have emerged as crucial food components in delaying the aging process. Therefore, it is essential to continuously investigate plant polysaccharides as potential sources of new pharmaceuticals for aging. Modern pharmacological research indicates that plant polysaccharides can exert antiaging effects by scavenging free radicals, increasing telomerase activity, regulating apoptosis, enhancing immunity, inhibiting glycosylation, improving mitochondrial dysfunction regulating gene expression, activating autophagy, and modulating gut microbiota. Moreover, the antiaging activity of plant polysaccharides is mediated by one or more signaling pathways, including IIS, mTOR, Nrf2, NF-κB, Sirtuin, p53, MAPK, and UPR signaling pathways. This review summarizes the antiaging properties of plant polysaccharides and signaling pathways participating in the polysaccharide-regulating aging process. Finally, we discuss the structure-activity relationships of antiaging polysaccharides.

The inhibitory effect of oral administration of lentinan on DSS-induced inflammation is exerted by the migration of T cells activated in the ileum to the colon

Oral administration of lentinan ameliorated dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis through Dectin-1 receptor on intestinal epithelial cells. However, it is unclear where lentinan affects in the intestine to prevent the inflammation. We found that the administration of lentinan has induced migration of CD4+ cells from the ileum to the colon by using Kikume Green-Red (KikGR) mice in this study. This result suggests that the oral lentinan treatment could accelerate the migration of Th cells in lymphocyte from ileum into the colon during lentinan intake. Then, C57BL/6 mice were administered 2% DSS to induce colitis. The mice were administered lentinan daily via oral or rectal route before DSS administration. Its rectal administration also suppressed DSS-induced colitis, but its suppressive effects were lower compared to when orally administered, indicating that the biological responses to lentinan in the small intestine contributed to the anti-inflammatory effects. In normal mice (without DSS treatment), the expression of Il12b was significantly increased in the ileum by the oral administration of lentinan, but not by rectal one. On the other hand, no change was observed in the colon by either administration method. In addition, Tbx21 was significantly increased in the ileum. These suggested that IL-12 was increased in the ileum and Th1 cells differentiated in dependence on it. Therefore, Th1 predominant condition in the ileum could influence immunity in the colon and improve the colitis.

Lentinan confers protection against type 1 diabetes by inducing regulatory T cell in spontaneous non-obese diabetic mice

BACKGROUND

Lentinan (LNT) is a complex fungal component that possesses effective antitumor and immunostimulating properties. However, there is a paucity of studies regarding the effects and mechanisms of LNT on type 1 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE

In the current study, we investigated whether an intraperitoneal injection of LNT can diminish the risk of developing type 1 diabetes (T1D) in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice and further examined possible mechanisms of LNT's effects.

METHODS

Pre-diabetic female NOD mice 8 weeks of age, NOD mice with 140-160 mg/dL, 200-230 mg/dL or 350-450 mg/dL blood glucose levels were randomly divided into two groups and intraperitoneally injected with 5 mg/kg LNT or PBS every other day. Then, blood sugar levels, pancreas slices, spleen, PnLN and pancreas cells from treatment mice were examined.

RESULTS

Our results demonstrated that low-dosage injections (5 mg/kg) of LNT significantly suppressed immunopathology in mice with autoimmune diabetes but increased the Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Treg cells) proportion in mice. LNT treatment induced the production of Tregs in the spleen and PnLN cells of NOD mice in vitro. Furthermore, the adoptive transfer of Treg cells extracted from LNT-treated NOD mice confirmed that LNT induced Treg function in vivo and revealed an enhanced suppressive capacity as compared to the Tregs isolated from the control group.

CONCLUSION

LNT was capable of stimulating the production of Treg cells from naive CD4 + T cells, which implies that LNT exhibits therapeutic values as a tolerogenic adjuvant and may be used to reverse hyperglycaemia in the early and late stages of T1D.

Production and characterization of exopolysaccharides from salinity-induced Auxenochlorella protothecoides and the analysis of anti-inflammatory activity

The set scenario of this work was to investigate the production, physicochemical characteristics, and anti-inflammatory activities of exopolysaccharides from salinity-induced Auxenochlorella protothecoides. The results demonstrated that 10 ‰ salinity manipulation endowed preferable exopolysaccharide production by A. protothecoides. Under this salinity stress, ACPEPS1A and ACPEPS2A were purified from exopolysaccharide production by anion chromatography and molecular exclusion chromatography. ACPEPS1A exhibited a molecular weight (Mw) of 132 kDa and mainly consisted of galactose. ACPEPS2A was a heteropolysaccharide with an Mw of 170 kDa and the main monosaccharides of galactose and rhamnose with separate molar percents of 42.41 % and 35.29 %, respectively. FTIR, ¹H and ¹³C NMR supported that monosaccharide components of ACPEPS1A and ACPEPS2A possessed both α- and β-configuration pyranose rings. Further evidence indicated that ACPEPS1A and ACPEPS2A could effectively inhibit the inflammatory response in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced RAW264.7 cells by quenching inflammatory factor levels such as ROS, iNOS, TNF-α, and IL-6. The potential anti-inflammatory possibilities were that the monosaccharides of ACPEPS1A and ACPEPS2A possessed higher affinity with receptors on the macrophage surface than LPS and hampered LPS-induced inflammation. The findings of this work would favor innovative applications of exopolysaccharides from microalgae in complementary medicines or functional foods.

In vitro characterization of lactic acid bacterial strains isolated from fermented foods with anti-inflammatory and dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibition potential

Probiotics are known to stimulate, modulate, and regulate host immune response by regulating specific sets of genes and improve glucose homeostasis through regulating dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP-IV) activity, but the mechanism behind their protective role is not clearly understood. Therefore, the present study was designed to isolate indigenous lactic acid bacterial (LAB) strains from different fermented food samples, vegetables, and human infant feces exhibiting anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and DPP-IV inhibitory activity. A total of thirty-six Gram-positive, catalase-negative, and rod-shaped bacteria were isolated and screened for their anti-inflammatory activity using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation on the murine (RAW264.7) macrophages. Among all, sixteen strains exhibited more than 90% reduction in nitric oxide (NO) production by the LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells. Prioritized strains were characterized for their probiotic attributes as per the DBT-ICMR guidelines and showed desirable probiotic attributes in a species and strain-dependent manner. Accordingly, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus LAB3, Levilactobacillus brevis LAB20, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LAB31, Pediococcus acidilactici LAB8, and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LAB39 were prioritized. Furthermore, these strains when co-supplemented with LPS and treated on RAW264.7 cells inhibited the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), i.e., p38 MAPK, ERK1/2, and SAPK/JNK, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), relative to the LPS-alone-treated macrophages. LAB31 and LAB39 also showed 64 and 95% of DPP-IV inhibitory activity relative to the Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG ATCC 53103, which was used as a reference strain in all the studies. Five prioritized strains ameliorated the LPS-induced inflammation by downregulating the JNK/MAPK pathway and could be employed as an alternative bio-therapeutic strategy in mitigating gut-associated inflammatory conditions. The potential mechanism of action of prioritized LAB strains in preventing the LPS-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells.

Fermented Glutinous Rice Extract Mitigates DSS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis by Alleviating Intestinal Barrier Function and Improving Gut Microbiota and Inflammation

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an inflammatory bowel disease caused by various factors, including intestinal inflammation and barrier dysfunction. Herein, we determined the effects of fermented glutinous rice (FGR) on the expression of tight junction proteins and levels of inflammation and apoptosis in the dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced acute colitis model. FGR was orally administered once per day to C57BL/6J mice with colitis induced by 5% DSS in drinking water. FGR administration recovered DSS-induced body weight loss and irregularly short colon lengths. FGR inhibited the DSS-induced decrease in FITC-dextran (FD)-4 permeability and myeloperoxidase activity. Moreover, FGR treatment repaired the reduction of zonula occluden-1 (ZO-1) and occludin expression and the increase in claudin-2 expression in colonic tissue relative to that following DSS administration. FGR treatment significantly recovered expression of cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β, in serum or respective mRNA expression in colonic tissue relative to that following DSS administration. FGR regulated levels of oxidative stress-related factors, such as malondialdehyde and glutathione, and the activity of catalase and superoxide dismutase in the colon tissue of the DSS-induced acute colitis mice model. Furthermore, FGR treatment inhibited apoptosis by reducing the activity of caspase-3 and the ratio of Bcl-2 associated X (Bax)/B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2). Collectively, FGR treatment protected the intestinal barrier from dysfunction and inhibited inflammation and apoptosis in DSS-induced colitis. Therefore, FGR may decrease the inflammatory response and be a candidate for treating and prevention inflammatory bowel disease by protecting the intestinal integrity.

Lentinan inhibits oxidative stress and alleviates LPS-induced inflammation and apoptosis of BMECs by activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway

Lentinan (LNT) has been reported to have a wide range of functions, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anticancer properties. LNT may provide a protective effect in dairy cow mastitis. In this study, we investigated the effect of LNT on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced injury of bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs) and the possible mechanism. First, we treated BMECs with different concentrations of LPS to study the effects of LPS on oxidative stress and inflammation in BMECs. Then, we examined the effects of LNT by dividing the cells into seven groups: the control group (CON), LPS treatment group (LPS), Acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) pretreatment group (NAC + LPS), LNT pretreatment group (LNT + LPS), ML385 and LNT pretreatment group (ML385 + LNT + LPS), LNT treatment group (LNT) and NAC treatment group (NAC). The results showed that LPS-triggered intracellular ROS production and the downregulation of Nrf-2 and HO-1 in BMECs were blocked by LNT pretreatment. LNT inhibited the expression of inflammatory genes and proteins by inhibiting of NF-κB and MAPK. In addition, LNT attenuated LPS induced-apoptosis in BMECs. However, ML385 reversed the protective effect of LNT. Taken together, LNT can be used as a natural protective agent against LPS-triggered BMECs damage through its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiapoptotic effects through modulation of the Nrf2 pathway.

Supplementation of Dietary Crude Lentinan Improves the Intestinal Microbiota and Immune Barrier in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Infected by Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus

The effects of crude lentinan (CLNT) on the intestinal microbiota and the immune barrier were evaluated in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) infected by infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV). The results showed that supplementary CLNT declined the rainbow trout mortality caused by IHNV, which suggested that CLNT has preventive effects on IHNV infection. IHNV destroyed intestinal integrity, as well as caused the intestinal oxidative and damage in rainbow trout. Supplementary CLNT significantly strengthened the intestinal immune barrier by declining intestinal permeability, as well as enhancing intestinal antioxidant and anti-inflammatory abilities in IHNV-infected rainbow trout (P<0.05). In addition, CLNT modified the aberrant changes of intestinal microbiota induced by IHNV, mainly represented by promoting the growths of Carnobacterium and Deefgea and inhibiting Mycobacterium and Nannocystis. Especially, supplementing with CLNT significantly promoted the growth of short-chain fatty acid–producing bacteria (P<0.05) and consequently increased the production of acetic acid, butanoic acid, and hexanoic acid in the intestine of IHNV-infected rainbow trout. Furthermore, it was speculated that CLNT could regulate the self-serving metabolic pathways of intestinal microbiota induced by IHNV, such as fatty acid metabolism and amino acid metabolism. Together, CLNT played the antiviral effects on IHNV infection through strengthening the intestinal immune barrier, as well as regulating intestinal microbiota and SCFA metabolism in rainbow trout. The present data revealed that CLNT exerted a promising prebiotic role in preventing the rainbow trout from IHNV infection.

Anti-Influenza Effect and Mechanisms of Lentinan in an ICR Mouse Model

Influenza virus is a serious threat to global human health and public health security. There is an urgent need to develop new anti-influenza drugs. Lentinan (LNT) has attracted increasing attention in recent years. As potential protective agent, LNT has been shown to have anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties. However, there has been no further research into the anti-influenza action of lentinan in vivo, and the mechanism is still not fully understood. In this study, the anti-influenza effect and mechanism of Lentinan were studied in the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mouse model. The results showed that Lentinan had a high degree of protection in mice against infection with influenza A virus, delayed the emergence of clinical manifestations, improved the survival rate of mice, significantly prolonged the middle survival days, attenuated the weight loss, and reduced the lung coefficient of mice. It alleviated the pathological damage of mice infected with the influenza virus and improved blood indices. Lentinan treatment considerably inhibited inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6) levels in the serum and lung and improved IFN-γ cytokine levels, which reduced cytokine storms caused by influenza virus infection. The underlying mechanisms of action involved Lentinan inhibiting the inflammatory response by regulating the TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway. This study provides a foundation for the clinical application of Lentinan, and provides new insight into the development of novel immunomodulators.

Variants of beta-glucan polysaccharides downregulate autoimmune inflammation

Common infections and polysaccharides, from bacteria and yeasts, could trigger psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis (PsA), and possibly rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of β-glucan polysaccharides in the effector phase of arthritis and as regulators of psoriasis and PsA-like symptoms in mice. Collagen antibody induced arthritis was studied as a model of RA and mannan-induced psoriasis (MIP) was used as model for psoriasis and PsA, using mice with a mutation of Ncf1 on the B10.Q genetic background, making them highly disease susceptible. The mice were exposed to three common variants: 1,6-β-glucan, 1,3-β-glucan and 1,3-1,6-β-glucan. These β-glucans down-regulated disease in mice if administered simultaneously, before or after mannan. Interestingly, the protection was macrophage mannose receptor (MMR/CD206) dependent with a more pronounced protection long-term than short-term. The number of resident peritoneal macrophages decreased after in vivo challenge with β-glucan and mannan compared to mannan alone, whereas the numbers of infiltrating cells correspondingly increased, further indicating macrophages as key for β-glucan mediated regulation. At the doses tested, β-glucans could not induce arthritis, psoriasis or PsA in wild-type mice. However, β-glucans could ameliorate the PsA-like symptoms representing a new unforeseen possibility to explore for future clinical treatment.

β-glucan exerted anti-inflammatory activities in a murine model of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis is, at least in part, mediated via the activation of CD206 on macrophages

LENTINULA EDODES POLYSACCHARIDES SUPPRESSED PRO-INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES EXPRESSION AND COLITIS IN MICE

BACKGROUND

Polysaccharides from edible mushrooms possess immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor activities. Recent studies indicated that necroptosis plays a role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases and mediates increased expression of inflammatory cytokines.

OBJECTIVE

Therefore, it is imperative to determine the impact of polysaccharide extract from Lentinula edodes (L. edodes) on inflammatory cytokines in experimental model of colitis in mice.

METHODS

Female C57BL/6 mice divided into three or four mice per group were used for this study. Polysaccharide sample was orally administered to mice prior to (7 days) and during colitis induction with 2.5% dextran sodium sulfate (7 days), followed by additional 3 days of administration. Changes in body weight and colon length were used as markers for colitis, and pro-inflammatory cytokines and tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) expressions, as well as necroptosis were analyzed in the colon of colitis mice. Data obtained were analysed by Tukey-Kramer and two-tailed standard t tests.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the polysaccharide sample suppressed colitis in mice using effects on the body weight and colon length as markers. Also, it was demonstrated that necrostatin-1, a specific inhibitor of necroptosis, suppressed the expression of interleukin (IL)-8, a pro-inflammatory chemokine, in Caco-2 cells induced necroptosis induced by zVAD and TNF-α, an indication that necroptosis may be involved in the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, the polysaccharide sample suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and interferon (IFN)-γ in the colon of mice.

CONCLUSION

These results suggested that the suppressive effects of the polysaccharide sample on inflammatory cytokines expression may contribute to its anti-colitis effect, and so may serve as a potent therapeutic agent against inflammatory bowel disease.

Polysaccharides From the Aerial Parts of Tetrastigma Hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg Induce Bidirectional Immunity and Ameliorate LPS-Induced Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Mice

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg (Sanyeqing, SYQ) has traditionally been used to treat inflammation, high fever and improve immune function of patients. Polysaccharides have been proved to be one of the important components of SYQ. Previous studies have confirmed the antipyretic and antitumor effects of polysaccharides from SYQ (SYQP), and clarified that SYQP could enhance immunity through TLR4 signalling pathway. However, there were more possibilities for the mechanism by which SYQP exerted immunomodulatory effects and the role of SYQP in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is elusive. The purpose of this study was further to explain the bidirectional modulation of immunity mechanism of SYQP in vitro and its effect in LPS-induced ARDS in vivo. Experimental results showed that SYQP significantly stimulated gene expressions of TLR1, TLR2 and TLR6 and secretion of cytokines in RAW264.7 cells. Individual or combined application of TLR2 antagonist C29 and TLR4 antagonist TAK-242 could reduce SYQP-mediated stimulation of cytokine secretion in RAW264.7 cells and mouse peritoneal macrophages (MPMs) to varying degrees. On the other hand, SYQP markedly inhibited the expression levels of inflammatory cytokines, NO, iNOS and COX-2 in LPS-treatment RAW264.7 cells. Moreover, in vivo results indicated that SYQP significantly reduced LPS-induced damage in ARDS mice through alleviating LPS-induced pulmonary morphological damage, inhibiting myeloperoxidase (MPO) expression levels, ameliorating the inflammatory cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and improving hematological status. Meanwhile, SYQP evidently reduced IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-γ secretion, the overexpression levels of TLR2 and TLR4, as well as the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65. In addition, SYQP reduced the phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT1 and the overexpression of NLRP3, caspase-1, caspase-3 and caspase-8 in lung tissues of ARDS mice. In summary, our study confirmed that SYQP induced bidirectional immunity and ameliorated LPS-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome in mice through TLR2/TLR4-NF-κB, NLRP3/caspase and JAK/STAT signaling pathways, which provided a theoretical basis for further use of SYQP.

Protective effect of naringin ameliorates TNBS-induced colitis in rats via improving antioxidant status and pro-inflammatory cytokines

Aim: Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease that disturbs the colon mucosal lining and is characterized by oxido-nitrosative stress and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Naringin (NG) belongs to a group of chemicals called bioflavonoids derived from grapefruit and related citrus species. NG has been widely used as folk medicine in many countries, due to its several health benefits.Method: This study examined the effect of NG on 2,4,6 trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in rats. Forty-two male Wistar rats were divided into seven groups like Normal Control (NC), Ethanol Control (EC), Disease Control (DC), NG 20 (20 mg/kg, p.o.), NG 40 (40 mg/kg, p.o.), NG 80 (80 mg/kg, p.o.), and Dexamethasone (DEX) (2 mg/kg, p.o.). Colitis was induced in Wistar albino rats by administering TNBS intra-rectally (in 50% ethanol). The rats were then given 14 days of NG (20, 40, and 80 mg/kg) and DEX (2 mg/kg) treatment. Several behavioral, biochemical, molecular, and histological analyses were performed.Result: The treatment of rats with NG significantly increased the body weight (p < .05, p < .01), hematological parameters like hemoglobin (p < .05, p < .01, p < .001), red blood cells (p < .01, p < .001), and platelets count (p < .01, p < .001) and decreased in spleen weight (p < .01, p < .001), colon weight (p < .01, p < .001), colon weight to length ratio (p < .05, p < .01, p < .001), macroscopic score (p < .01, p < .001), adhesion score (p < .01, p < .001), diarrhea score (p < .05, p < .001), stool consistency (p < .01, p < .001), rectal bleeding score (p < .05, p < .01, p < .001), white blood cells count (p < .01, p < .001). NG significantly (p < .01, p < .001) increased colonic superoxide, glutathione, and catalase levels and decreased malondialdehyde and myeloperoxidase levels. It also significantly (p < .01, p < .001) decreased the biochemical parameters, proinflammatory cytokines and reduced the histological damage in the colon tissue caused by TNBS.Conclusion: Our results demonstrated that NG treatment attenuated pathologic changes of TNBS-induced colitis in rats through restoring colonic damage and reducing inflammatory response in the colon tissue. Thus, NG might be considered as an effective candidate for the treatment of UC patients.

Lentinan Attenuates Damage of the Small Intestinal Mucosa, Liver, and Lung in Mice with Gut-Origin Sepsis

This study is aimed at exploring the effects of lentinan on small intestinal mucosa as well as lung and liver injury in mice with gut-origin sepsis. Cecal ligation and perforation (CLP) were used to construct a mouse model of gut-origin sepsis. The mice were randomly divided into six groups: sham operation group (sham), gut-origin sepsis model group (CLP), ulinastatin-positive drug control group (UTI), lentinan low concentration group (LTN-L, 5 mg/kg), lentinan medium concentration group (LTN-M, 10 mg/kg), and lentinan high concentration group (LTN-H, 20 mg/kg). H&E staining was used to detect the pathological damage of the small intestine, liver, and lung. The serum of mice in each group was collected to detect the expression changes of inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress biomarkers, and liver function indexes. In vitro assessment of bacterial translocation was achieved through inoculated culture media. Western blot and RT-qPCR were used to detect the expression of molecules related to the NF-κB signaling pathway in the small intestine tissues of mice. The results showed that compared with the CLP group, the injury degree of the small intestine, liver, and lung in mice with gut-origin sepsis was improved with the increase of lentinan concentration. In addition, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and HMGB1 were decreased with the increase of lentinan concentration, but the expression of IL-10 was increased. Lentinan could also reduce the expression of oxidative stress injury indexes and liver function indexes and inhibit bacterial translocation to liver and lung tissues. Further mechanism investigation revealed that lentinan downregulated the expression of the NF-κB signaling pathway molecules (NF-κB, TLR4, and Bax) and upregulated the expression of occludin and Bcl-2. In conclusion, lentinan inhibits the activity of the NF-κB signaling pathway, thus attenuating injuries of small intestinal mucosa and liver and lung in mice with gut-origin sepsis and reducing the inflammatory response in the process of sepsis.

Lentinan triggers oxidative stress-mediated anti-inflammatory responses in lung cancer cells

Inflammatory responses change several aspects of malignancies such as proliferation, survival, angiogenesis, and metastasis and lead to tumor progression. Lung cancer is the leading type of cancer worldwide and cancer-related inflammatory mediators challenge the successful treatments. Lentinan, a polysaccharide derived from Lentinula edodes, has shown anti-inflammatory characteristics in colitis and has been approved as an adjuvant therapy for cancer treatment. In the present study, we explored the mechanism underlying anti-inflammatory function of Lentinan in lung cancer cells. We showed that Lentinan reduced the inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β in LPS-stimulated A549 cells at the concentrations much lower than the IC₅₀. Lentinan failed to alter the NLRP3 expression profile at transcriptional and translational levels. However, it showed a huge inhibition of caspase-1 activity. Lentinan downregulated the expression of IL-6 and IL-1β at the mRNA level. We also showed that Lentinan altered the oxidative status of the cells by increasing the intracellular ROS content and attenuating the activity of GPx4, the key player in the anti-oxidative defense system. Lentinan-induced ROS generation was associated with caspase-3 activation and induction of DNA breaks. This alteration was also associated with mitochondrial membrane depolarization shown by TMRE staining. Using recombinant caspase-1, we showed that Lentinan did not directly target caspase-1 but it led to caspase-1 inhibition. In conclusion, cytotoxicity and anti-inflammatory functions are separated by the dose of Lentinan. Lentinan increased the ROS and mitochondrial dysfunction in a level that is insufficient to induce cell death, but is sufficient to regulate the NLRP3 activation.

Protective Effects of Lentinan Against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Mastitis in Mice

Mastitis is a worldwide production disease in dairy cows, which mainly affects milk yield, causing huge economic losses to dairy farmers. Lentinan is a kind of polysaccharide extracted from Lentinus edodes, which has no toxicity and possesses various pharmacological activities including antibacterial and immunomodulatory effects. Therefore, the anti-inflammatory function of lentinan on LPS-stimulated mastitis was carried out, and the mechanism involved was explored. In vivo, lentinan greatly reduced LPS-stimulated pathological injury, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and the proinflammatory factor production (TNF-α and IL-1β) in mice. Further study was performed to determine the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway during LPS stimulation. These results suggested that LPS-induced activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway was suppressed by lentinan administration. In vitro, we observed that the mouse mammary epithelial cell (mMEC) viability was not affected by lentinan treatment. As expected, LPS increased the TNF-α and IL-1β protein secretion and the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway that was inhibited by lentinan administration in a dose-dependent manner in mMECs. Conclusively, lentinan exerts the anti-inflammatory function in LPS-stimulated mastitis via inhibiting the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Thus, the results of our study also gave an insight that lentinan may serve as a potential treatment for mastitis.

Sarsasapogenin and fluticasone combination improves DNFB induced atopic dermatitis lesions in BALB/c mice

OBJECTIVE

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a pruritic, chronic, relapsing inflammatory skin disease. The research aims to study the effects of Sarsasapogenin and its combination with Fluticasone in 2, 4-Dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) induced atopic dermatitis in BALB/c mice.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Thirty male Balb/c mice were divided into 5 groups: (i) Normal control (NC), (ii) Disease control (DNFB), (iii) Sarsasapogenin (SG) (50 µg/mice), (iv) Fluticasone (FC) (50 µg/mice), (v) Sarsasapogenin + Fluticasone (SG + FC) combination (25 µg/mice). Dermatitis was induced by repeated application of DNFB in Balb/c mice. On topical application of SG, FC, and SG + FC combination on the ear and skin lesions, body weight, ear weight, ear thickness, erythema score, spleen weight, cytokines, immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels, nitric oxide (NO) level, hematological parameters, and oxidative stress markers were evaluated. Histological analysis of the ear tissue was also done.

RESULTS

The results stated that SG and SG + FC treatment to mice considerably decrease the ear weight, ear thickness, spleen weight, serum IgE, cytokines, NO levels, and restoration of antioxidant stress markers with elevation in the hematological parameters. The observations were further confirmed by histopathological analysis of ear tissue.

CONCLUSION

These data specify that SG has been demonstrated as a probable therapy for the treatment of allergic skin diseases in combination with FC by decreasing its dose from 50 to 25 µg/mice to avoid the chronic side effects of FC. Hence, it can be concluded that SG and SG + FC combination significantly improved the AD-like symptoms in the DNFB sensitized mice through mitigating the production of proinflammatory mediators and restoration of oxidative stress markers.

Protective effect of sarsasapogenin in TNBS induced ulcerative colitis in rats associated with downregulation of pro-inflammatory mediators and oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel condition considered by oxido-nitrosative stress and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines that affects the mucosal lining of the colon. Sarsasapogenin (SG), as an active component, has been found in many plants, and it exhibits potential protective effects, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-psoriasis, anti-arthritis, anti-asthma, anti-depressant and anti-cancer. However, the effects of SG on UC remain unknown.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of SG on 2, 4, 6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced UC in rats.

METHOD

Thirty Wistar rats were randomized into five groups: (i) Normal control, (ii) Disease control (TNBS), (iii) Sarsasapogenin (SG) (50 µg/rat), (iv) Fluticasone (FC) (50 µg/rat), (v) Sarsasapogenin + Fluticasone (SG + FC) (25 µg/rat). UC was induced in rats by trans-rectal instillation of TNBS (10 mg/kg). SG, FC and SG + FC were administered for 11 days and on the 8th day colitis was induced. Several molecular, biochemical and histological alterations were evaluated in the colon tissue. All treatment group results were compared to the TNBS group results.

RESULT

The study results revealed that treatment of rats with SG and SG + FC combination significantly decreased the colon weight/length ratio, macroscopic inflammation score, lesions score, diarrhea score and adhesion score. Combination treatment in rats significantly reduced the production of biochemical parameters, proinflammatory cytokines, haematological parameters, serum IgE levels and restored the oxidative stress markers. SG and SG + FC treatment also considerably restored the histopathological changes induced by TNBS.

CONCLUSION

Thus, SG and SG + FC combination could alter the disease progression and could be a hopeful therapeutic target for the management of UC by reducing its dose in combination with FC to elude the long term adverse effects of FC.

Mechanism of Lentinan Intestinal Absorption: Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis and Macropinocytosis

Lentinan (LNT), a typical triple helix β-glucan extracted from Lentinus edodes, has been widely used as a functional food and an orally administered drug. However, its oral pharmacokinetics has been rarely reported. The aim of this work is to systematically study the pharmacokinetics and intestinal absorption mechanism of LNT after oral administration. Radioactive 99m-technetium (^99mTc) was introduced to label LNT to determine the plasma concentration, tissue distribution, and excretion of the β-glucan in rats after oral administration. The results confirmed the absorption of LNT, with the maximal plasma concentration reached at 1 h. 5-([4,6-Dichlorotriazin-2-yl]amino)fluorescein (DTAF) was used to label LNT to explore the absorption mechanism of LNT, utilizing both a Ussing chamber and a monolayer of Caco-2 cells. These transport assays showed that LNT could penetrate through the intestine and epithelial monolayer, which was mediated by macropinocytosis and clathrin-mediated endocytosis. These findings provide a pharmacokinetic reference for LNT and help provide a greater understanding of the absorption of β-glucans in general.

Acai berry extract as a regulator of intestinal inflammation pathways in a Caco-2 and RAW 264.7 co-culture model

The aim of this study was to assess the anti-inflammatory effects of acai berries in a Caco-2 and RAW 264.7 macrophage co-culture model. The acai berry extract (ABE) was prepared using 70% ethanol, and total anthocyanin, polyphenol, and flavonoid contents in ABE were analyzed. To the antioxidant activity of ABE, we measured radical scavenging activity as well as ferric reducing antioxidant power values. Prior to inducing inflammation, Caco-2 cells were co-cultured with RAW 264.7. Inflammation was induced using lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in RAW 264.7 cells. The transepithelial electrical resistance value was significantly recovered and the mRNA level of tight junction proteins, including ZO-1, JAM-1, and claudin-4, tended to increase compared with that in the LPS group. LPS-induced interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and prostaglandin E2 levels reduced significantly following treatment with the highest ABE concentration. In the highest ABE concentration, the phosphorylation of p65, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase was downregulated compared with the LPS group. The phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase showed a decreased tendency. These results suggest that acai berry may improve gastrointestinal health. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Acai berry is known to have abundant anthocyanin, which has many biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antihypertensive, and anticytotoxic/cytoprotective activities. This study demonstrated the anti-inflammatory effects of acai berry extracts via TEER value, expression of tight junction protein, and production of inflammatory mediators and cytokines in the Caco-2 and RAW 264.7 co-culture model. Therefore, acai berry has the potential to prevent intestinal inflammatory diseases.

Edible Mushrooms and Beta-Glucans: Impact on Human Health

Mushroom cell walls are rich in β-glucans, long or short-chain polymers of glucose subunits with β-1,3 and β-1,6 linkages, that are responsible for the linear and branching structures, respectively. β-glucans from cereals, at variance, have no 1,6 linkages nor branching structures. Both immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of mushrooms have been described using purified β-glucans or fungi extracts on cellular and experimental models; their potential clinical use has been tested in different conditions, such as recurrent infections of the respiratory tract or complications of major surgery. Another promising application of β-glucans is on cancer, as adjuvant of conventional chemotherapy. β-glucans may protect the cardiovascular system, ameliorating glucose, lipid metabolism, and blood pressure: these activities, observed for oat and barley β-glucans, require confirmation in human studies with mushroom β-glucans. On the other hand, mushrooms may also protect the cardiovascular system via a number of other components, such as bioactive phenolic compounds, vitamins, and mineral elements. The growing knowledge on the mechanism(s) and health benefits of mushrooms is encouraging the development of a potential clinical use of β-glucans, and also to further document their role in preserving health and prevent disease in the context of healthy lifestyles.

Isolation and Assessment of a Highly-Active Anti-Inflammatory Exopolysaccharide from Mycelial Fermentation of a Medicinal Fungus Cs-HK1

The purpose of this work was to fractionate the complex exopolysaccharide (EPS) from a medicinal fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis Cs-HK1 based on the molecular weight (MW) range and to assess the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of different EPS fractions in THP-1 cell culture. The lower MW fraction (EPS-LM-1) showed a much higher anti-inflammatory activity. EPS-LM-1 was identified as a heteropolysaccharide consisting of mannose, glucose, and galactose residues with an average MW of 360 kDa. EPS-LM-1 significantly inhibited the lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses with the effective concentrations for 50% inhibition below 5 µg/mL on a few major proinflammatory markers. With such a notable in vitro anti-inflammatory activity, EPS-LM-1 is a promising candidate for the development of a new anti-inflammation therapy.

Intestinal SIRT1 Deficiency-Related Intestinal Inflammation and Dysbiosis Aggravate TNFα-Mediated Renal Dysfunction in Cirrhotic Ascitic Mice

In advanced cirrhosis, the TNFα-mediated intestinal inflammation and bacteria dysbiosis are involved in the development of inflammation and vasoconstriction-related renal dysfunction. In colitis and acute kidney injury models, activation of SIRT1 attenuates the TNFα-mediated intestinal and renal abnormalities. This study explores the impacts of intestinal SIRT1 deficiency and TNFα-mediated intestinal abnormalities on the development of cirrhosis-related renal dysfunction. Systemic and renal hemodynamics, intestinal dysbiosis [cirrhosis dysbiosis ratio (CDR) as marker of dysbiosis], and direct renal vasoconstrictive response (renal vascular resistance (RVR) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR)) to cumulative doses of TNFα were measured in bile duct ligated (BDL)-cirrhotic ascitic mice. In SIRT1^IEC-KO-BDL-ascitic mice, the worsening of intestinal dysbiosis exacerbates intestinal inflammation/barrier dysfunction, the upregulation of the expressions of intestinal/renal TNFα-related pathogenic signals, higher TNFα-induced increase in RVR, and decrease in GFR in perfused kidney. In intestinal SIRT1 knockout groups, the positive correlations were identified between intestinal SIRT1 activity and CDR. Particularly, the negative correlations were identified between CDR and RVR, with the positive correlation between CDR and GFR. In mice with advanced cirrhosis, the expression of intestinal SIRT1 is involved in the linkage between intestinal dysbiosis and vasoconstriction/hypoperfusion-related renal dysfunction through the crosstalk between intestinal/renal TNFα-related pathogenic inflammatory signals.

Wheat-derived arabinoxylans reduced M2-macrophage functional activity, but enhanced monocyte-recruitment capacity

The immunomodulatory properties of non-digestible polysaccharides (NDPs) have been recognized in in vitro and in vivo studies. The latter mostly demonstrated altered frequencies and inflammatory status of immune cells as clinical parameters. Most of the NDP activity will be exerted in the intestine where they can directly interact with macrophages. The predominant macrophage phenotype in the intestine is M2-like, with M1-like macrophages arising during inflammation. Here, we investigated transcriptional and functional impact on these macrophage phenotypes by NDP-treatment (i.e. yeast-derived soluble β-glucan (yeast-βG), apple-derived RG-I (apple-RGI), shiitake-derived β-glucan (shiitake-βG) or wheat-derived arabinoxylan (wheat-AX)). Wheat-AX, and to a lesser extent shiitake-βG and apple-RGI but not yeast-βG, reduced endocytosis and antigen processing capacity of M1- and M2-like macrophages. Moreover, the NDPs, and most notably wheat-AX, strongly induced transcription and secretion of a unique set of cytokines and chemokines. Conditioned medium from wheat-AX-treated M2-like macrophages subsequently demonstrated strongly increased monocyte recruitment capacity. These findings are in line with clinically observed immunomodulatory aspects of NDPs making it tempting to speculate that clinical activity of some NDPs is mediated through enhanced chemoattraction and modifying activity of intestinal immune cells.

Lentinan Inhibits AGE-Induced Inflammation and the Expression of Matrix-Degrading Enzymes in Human Chondrocytes

Background

Chondrocyte-mediated inflammation is an important pathological component of osteoarthritis (OA) development. There are currently no therapies that completely reverse the development of OA. Lentinan, a type of polysaccharide derived from Lentinus edodes, has been demonstrated to possess significant anti-viral, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory effects, and has been recently used in the treatment of several inflammatory diseases. However, little research has focused on the pharmacological effect of lentinan in human OA.

Materials and Methods

We evaluated the anti-inflammatory and anti-ROS effects of lentinan in SW1353 chondrocytes treated with AGEs using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the nitro oxide-specific stain DAF-FM DA. The regulatory effects of lentinan on NF-κB and MAPK p38 signaling were investigated via promoter assay and Western blot analysis.

Results

We found that lentinan inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-8 and the secretion of PGE₂ and NO, by reducing the expression of COX-2 and iNOS in AGE-challenged chondrocytes. Lentinan also reduces AGE-induced increased expression of matrix metalloproteinases-1, −3, and −13 (MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-13). Furthermore, lentinan has a similar effect on a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs-4 and −5 (ADAMTS-4, ADAMTS-5). Mechanistically, lentinan reduces the activation of NF-κB.

Conclusion

Our findings indicate that lentinan shows a protective effect against AGE-induced inflammatory response in chondrocytes. These findings suggest that lentinan is a promising agent for the treatment of OA that could be used as a dietary supplement for patients with OA.

Effects of Lentinan on Endothelial Cell Activity, Inflammatory Response, Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress, and Apoptosis in Sepsis

The aim of this study is to explore the protective effects of lentinan on endoplasmic reticulum stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in sepsis endothelial cells. Firstly, lentinan was extracted, purified, and analyzed. When the concentration of lentinan was in the range of 0.04–4 μM, there was no obvious effect on the morphology of HUVECs. When the concentration reached 10 M, the cells were obviously contracted and necrotic. CCK-8 cell activity experiment showed that when the concentration of lentinan reached 4 μM, the cell activity decreased significantly (P<0.001), and it was in a dose-dependent manner. Then, the cells were divided into the control group (0 μM lentinan), sepsis group, sepsis + lentinan 1.2 μM group, and sepsis + lentinan 2 μM group. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay showed that lentinan could significantly reduce the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in sepsis endothelial cells (P<0.001). In addition, flow cytometry and TUNEL staining showed that compared with the control group, the apoptosis of cells in the sepsis group increased significantly (P<0.001), and lentinan could inhibit apoptosis (P<0.001). In terms of mechanism research, the mRNA and protein expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related protein in endothelial cells were detected by real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR (qPCR) and Western blotting, respectively. It was found that the expression of SIRT1, the upstream factors of endoplasmic reticulum stress in sepsis cells, was obviously inhibited (P<0.001), and the expression of CHOP, GRP78, IRE1α, and ATF6 was significantly increased (P<0.001), However, the pretreatment of lentinan could significantly reverse the above changes (P<0.001). Besides, lentinan could also reduce the expression of phosphorylated p65 protein (the activation marker of NF-κb) and iNOS. Conclusion. When sepsis occurs, lentinan can protect endothelial cells from ERS inflammation and apoptosis induced by sepsis. Thus, lentinan is expected to be a new target for the treatment of sepsis-induced endothelial damage.

BuPiHeWei Decoction Ameliorates 5-Fu-Induced Intestinal Mucosal Injury in the Rats by Regulating the TLR-4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

BuPiHeWei (BPHW) decoction, a classic Traditional Chinese Medicinal (TCM) prescription, has been widely used in clinical practice to relieve digestive symptoms caused by chemotherapy, such as diarrhea and vomiting. The present study aimed to investigate whether BPHW decoction exerted a protective role in the 5-Fu-induced intestinal mucosal injury in the rats by regulating the mechanisms of TLR-4/NF-κB signaling pathway. There were 35 Sprague Dawley rats randomly divided into four groups: normal control group, 5-Fu group, 5-Fu + BPHW decoction group (10.5 g/kg, for five continuous days), and 5-Fu + Bacillus licheniformis capsule group (0.2 g/kg, for five continuous days). Animal models were established by intraperitoneal injection of 5-Fu (30 mg/Kg, for five consecutive days). At the end of the treatment period, body weight, diarrhea score, and histological examination were examined. Furthermore, the expression of TLR-4/NF-κB pathway was detected to reveal its mechanism. The results showed that BPHW decoction effectively reduced diarrhea score and increased body weight and height of villi after 5-Fu chemotherapy. In addition, BPHW decoction could significantly inhibit the expression of TLR-4, NF-κB, and inflammatory factors (including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) in the intestine, and the efficacy was significantly higher than that of Bacillus licheniformis capsule. In summary, BPHW decoction might be considered an effective drug to alleviate intestinal mucosal injury in the rats induced by 5-Fu.

Therapeutic effects of lentinan on inflammatory bowel disease and colitis-associated cancer

In this study, we investigated the therapeutic potential of lentinan in mouse models of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colitis-associated cancer (CAC). Lentinan decreased the disease activity index and macroscopic and microscopic colon tissue damage in dextran sulphate sodium (DSS)-induced or TNBS-induced models of colitis. High-dose lentinan was more effective than salicylazosulfapyridine in the mouse models of colitis. Lentinan decreased the number of tumours, inflammatory cell infiltration, atypical hyperplasia and nuclear atypia in azoxymethane/DSS-induced CAC model. It also decreased the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-13 and CD30L, in IBD and CAC model mice possibly by inhibiting Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/NF-κB signalling and the expression of colon cancer markers, such as carcinoembryonic antigen, cytokeratin 8, CK18 and p53, in CAC model mice. In addition, lentinan restored the intestinal bacterial microbiotal community structure in IBD model mice. Thus, it shows therapeutic potential in IBD and CAC model mice possibly by inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB signalling-mediated inflammatory responses and disruption of the intestinal microbiotal structure.

Ginseng berry polysaccharides on inflammation-associated colon cancer: inhibiting T-cell differentiation, promoting apoptosis, and enhancing the effects of 5-fluorouracil

Background

Ginseng is a commonly used herbal medicine in treating various medical conditions. Chronic gut inflammation is a recognized factor for the development of colorectal cancer (CRC). In this project, Asian ginseng berry polysaccharide preparations were used to assess their effects on CRC and related immune regulation mechanisms.

Methods

Ginseng berry polysaccharide extract (GBPE) and purified ginseng berry polysaccharide portion (GBPP) were used to evaluate their activities on human HCT-116 and HT-29 CRC cell proliferation. Interleukin-8 secretion analysis was performed on HT-29 cells. Naive CD4 cell isolation and T-helper cell differentiation were performed and determined using flow cytometry for Th1 and Treg in addition to cell cycle and apoptotic investigation.

Results

GBPE and GBPP significantly inhibited interleukin-8 secretion and cancer cell proliferation, inhibited CD4⁺IFN-γ⁺ cell (Th1) differentiation, and decreased CD4⁺FoxP3⁺ cell (Treg) differentiation. Compared to the GBPE, GBPP showed more potent antiinflammatory activities on the malignant cells. This is consistent with the observation that GBPP can also inhibit Th1-cell differentiation better, suggesting that it has an important role in antiinflammation, whereas Treg cells hinder the body's immune response against malignancies. Supported by cell cycle and apoptosis data, GBPE and GBPP, at various degrees, remarkably enhanced the anticancer activities of 5-fluorouracil.

Conclusion

Data from this project suggested that Asian ginseng berry potentially has clinical utility in managing enteric inflammation and suppressing CRC through immunomodulation mechanisms.

Lentinan modulates intestinal microbiota and enhances barrier integrity in a piglet model challenged with lipopolysaccharide

The protective effects of lentinan may be associated with inhibition of inflammation, production of SCFAs, and alterations of microbiota composition.

Cinnamon subcritical water extract attenuates intestinal inflammation and enhances intestinal tight junction in a Caco-2 and RAW264.7 co-culture model

Cinnamon is known to have several physiological effects; the effects of Cinnamomum japonicum Sieb. on anti-inflammation and tight junctions were investigated using the cellular intestinal inflammation model.

Synthesis and Evaluation of 1,5-Dithia-d-laminaribiose, Triose, and Tetraose as Truncated β-(1→3)-Glucan Mimetics

The preparation and characterization of a series of di-, tri-, and tetrasaccharide analogues of β-(1→3)-glucans is described in which each pyranoside ring is replaced by a 5-thiopyranosyl ring and each glycosidic oxygen by a thioether. These oligomeric 1,5-dithio-d-glucopyranose derivatives were shown to inhibit the staining of human neutrophils and of mouse macrophages by fluorescent anti-CR3 and anti-Dectin-1 antibodies, respectively. The compounds were also demonstrated to stimulate phagocytosis and pinocytosis indicative of binding to the carbohydrate binding domains of complement receptor 3 (CR3) and Dectin-1. Activity in all three assays was optimum at the level of the trisaccharide mimic, suggesting that, while the replacement of ethereal oxygens by thioethers results in a greater affinity for the aromatic lined hydrophobic binding pockets, the presence of multiple longer C-S bonds eventually results in a mismatch and a loss of affinity.

Analysis of Interleukin 8 Secretion by a Stem-Cell-Derived Human-Intestinal-Epithelial-Monolayer Platform

In vitro models of the human intestinal epithelium derived from primary stem cells are much needed for the study of intestinal immunology in health and disease. Here, we describe an intestinal monolayer cultured on a porous membrane with accessible basal and apical surfaces for assay of intestinal cytokine production in response to stimuli. The system was composed of a differentiated, confluent epithelial monolayer derived from human primary stem cells obtained from small or large intestine. Interleukin 8 (IL-8) and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) were the most abundant inflammatory cytokines produced by the intestinal epithelium. The epithelium from all five tested regions of the intestine preferentially secreted into the apical reservoir of the monolayer, with a 26-fold greater concentration of IL-8 present in the apical reservoir of the colonic monolayer relative to that in the basal reservoir. Upon application of tumor-necrosis factor α (TNF-α) to the basal surface of the colonic monolayer, the IL-8 concentration significantly increased in the basal, but not the apical, reservoir. A dose-dependent elevation of IL-8 in the basal reservoir was observed for TNF-α-stimulation of the monolayer but not for an organoid-based platform. To demonstrate the utility of the monolayer system, 88 types of dietary metabolites or compounds were screened for their ability to modulate IL-8 production in the basal reservoir of the intestinal monolayer in the absence or presence of TNF-α. No dietary metabolite or compound caused an increase in IL-8 in the basal reservoir in the absence of TNF-α. After addition of TNF-α to the monolayer, two compounds (butyrate and gallic acid) suppressed IL-8 production, suggesting their potential anti-inflammatory effects, whereas the dietary factor forskolin significantly increased IL-8 production. These results demonstrate that the described human-intestinal-monolayer platform has the potential for assays and screening of metabolites and compounds that alter the inflammatory response of the intestine.

Protective effects of lentinan on lipopolysaccharide induced inflammatory response in intestine of juvenile taimen (Hucho taimen, Pallas)

Antioxidant effects of lentinan on LPS induced inflammatory response in intestine of juvenile taimen were evaluated, and its prebiotic-like efficacy on intestinal microbiota was also investigated. The results showed that LPS decreased the activities of antioxidant enzymes and increased the expression levels of inflammatory cytokines in intestine of juvenile taimen. Dietary lentinan significantly enhanced intestinal antioxidant ability by increasing the activities of SOD, GSH-Px and CAT, and inhibiting the lipid peroxidation in juvenile taimen. Appropriate lentinan prevented the increases in the expression levels of TGF-β, TNF-α, IL1β, IL6 and IL8 and ensured the relatively high expression levels of claudin d, SOD, CAT and IκBα after LPS challenge. Furthermore, dietary lentinan effectively modified intestinal microbiota, represented by increasing the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillaceae, Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae, and decreasing those of detrimental bacteria such as Enterobacteriaceae, Fusobacteriaceae and Flavobacteriaceae. Taken together, dietary lentinan availably decreased LPS induced inflammatory response, indicating that lentinan has the potential anti-inflammatory effects for preventing inflammation diseases in cold-water fish.

Lentinan as an immunotherapeutic for treating lung cancer: a review of 12 years clinical studies in China

PURPOSE

Lentinan is a polysaccharide extracted from Shiitake mushrooms that have been used to improve general health for thousands of years in Asia. Lentinan injection is a clinically approved drug in several countries in Asia. The purpose of this study is to review the structure, preclinical and clinical studies, and molecular mechanisms of lentinan. Most importantly, the clinical effectiveness of lentinan as an adjuvant therapeutic drug in treating patients with lung cancer in China during the past 12 years is analyzed statistically.

METHODS

We carried out literature search of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) published from 2004 to 2016 based on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure), VIP (Chongqing VIP Chinese Scientific Journals Database) and Wanfang database, and 38 eligible RCTs of lentinan-associated lung cancer treatment were identified, containing 3,117 patients.

RESULTS

The structure and function relationship and underlying molecular mechanism of lentinan as an immunostimulant has been summarized. The mean value of overall response rate in treating lung cancer was increased from 43.3% of chemotherapy alone to 56.9% of lentinan plus chemotherapy [p < 0.001, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.102-0.170]. Compared with chemotherapy alone, lentinan plus chemotherapy showed more efficacy in treating lung cancer (pooled RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.74-0.85) and no statistical heterogeneity was found among studies (I² = 11%).

CONCLUSION

Clinical data presented in the past 12 years shows that lentinan is effective not only in improving quality of life, but also in promoting the efficacy of chemotherapy during lung cancer treatment.

Protective effect of Tremella fuciformis Berk extract on LPS-induced acute inflammation via inhibition of the NF-κB and MAPK pathways

Tremella fuciformis Berk (TFB) has long been used as a traditional medicine in Asia. Although TFB exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, the mechanisms of action responsible have remained unknown. We confirmed the anti-inflammatory effects of Tremella fuciformis Berk extract (TFE) in RAW 264.7 cells and observed significantly suppressed LPS-induced iNOS/NO and COX-2/PGE2 production. TFE also suppressed LPS-induced IKK, IkB, and p65 phosphorylation, as well as LPS-induced translocation of p65 from the cytosol. Additionally, TFE inhibited LPS-induced phosphorylation of MAPKs. In an acute inflammation study, oral administration of TFE significantly inhibited LPS-induced IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α production and iNOS and COX-2 expression. The major bioactive compounds from TFB extract were identified as gentisic acid, protocatechuic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, and coumaric acid. Among these compounds, protocatechuic acid showed the strongest inhibitory effects on LPS-induced NO production in RAW 264.7 cells. Overall, these results suggest that TFE is a promising anti-inflammatory agent that suppresses iNOS/NO and COX-2/PGE2 expression, as well as the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

Saccharum Alhagi polysaccharide-1 and -2 promote the immunocompetence of RAW264.7 macrophages in vitro

The in vitro immune activities of Saccharum Alhagi polysaccharides (SAP) have been previously studied. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of SAP-1 and SAP-2 on the activity of RAW264.7 mouse macrophages. RAW264.7 cells were treated with 150, 300 and 600 mg/l concentrations of SAP-1 (a 50% alcohol precipitation) and SAP-2 (an 80% alcohol precipitation) or with 10 mg/l lipopolysaccharide. Untreated cells were used as a negative control. An MTT assay was used to detect the proliferation of the cells, and Hoechst 33528 staining was conducted in order to visualize the cell nuclei. Additionally, the Griess method was used to measure nitric oxide (NO) levels. A neutral red uptake assay was performed to determine the phagocytic activity of the macrophages, and ELISAs were performed to detect cytokine levels. Furthermore, reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to measure the mRNA expression of certain cytokines. The results demonstrated that SAP increased the proliferative activity and activated the immune function of RAW264.7 cells, and was lacking in cytotoxicity. In addition, SAP-1 exhibited a stronger effect in promoting RAW264.7 cell proliferation than did SAP-2. Furthermore, SAP-1 and SAP-2 significantly increased the level of NO, with the effect of SAP-1 being stronger than that of SAP-2. SAP-1 increased the phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 cells and promoted the secretion of the cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α by RAW264.7 cells, with an effect that was stronger than that of SAP-2. Finally, different concentrations of SAP-1 or SAP-2 had distinct effects in upregulating the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, nuclear factor-κB and inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA. The results of the present study demonstrate that SAP is capable of enhancing the immune activity of mouse macrophages.