1
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Roman KM, Dinasarapu AR, Cherian S, Fan X, Donsante Y, Aravind N, Chan CS, Jinnah H, Hess EJ. Striatal cell-type-specific molecular signatures reveal therapeutic targets in a model of dystonia. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.10.07.617010. [PMID: 39415987 PMCID: PMC11482807 DOI: 10.1101/2024.10.07.617010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2024]
Abstract
Striatal dysfunction is implicated in many forms of dystonia, including idiopathic, inherited and iatrogenic dystonias. The striatum is comprised largely of GABAergic spiny projection neurons (SPNs) that are defined by their long-range efferents. Direct SPNs (dSPNs) project to the internal globus pallidus/substantia nigra reticulata whereas indirect pathway SPNs (iSPNs) project to the external pallidum; the concerted activity of both SPN subtypes modulates movement. Convergent results from genetic, imaging and physiological studies in patients suggest that abnormalities of both dSPNs and iSPNs contribute to the expression of dystonia, but the molecular adaptations underlying these abnormalities are not known. Here we provide a comprehensive analysis of SPN cell-type-specific molecular signatures in a model of DOPA-responsive dystonia (DRD mice), which is caused by gene defects that reduce dopamine neurotransmission, resulting in dystonia that is specifically associated with striatal dysfunction. Individually profiling the translatome of dSPNs and iSPNs using translating ribosome affinity purification with RNA-seq revealed hundreds of differentially translating mRNAs in each SPN subtype in DRD mice, yet there was little overlap between the dysregulated genes in dSPNs and iSPNs. Despite the paucity of shared adaptations, a disruption in glutamatergic signaling was predicted for both dSPNs and iSPNs. Indeed, we found that both AMPA and NMDA receptor-mediated currents were enhanced in dSPNs but diminished in iSPNs in DRD mice. The pattern of mRNA dysregulation was specific to dystonia as the adaptations in DRD mice were distinct from those in parkinsonian mice where the dopamine deficit occurs in adults, suggesting that the phenotypic outcome is dependent on both the timing of the dopaminergic deficit and the SPN-specific adaptions. We leveraged the unique molecular signatures of dSPNs and iSPNs in DRD mice to identify biochemical mechanisms that may be targets for therapeutics, including LRRK2 inhibition. Administration of the LRRK2 inhibitor MLi-2 ameliorated the dystonia in DRD mice suggesting a novel target for therapeutics and demonstrating that the delineation of cell-type-specific molecular signatures provides a powerful approach to revealing both CNS dysfunction and therapeutic targets in dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn M. Roman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Suraj Cherian
- Department of Neuroscience, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Xueliang Fan
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yuping Donsante
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Nivetha Aravind
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - C. Savio Chan
- Department of Neuroscience, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - H.A. Jinnah
- Department of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Ellen J. Hess
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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2
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Guevara CA, Alloo K, Gupta S, Thomas R, del Valle P, Magee AR, Benson DL, Huntley GW. Parkinson's LRRK2-G2019S risk gene mutation drives sex-specific behavioral and cellular adaptations to chronic variable stress. Front Behav Neurosci 2024; 18:1445184. [PMID: 39328984 PMCID: PMC11425082 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1445184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 08/27/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Anxiety is a psychiatric non-motor symptom of Parkinson's that can appear in the prodromal period, prior to significant loss of midbrain dopamine neurons and motor symptoms. Parkinson's-related anxiety affects females more than males, despite the greater prevalence of Parkinson's in males. How stress, anxiety and Parkinson's are related and the basis for a sex-specific impact of stress in Parkinson's are not clear. We addressed this using young adult male and female mice carrying a G2019S knockin mutation of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (Lrrk2 G2019S) and Lrrk2 WT control mice. In humans, LRRK2 G2019S significantly elevates the risk of late-onset Parkinson's. To assess within-sex differences between Lrrk2 G2019S and control mice in stress-induced anxiety-like behaviors in young adulthood, we used a within-subject design whereby Lrrk2 G2019S and Lrrk2 WT control mice underwent tests of anxiety-like behaviors before (baseline) and following a 28 day (d) variable stress paradigm. There were no differences in behavioral measures between genotypes in males or females at baseline, indicating that the mutation alone does not produce anxiety-like responses. Following chronic stress, male Lrrk2 G2019S mice were affected similarly to male wildtypes except for novelty-suppressed feeding, where stress had no impact on Lrrk2 G2019S mice while significantly increasing latency to feed in Lrrk2 WT control mice. Female Lrrk2 G2019S mice were impacted by chronic stress similarly to wildtype females across all behavioral measures. Subsequent post-stress analyses compared cFos immunolabeling-based cellular activity patterns across several stress-relevant brain regions. The density of cFos-activated neurons across brain regions in both male and female Lrrk2 G2019S mice was generally lower compared to stressed Lrrk2 WT mice, except for the nucleus accumbens of male Lrrk2 G2019S mice, where cFos-labeled cell density was significantly higher than all other groups. Together, these data suggest that the Lrrk2 G2019S mutation differentially impacts anxiety-like behavioral responses to chronic stress in males and females that may reflect sex-specific adaptations observed in circuit activation patterns in some, but not all stress-related brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A. Guevara
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, United States
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Kumayl Alloo
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Swati Gupta
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Romario Thomas
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Pamela del Valle
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, United States
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Alexandra R. Magee
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, United States
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Deanna L. Benson
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, United States
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - George W. Huntley
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, United States
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
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3
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Weindel CG, Ellzey LM, Coleman AK, Patrick KL, Watson RO. LRRK2 kinase activity restricts NRF2-dependent mitochondrial protection in microglia. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.09.602769. [PMID: 39026883 PMCID: PMC11257505 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.09.602769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Mounting evidence supports a critical role for central nervous system (CNS) glial cells in neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's Disease (PD), Multiple Sclerosis (MS), as well as neurovascular ischemic stroke. Previously, we found that loss of the PD-associated gene leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (Lrrk2) in macrophages, peripheral innate immune cells, induced mitochondrial stress and elevated basal expression of type I interferon (IFN) stimulated genes (ISGs) due to chronic mitochondrial DNA engagement with the cGAS/STING DNA sensing pathway. Here, we report that loss of LRRK2 results in a paradoxical response in microglial cells, a CNS-specific macrophage population. In primary murine microglia and microglial cell lines, loss of Lrrk2 reduces tonic IFN signaling leading to a reduction in ISG expression. Consistent with reduced type I IFN, mitochondria from Lrrk2 KO microglia are protected from stress and have elevated metabolism. These protective phenotypes involve upregulation of NRF2, an important transcription factor in the response to oxidative stress and are restricted by LRRK2 kinase activity. Collectively, these findings illustrate a dichotomous role for LRRK2 within different immune cell populations and give insight into the fundamental differences between immune regulation in the CNS and the periphery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi G Weindel
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M School of Medicine, TX, 77807, USA
| | - Lily M Ellzey
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M School of Medicine, TX, 77807, USA
| | - Aja K Coleman
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M School of Medicine, TX, 77807, USA
| | - Kristin L Patrick
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M School of Medicine, TX, 77807, USA
| | - Robert O Watson
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M School of Medicine, TX, 77807, USA
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4
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Guevara CA, Alloo K, Gupta S, Thomas R, Del Valle P, Magee AR, Benson DL, Huntley GW. Parkinson's LRRK2-G2019S risk gene mutation drives sex-specific behavioral and cellular adaptations to chronic variable stress. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.06.05.597647. [PMID: 38895277 PMCID: PMC11185622 DOI: 10.1101/2024.06.05.597647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Anxiety is a psychiatric non-motor symptom of Parkinson's that can appear in the prodromal period, prior to significant loss of brainstem dopamine neurons and motor symptoms. Parkinson's-related anxiety affects females more than males, despite the greater prevalence of Parkinson's in males. How stress, anxiety and Parkinson's are related and the basis for a sex-specific impact of stress in Parkinson's are not clear. We addressed this using young adult male and female mice carrying a G2019S knockin mutation of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 ( Lrrk2 G2019S ) and Lrrk2 WT control mice. In humans, LRRK2 G2019S significantly elevates the risk of late-onset Parkinson's. To assess within-sex differences between Lrrk2 G2019S and control mice in stress-induced anxiety-like behaviors in young adulthood, we used a within-subject design whereby Lrrk2 G2019S and Lrrk2 WT control mice underwent tests of anxiety-like behaviors before (baseline) and following a 28 day (d) variable stress paradigm. There were no differences in behavioral measures between genotypes in males or females at baseline, indicating that the mutation alone does not produce anxiety-like responses. Following chronic stress, male Lrrk2 G2019S mice were affected similarly to male wildtypes except for novelty-suppressed feeding, where stress had no impact on Lrrk2 G2019S mice while significantly increasing latency to feed in Lrrk2 WT control mice. Female Lrrk2 G2019S mice were impacted by chronic stress similarly to wildtype females across all behavioral measures. Subsequent post-stress analyses compared cFos immunolabeling-based cellular activity patterns across several stress-relevant brain regions. The density of cFos-activated neurons across brain regions in both male and female Lrrk2 G2019S mice was generally lower compared to stressed Lrrk2 WT mice, except for the nucleus accumbens of male Lrrk2 G2019S mice, where cFos-labeled cell density was significantly higher than all other groups. Together, these data suggest that the Lrrk2 G2019S mutation differentially impacts anxiety-like behavioral responses to chronic stress in males and females that may reflect sex-specific adaptations observed in circuit activation patterns in stress-related brain regions.
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5
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Khandelwal N, Kulkarni A, Ahmed NI, Harper M, Konopka G, Gibson JR. FOXP1 regulates the development of excitatory synaptic inputs onto striatal neurons and induces phenotypic reversal with reinstatement. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadm7039. [PMID: 38701209 PMCID: PMC11068015 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adm7039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Long-range glutamatergic inputs originating from the cortex and thalamus are indispensable for striatal development, providing the foundation for motor and cognitive functions. Despite their significance, transcriptional regulation governing these inputs remains largely unknown. We investigated the role of a transcription factor encoded by a high-risk autism-associated gene, FOXP1, in sculpting glutamatergic inputs onto spiny projection neurons (SPNs) within the striatum. We find a neuron subtype-specific role of FOXP1 in strengthening and maturing glutamatergic inputs onto dopamine receptor 2-expressing SPNs (D2 SPNs). We also find that FOXP1 promotes synaptically driven excitability in these neurons. Using single-nuclei RNA sequencing, we identify candidate genes that mediate these cell-autonomous processes through postnatal FOXP1 function at the post-synapse. Last, we demonstrate that postnatal FOXP1 reinstatement rescues electrophysiological deficits, cell type-specific gene expression changes, and behavioral phenotypes. Together, this study enhances our understanding of striatal circuit development and provides proof of concept for a therapeutic approach for FOXP1 syndrome and other neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitin Khandelwal
- Department of Neuroscience and Peter O’Donnell Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Ashwinikumar Kulkarni
- Department of Neuroscience and Peter O’Donnell Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Newaz I. Ahmed
- Department of Neuroscience and Peter O’Donnell Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Matthew Harper
- Department of Neuroscience and Peter O’Donnell Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
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6
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Chen Z, Chen J, Mori W, Yi Y, Rong J, Li Y, Leon ERC, Shao T, Song Z, Yamasaki T, Ishii H, Zhang Y, Kokufuta T, Hu K, Xie L, Josephson L, Van R, Shao Y, Factor S, Zhang MR, Liang SH. Preclinical Evaluation of Novel Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Probes for Imaging Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2). J Med Chem 2024; 67:2559-2569. [PMID: 38305157 PMCID: PMC10895652 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most highly debilitating neurodegenerative disorders, which affects millions of people worldwide, and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mutations have been involved in the pathogenesis of PD. Developing a potent LRRK2 positron emission tomography (PET) tracer would allow for in vivo visualization of LRRK2 distribution and expression in PD patients. In this work, we present the facile synthesis of two potent and selective LRRK2 radioligands [11C]3 ([11C]PF-06447475) and [18F]4 ([18F]PF-06455943). Both radioligands exhibited favorable brain uptake and specific bindings in rodent autoradiography and PET imaging studies. More importantly, [18F]4 demonstrated significantly higher brain uptake in the transgenic LRRK2-G2019S mutant and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-injected mouse models. This work may serve as a roadmap for the future design of potent LRRK2 PET tracers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Chen
- Jiangsu
Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest
Resources, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab for the Chemistry and Utilization
of Agro-Forest Biomass, Jiangsu Key Lab of Biomass-Based Green Fuels
and Chemicals, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals
and Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210037, China
- Division
of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital
& Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical
School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Jiahui Chen
- Department
of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory
University, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
- Division
of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital
& Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical
School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Wakana Mori
- Department
of Radiopharmaceuticals Development, National Institute of Radiological
Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum
and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Yongjia Yi
- Jiangsu
Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest
Resources, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab for the Chemistry and Utilization
of Agro-Forest Biomass, Jiangsu Key Lab of Biomass-Based Green Fuels
and Chemicals, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals
and Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210037, China
| | - Jian Rong
- Department
of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory
University, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
- Division
of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital
& Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical
School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Yinlong Li
- Department
of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory
University, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
- Division
of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital
& Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical
School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Erick R. Calderon Leon
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Tuo Shao
- Division
of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital
& Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical
School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Zhendong Song
- Department
of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory
University, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Tomoteru Yamasaki
- Department
of Radiopharmaceuticals Development, National Institute of Radiological
Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum
and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Hideki Ishii
- Department
of Radiopharmaceuticals Development, National Institute of Radiological
Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum
and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Yiding Zhang
- Department
of Radiopharmaceuticals Development, National Institute of Radiological
Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum
and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Tomomi Kokufuta
- Department
of Radiopharmaceuticals Development, National Institute of Radiological
Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum
and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Kuan Hu
- Department
of Radiopharmaceuticals Development, National Institute of Radiological
Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum
and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Lin Xie
- Department
of Radiopharmaceuticals Development, National Institute of Radiological
Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum
and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Lee Josephson
- Division
of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital
& Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical
School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Richard Van
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Yihan Shao
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Stewart Factor
- Jean and
Paul Amos Parkinson’s Disease and Movement Disorder Program,
Department of Neurology, Emory University
School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Ming-Rong Zhang
- Department
of Radiopharmaceuticals Development, National Institute of Radiological
Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum
and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Steven H. Liang
- Department
of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory
University, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
- Division
of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital
& Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical
School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
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7
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Bailey HM, Cookson MR. How Parkinson's Disease-Linked LRRK2 Mutations Affect Different CNS Cell Types. JOURNAL OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2024; 14:1331-1352. [PMID: 38905056 PMCID: PMC11492021 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-230432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
LRRK2 is a relatively common genetic risk factor for Parkinson's disease (PD), with six coding variants known to cause familial PD. Non-coding variation at the same locus is also associated with sporadic PD. LRRK2 plays a role in many different intracellular signaling cascades including those involved in endolysosomal function, cytoskeletal dynamics, and Ca2+ homeostasis. PD-causing LRRK2 mutations cause hyperactive LRRK2 kinase activity, resulting in altered cellular signaling. Importantly, LRRK2 is lowly expressed in neurons and prominently expressed in non-neuronal cells in the brain. In this review, we will summarize recent and novel findings on the effects of PD-causing LRRK2 mutations in different nervous system cell types. This review will also provide novel insight into future areas of research at the intersection of LRRK2 cell biology, cell type specificity, and PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M. Bailey
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mark R. Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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8
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Yao XY, Guan LN, Chen Q, Ren C. LRRK2 G2019S and Parkinson's disease: insight from Neuroinflammation. Postgrad Med J 2023; 100:4-11. [PMID: 37777187 DOI: 10.1093/postmj/qgad080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
The multiple hypothesis holds that the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) requires many factors such as heredity, environment and ageing. Mutations in Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are recognized the risk factors of PD, and closely related to sporadic and familial PD and can regulate a variety of cellular pathways and processes. An Increasing number of studies has shown that glial hyperactivation-mediated neuroinflammation participates in dopaminergic neuron degeneration and pathogenesis of PD. LRRK2 is essential to the regulaton of chronic inflammation, especially for the central nervous system. The review spotlights on the novel development of LRRK2 on microglia and astrocytes, and explore their potential therapeutic targets, in order to provide a new insights in PD. Key messages: What is already known on this topic The G2019S mutation of LRRK2 is now recognised as a pathogenic mutation in PD. Previous studies have focused on the relationship between neurons and LRRK2 G2019S. What this study adds Neuroinflammation mediated by LRRK2 G2019S of glial cells affects the progress and development of PD and attention must be paid to the role of LRRK2 G2019S in glial cells in PD. How this study might affect research, practice or policy Developing anti-inflammatory drugs from the perspective of LRRK2 G2019S of glial cells is a new direction for the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Yan Yao
- Department of Neurology, Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital, Qingdao University, Yantai, 264000, China
| | - Li-Na Guan
- Department of Neurosurgical Intensive Care Unit, Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital, Qingdao University, Yantai, 264000, China
| | - Qi Chen
- Department of Neurology, Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital, Qingdao University, Yantai, 264000, China
| | - Chao Ren
- Department of Neurology, Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital, Qingdao University, Yantai, 264000, China
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital, Qingdao University, Yantai, 264000, China
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9
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Khandelwal N, Kulkarni A, Ahmed NI, Harper M, Konopka G, Gibson J. FOXP1 regulates the development of excitatory synaptic inputs onto striatal neurons and induces phenotypic reversal with reinstatement. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.23.563675. [PMID: 37961477 PMCID: PMC10634768 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.23.563675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Long-range glutamatergic inputs from the cortex and thalamus are critical for motor and cognitive processing in the striatum. Transcription factors that orchestrate the development of these inputs are largely unknown. We investigated the role of a transcription factor and high-risk autism-associated gene, FOXP1, in the development of glutamatergic inputs onto spiny projection neurons (SPNs) in the striatum. We find that FOXP1 robustly drives the strengthening and maturation of glutamatergic input onto dopamine receptor 2-expressing SPNs (D2 SPNs) but has a comparatively milder effect on D1 SPNs. This process is cell-autonomous and is likely mediated through postnatal FOXP1 function at the postsynapse. We identified postsynaptic FOXP1-regulated transcripts as potential candidates for mediating these effects. Postnatal reinstatement of FOXP1 rescues electrophysiological deficits, reverses gene expression alterations resulting from embryonic deletion, and mitigates behavioral phenotypes. These results provide support for a possible therapeutic approach for individuals with FOXP1 syndrome.
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10
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Necarsulmer JC, Simon JM, Evangelista BA, Chen Y, Tian X, Nafees S, Marquez AB, Jiang H, Wang P, Ajit D, Nikolova VD, Harper KM, Ezzell JA, Lin FC, Beltran AS, Moy SS, Cohen TJ. RNA-binding deficient TDP-43 drives cognitive decline in a mouse model of TDP-43 proteinopathy. eLife 2023; 12:RP85921. [PMID: 37819053 PMCID: PMC10567115 DOI: 10.7554/elife.85921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
TDP-43 proteinopathies including frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are neurodegenerative disorders characterized by aggregation and mislocalization of the nucleic acid-binding protein TDP-43 and subsequent neuronal dysfunction. Here, we developed endogenous models of sporadic TDP-43 proteinopathy based on the principle that disease-associated TDP-43 acetylation at lysine 145 (K145) alters TDP-43 conformation, impairs RNA-binding capacity, and induces downstream mis-regulation of target genes. Expression of acetylation-mimic TDP-43K145Q resulted in stress-induced nuclear TDP-43 foci and loss of TDP-43 function in primary mouse and human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived cortical neurons. Mice harboring the TDP-43K145Q mutation recapitulated key hallmarks of FTLD, including progressive TDP-43 phosphorylation and insolubility, TDP-43 mis-localization, transcriptomic and splicing alterations, and cognitive dysfunction. Our study supports a model in which TDP-43 acetylation drives neuronal dysfunction and cognitive decline through aberrant splicing and transcription of critical genes that regulate synaptic plasticity and stress response signaling. The neurodegenerative cascade initiated by TDP-43 acetylation recapitulates many aspects of human FTLD and provides a new paradigm to further interrogate TDP-43 proteinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie C Necarsulmer
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Neurology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Jeremy M Simon
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Genetics, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Baggio A Evangelista
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Neurology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Youjun Chen
- Department of Neurology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Xu Tian
- Department of Neurology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Sara Nafees
- Department of Neurology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Ariana B Marquez
- Human Pluripotent Stem Cell Core, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Huijun Jiang
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Ping Wang
- Department of Neurology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Deepa Ajit
- Department of Neurology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Viktoriya D Nikolova
- Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Kathryn M Harper
- Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - J Ashley Ezzell
- Department of Cell Biology & Physiology, Histology Research Core Facility, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Feng-Chang Lin
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Adriana S Beltran
- Department of Genetics, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Human Pluripotent Stem Cell Core, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Sheryl S Moy
- Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
| | - Todd J Cohen
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Neurology, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North CarolinaChapel HillUnited States
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11
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Hussein A, Tielemans A, Baxter MG, Benson DL, Huntley GW. Cognitive deficits and altered cholinergic innervation in young adult male mice carrying a Parkinson's disease Lrrk2 G2019S knockin mutation. Exp Neurol 2022; 355:114145. [PMID: 35732218 PMCID: PMC9338764 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Impaired executive function is a common and debilitating non-motor symptom of idiopathic and hereditary Parkinson's disease (PD), but there is little understanding of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and circuits. The G2019S mutation in the kinase domain of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) greatly increases risk for late-onset PD, and non-manifesting LRRK2G2019S carriers can also exhibit early and significant cognitive impairment. Here, we subjected young adult male mice carrying a Lrrk2G2019S knockin mutation to touchscreen-based operant tasks that measure attention, goal-directed learning and cognitive flexibility, all of which rely on frontal-striatal connectivity and are strongly modulated by cholinergic innervation. In a visuospatial attention task, mutant mice exhibited significantly more omissions and longer response latencies than controls that could not be attributed to deficits in motivation, visual sensory perception per se or locomotion, thereby suggesting impairments in divided attention and/or action-selection as well as generally slower information processing speed. Pretreating mice with the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor donepezil normalized both higher omission rates and longer response latencies in the mutants, but did not affect any performance metric in controls. Strikingly, cholinergic fiber density in cortical areas PL/IL and DMS (dorsomedial striatum) was significantly sparser in mutants than in controls, while further behavioral interrogation of the mutants revealed significant impairments in action-outcome associations but preserved cognitive flexibility. These data suggest that the Lrrk2G2019S mutation negatively impacts cholinergic innervation anatomically and functionally by young adulthood, impairing corticostriatal network function in ways that may contribute to early PD-associated executive function deficits.
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12
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Cogo S, Ho FY, Tosoni E, Tomkins JE, Tessari I, Iannotta L, Montine TJ, Manzoni C, Lewis PA, Bubacco L, Chartier Harlin MC, Taymans JM, Kortholt A, Nichols J, Cendron L, Civiero L, Greggio E. The Roc domain of LRRK2 as a hub for protein-protein interactions: a focus on PAK6 and its impact on RAB phosphorylation. Brain Res 2022; 1778:147781. [PMID: 35016853 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2022.147781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has taken center stage in Parkinson's disease (PD) research as mutations cause familial PD and more common variants increase lifetime risk for disease. One unique feature in LRRK2 is the coexistence of GTPase/Roc (Ras of complex) and kinase catalytic functions, bridged by a COR (C-terminal Of Roc) platform for dimerization. Multiple PD mutations are located within the Roc/GTPase domain and concomitantly lead to defective GTPase activity and augmented kinase activity in cells, supporting a crosstalk between GTPase and kinase domains. In addition, biochemical and structural data highlight the importance of Roc as a molecular switch modulating LRRK2 monomer-to-dimer equilibrium and building the interface for interaction with binding partners. Here we review the effects of PD Roc mutations on LRRK2 function and discuss the importance of Roc as a hub for multiple molecular interactions relevant for the regulation of cytoskeletal dynamics and intracellular trafficking pathways. Among the well-characterized Roc interactors, we focused on the cytoskeletal-related kinase p21-activated kinase 6 (PAK6). We report the affinity between LRRK2-Roc and PAK6 measured by microscale thermophoresis (MST). We further show that PAK6 can modulate LRRK2-mediated phosphorylation of RAB substrates in the presence of LRRK2 wild-type (WT) or the PD G2019S kinase mutant but not when the PD Roc mutation R1441G is expressed. These findings support a mechanism whereby mutations in Roc might affect LRRK2 activity through impaired protein-protein interaction in the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Cogo
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Italy.
| | - Franz Y Ho
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elena Tosoni
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Thomas J Montine
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, USA
| | - Claudia Manzoni
- Department of Pharmacology, University College London School of Pharmacy, UK
| | - Patrick A Lewis
- Royal Veterinary College, London, UK; Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Luigi Bubacco
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Italy; Centro Studi per la Neurodegenerazione CESNE, University of Padova, Italy
| | | | - Jean-Marc Taymans
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, UMR-S 1172 - LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Arjan Kortholt
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeremy Nichols
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, USA
| | | | - Laura Civiero
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Italy; IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy; Centro Studi per la Neurodegenerazione CESNE, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Elisa Greggio
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Italy; Centro Studi per la Neurodegenerazione CESNE, University of Padova, Italy.
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13
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Chang EES, Ho PWL, Liu HF, Pang SYY, Leung CT, Malki Y, Choi ZYK, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. LRRK2 mutant knock-in mouse models: therapeutic relevance in Parkinson's disease. Transl Neurodegener 2022; 11:10. [PMID: 35152914 PMCID: PMC8842874 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-022-00285-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) are one of the most frequent genetic causes of both familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). Mounting evidence has demonstrated pathological similarities between LRRK2-associated PD (LRRK2-PD) and sporadic PD, suggesting that LRRK2 is a potential disease modulator and a therapeutic target in PD. LRRK2 mutant knock-in (KI) mouse models display subtle alterations in pathological aspects that mirror early-stage PD, including increased susceptibility of nigrostriatal neurotransmission, development of motor and non-motor symptoms, mitochondrial and autophagy-lysosomal defects and synucleinopathies. This review provides a rationale for the use of LRRK2 KI mice to investigate the LRRK2-mediated pathogenesis of PD and implications from current findings from different LRRK2 KI mouse models, and ultimately discusses the therapeutic potentials against LRRK2-associated pathologies in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunice Eun Seo Chang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Philip Wing-Lok Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Hui-Fang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shirley Yin-Yu Pang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chi-Ting Leung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yasine Malki
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zoe Yuen-Kiu Choi
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - David Boyer Ramsden
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Shu-Leong Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China.
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14
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Skiteva O, Yao N, Sitzia G, Chergui K. LRRK2‐G2019S mice display alterations in glutamatergic synaptic transmission in midbrain dopamine neurons. J Neurochem 2022; 161:158-172. [PMID: 35152441 PMCID: PMC9305867 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The progressive degeneration of dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra compacta (SNc) leads to the emergence of motor symptoms in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). To propose neuroprotective therapies able to slow or halt the progression of the disease, it is necessary to identify cellular alterations that occur before DA neurons degenerate and before the onset of the motor symptoms that characterize PD. Using electrophysiological, histochemical, and biochemical approaches, we have examined if glutamatergic synaptic transmission in DA neurons in the SNc and in the adjacent ventral tegmental area (VTA) was altered in middle‐aged (10–12 months old) mice with the hG2019S point mutation (G2019S) in the leucine‐rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene. G2019S mice showed increased locomotion and exploratory behavior compared with wildtype (WT) littermates, and intact DA neuron integrity. The intrinsic membrane properties and action potential characteristics of DA neurons recorded in brain slices were similar in WT and G2019S mice. Initial glutamate release probability onto SNc‐DA neurons, but not VTA‐DA neurons, was reduced in G2019S mice. We also found reduced protein amounts of the presynaptic marker of glutamatergic terminals, VGLUT1, and of the GluA1 and GluN1 subunits of AMPA and NMDA receptors, respectively, in the ventral midbrain of G2019S mice. These results identify alterations in glutamatergic synaptic transmission in DA neurons of the SNc and VTA before the onset of motor impairments in the LRRK2‐G2019S mouse model of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Skiteva
- Molecular Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
| | - Ning Yao
- Molecular Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
| | - Giacomo Sitzia
- Molecular Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
- Current address: Laboratory for Integrative Neuroscience National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism US Rockville USA
| | - Karima Chergui
- Molecular Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
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15
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LRRK2 at Striatal Synapses: Cell-Type Specificity and Mechanistic Insights. Cells 2022; 11:cells11010169. [PMID: 35011731 PMCID: PMC8750662 DOI: 10.3390/cells11010169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause Parkinson’s disease with a similar clinical presentation and progression to idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, and common variation is linked to disease risk. Recapitulation of the genotype in rodent models causes abnormal dopamine release and increases the susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons to insults, making LRRK2 a valuable model for understanding the pathobiology of Parkinson’s disease. It is also a promising druggable target with targeted therapies currently in development. LRRK2 mRNA and protein expression in the brain is highly variable across regions and cellular identities. A growing body of work has demonstrated that pathogenic LRRK2 mutations disrupt striatal synapses before the onset of overt neurodegeneration. Several substrates and interactors of LRRK2 have been identified to potentially mediate these pre-neurodegenerative changes in a cell-type-specific manner. This review discusses the effects of pathogenic LRRK2 mutations in striatal neurons, including cell-type-specific and pathway-specific alterations. It also highlights several LRRK2 effectors that could mediate the alterations to striatal function, including Rabs and protein kinase A. The lessons learned from improving our understanding of the pathogenic effects of LRRK2 mutations in striatal neurons will be applicable to both dissecting the cell-type specificity of LRRK2 function in the transcriptionally diverse subtypes of dopaminergic neurons and also increasing our understanding of basal ganglia development and biology. Finally, it will inform the development of therapeutics for Parkinson’s disease.
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16
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Suzzi S, Ahrendt R, Hans S, Semenova SA, Chekuru A, Wirsching P, Kroehne V, Bilican S, Sayed S, Winkler S, Spieß S, Machate A, Kaslin J, Panula P, Brand M. Deletion of lrrk2 causes early developmental abnormalities and age-dependent increase of monoamine catabolism in the zebrafish brain. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009794. [PMID: 34516550 PMCID: PMC8459977 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
LRRK2 gain-of-function is considered a major cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) in humans. However, pathogenicity of LRRK2 loss-of-function in animal models is controversial. Here we show that deletion of the entire zebrafish lrrk2 locus elicits a pleomorphic transient brain phenotype in maternal-zygotic mutant embryos (mzLrrk2). In contrast to lrrk2, the paralog gene lrrk1 is virtually not expressed in the brain of both wild-type and mzLrrk2 fish at different developmental stages. Notably, we found reduced catecholaminergic neurons, the main target of PD, in specific cell populations in the brains of mzLrrk2 larvae, but not adult fish. Strikingly, age-dependent accumulation of monoamine oxidase (MAO)-dependent catabolic signatures within mzLrrk2 brains revealed a previously undescribed interaction between LRRK2 and MAO biological activities. Our results highlight mzLrrk2 zebrafish as a tractable tool to study LRRK2 loss-of-function in vivo, and suggest a link between LRRK2 and MAO, potentially of relevance in the prodromic stages of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Suzzi
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Reiner Ahrendt
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefan Hans
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Svetlana A. Semenova
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Avinash Chekuru
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Paul Wirsching
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Volker Kroehne
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Saygın Bilican
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Shady Sayed
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sylke Winkler
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics (MPI-CBG), Dresden, Germany
| | - Sandra Spieß
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Anja Machate
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Jan Kaslin
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Pertti Panula
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Michael Brand
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- * E-mail:
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17
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Age-related LRRK2 G2019S Mutation Impacts Microglial Dopaminergic Fiber Refinement and Synaptic Pruning Involved in Abnormal Behaviors. J Mol Neurosci 2021; 72:527-543. [PMID: 34409578 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-021-01896-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most frequent cause of autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD), producing psychiatric and motor symptoms. We conducted this study to explore whether microglial dopaminergic (DAergic) fiber refinement and synaptic pruning are involved in the abnormal behavioral phenotypes of carriers of the LRRK2 G2019S mutation, by employing young and middle-aged PD model mice. The results revealed a characteristic late-onset hyperactivity and a progressive decline in the motor coordination of the LRRK2 G2019S mutation mice. LRRK2 G2019S mutation-induced aberrant microglial morphogenesis, with more branches and junctions per cell, resulted in excessive microglial refinement of dopaminergic (DAergic) fibers. Moreover, aberrant synaptic pruning distinctly impacted the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and dorsal striatum (DS), with significantly higher spine density in the PFC but the opposite effects in the DS region. Furthermore, LRRK2 G2019S mutation remodeled the inflammatory transcription landscape of microglia, rendering certain cerebral areas highly susceptible to microglial immune response. These findings indicate that LRRK2 G2019S mutation induces the production of inflammatory cytokines and mediates abnormal microglial morphogenesis and activity, resulting in abnormal phagocytosis, synaptic pruning and loss of DAergic fibers during aging, and, eventually, PD-related behavioral abnormalities.
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18
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Kumar B, Pandey M, Pottoo FH, Fayaz F, Sharma A, Sahoo PK. Liposomes: Novel Drug Delivery Approach for Targeting Parkinson's Disease. Curr Pharm Des 2021; 26:4721-4737. [PMID: 32003666 DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200128145124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is one of the most severe progressive neurodegenerative disorders, having a mortifying effect on the health of millions of people around the globe. The neural cells producing dopamine in the substantia nigra of the brain die out. This leads to symptoms like hypokinesia, rigidity, bradykinesia, and rest tremor. Parkinsonism cannot be cured, but the symptoms can be reduced with the intervention of medicinal drugs, surgical treatments, and physical therapies. Delivering drugs to the brain for treating Parkinson's disease is very challenging. The blood-brain barrier acts as a highly selective semi-permeable barrier, which refrains the drug from reaching the brain. Conventional drug delivery systems used for Parkinson's disease do not readily cross the blood barrier and further lead to several side-effects. Recent advancements in drug delivery technologies have facilitated drug delivery to the brain without flooding the bloodstream and by directly targeting the neurons. In the era of Nanotherapeutics, liposomes are an efficient drug delivery option for brain targeting. Liposomes facilitate the passage of drugs across the blood-brain barrier, enhances the efficacy of the drugs, and minimize the side effects related to it. The review aims at providing a broad updated view of the liposomes, which can be used for targeting Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhumika Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Sector-3, MB Road, Pushp Vihar, Delhi, 110017, India
| | - Mukesh Pandey
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Sector-3, MB Road, Pushp Vihar, Delhi, 110017, India
| | - Faheem H Pottoo
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. BOX 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
| | - Faizana Fayaz
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Sector-3, MB Road, Pushp Vihar, Delhi, 110017, India
| | - Anjali Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Sector-3, MB Road, Pushp Vihar, Delhi, 110017, India
| | - P K Sahoo
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Sector-3, MB Road, Pushp Vihar, Delhi, 110017, India
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19
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Streubel-Gallasch L, Giusti V, Sandre M, Tessari I, Plotegher N, Giusto E, Masato A, Iovino L, Battisti I, Arrigoni G, Shimshek D, Greggio E, Tremblay ME, Bubacco L, Erlandsson A, Civiero L. Parkinson's Disease-Associated LRRK2 Interferes with Astrocyte-Mediated Alpha-Synuclein Clearance. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:3119-3140. [PMID: 33629273 PMCID: PMC8257537 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02327-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative, progressive disease without a cure. To prevent PD onset or at least limit neurodegeneration, a better understanding of the underlying cellular and molecular disease mechanisms is crucial. Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene represent one of the most common causes of familial PD. In addition, LRRK2 variants are risk factors for sporadic PD, making LRRK2 an attractive therapeutic target. Mutations in LRRK2 have been linked to impaired alpha-synuclein (α-syn) degradation in neurons. However, in which way pathogenic LRRK2 affects α-syn clearance by astrocytes, the major glial cell type of the brain, remains unclear. The impact of astrocytes on PD progression has received more attention and recent data indicate that astrocytes play a key role in α-syn-mediated pathology. In the present study, we aimed to compare the capacity of wild-type astrocytes and astrocytes carrying the PD-linked G2019S mutation in Lrrk2 to ingest and degrade fibrillary α-syn. For this purpose, we used two different astrocyte culture systems that were exposed to sonicated α-syn for 24 h and analyzed directly after the α-syn pulse or 6 days later. To elucidate the impact of LRRK2 on α-syn clearance, we performed various analyses, including complementary imaging, transmission electron microscopy, and proteomic approaches. Our results show that astrocytes carrying the G2019S mutation in Lrrk2 exhibit a decreased capacity to internalize and degrade fibrillar α-syn via the endo-lysosomal pathway. In addition, we demonstrate that the reduction of α-syn internalization in the Lrrk2 G2019S astrocytes is linked to annexin A2 (AnxA2) loss of function. Together, our findings reveal that astrocytic LRRK2 contributes to the clearance of extracellular α-syn aggregates through an AnxA2-dependent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michele Sandre
- Parkinson and Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.,PNC, Padua Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Anna Masato
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Ilaria Battisti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Giorgio Arrigoni
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.,CRIBI Biotechnology Center, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Derya Shimshek
- Novartis Institutes of BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Elisa Greggio
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Luigi Bubacco
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Anna Erlandsson
- Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Laura Civiero
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy. .,IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy.
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20
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Pischedda F, Piccoli G. LRRK2 at the pre-synaptic site: A 16-years perspective. J Neurochem 2021; 157:297-311. [PMID: 33206398 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a common neurodegenerative disorder and is clinically characterized by bradykinesia, rigidity, and resting tremor. Missense mutations in the leucine-rich repeat protein kinase-2 gene (LRRK2) are a recognized cause of inherited Parkinson's disease. The physiological and pathological impact of LRRK2 is still obscure, but accumulating evidence indicates that LRRK2 orchestrates diverse aspects of membrane trafficking, such as membrane fusion and vesicle formation and transport along actin and tubulin tracks. In the present review, we focus on the special relation between LRRK2 and synaptic vesicles. LRRK2 binds and phosphorylates key actors within the synaptic vesicle cycle. Accordingly, alterations in dopamine and glutamate transmission have been described upon LRRK2 manipulations. However, the different modeling strategies and phenotypes observed require a critical approach to decipher the outcome of LRRK2 at the pre-synaptic site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Pischedda
- CIBIO, Università degli Studi di Trento, Italy & Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Trento, Italy
| | - Giovanni Piccoli
- CIBIO, Università degli Studi di Trento, Italy & Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Trento, Italy
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21
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Malik N, Kornelsen R, McCormick S, Colpo N, Merkens H, Bendre S, Benard F, Sossi V, Schirrmacher R, Schaffer P. Development and biological evaluation of[ 18F]FMN3PA & [ 18F]FMN3PU for leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) in vivo PET imaging. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 211:113005. [PMID: 33248850 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.113005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Among all genetic mutations of LRRK2, the G2019S mutation is the most commonly associated with the late-onset of Parkinson's disease (PD). Hence, one potential therapeutic approach is to block the hyperactivity of mutated LRRK2 induced by kinase inhibition. To date, only a few LRRK2 kinase inhibitors have been tested for in vivo quantification of target engagement by positron emission tomography (PET). In this study, we performed biological evaluations of two radiolabeled kinase inhibitors i.e. [18F]FMN3PA (14) and [18F]FMN3PU for LRRK2 (15). PROCEDURES Radiosyntheses of [18F]FMN3PA (14) and [18F]FMN3PU (15) were performed using K[18F]-F-K222 complex in a TRACERlab FXN module and purification was carried out via C18 plus (Sep-Pak) cartridges. In vitro specific binding assays were performed in rat brain striatum and kidney tissues using GNE-0877 as a blocking agent (Ki = 0.7 nM). For in vivo blocking, 3 mg/kg of GNE-0877 was injected 30 min before radiotracer injection via tail vein in wild-type (WT) mice (n = 4). Dynamic scans by PET/CT (Siemens Inveon) were performed in WT mice (n = 3). RESULTS Radiofluorinations resulted in radiochemical yields (RCYs) of 25 ± 1.3% (n = 6) ([18F]FMN3PU, 15) and 37 ± 1.6% (n = 6) ([18F]FMN3PA, 14) with ≥96% radiochemical purity (RCP) and a molar activity (MA) of 3.55 ± 1.6 Ci/μmol (131 ± 56 GBq/μmol) for [18F]FMN3PU (15) and 4.57 ± 1.7 Ci/μmol (169 ± 63 GBq/μmol) for [18F]FMN3PA (14), respectively. Saturation assays showed high specific binding for rat brain striatum with Kd 20 ± 1.3 nM ([18F]FMN3PA, 14) and 23.6 ± 4.0 nM ([18F]FMN3PU, 15). In vivo blocking data for [18F]FMN3PA (14) was significant for brain (p < 0.0001, 77% blocking) and kidney (p = 0.0041, 65% blocking). PET images showed uptake in mouse brain striatum. CONCLUSION In the presence of GNE-0877 as a blocking agent, the specific binding of [18F]FMN3PA (14) and [18F]FMN3PU (15) was significant in vitro. [18F]FMN3PA (14) showed good brain uptake in vivo, though fast clearance from brain was observed (within 10-15 min).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Nadine Colpo
- Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Institute, Canada
| | - Helen Merkens
- Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Institute, Canada
| | - Shreya Bendre
- Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Institute, Canada
| | - Francois Benard
- Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Institute, Canada; Department of Radiology, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - Vesna Sossi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | | | - Paul Schaffer
- Life Sciences Division, TRIUMF, Canada; Department of Radiology, University of British Columbia, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Canada.
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22
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Kim C, Beilina A, Smith N, Li Y, Kim M, Kumaran R, Kaganovich A, Mamais A, Adame A, Iba M, Kwon S, Lee WJ, Shin SJ, Rissman RA, You S, Lee SJ, Singleton AB, Cookson MR, Masliah E. LRRK2 mediates microglial neurotoxicity via NFATc2 in rodent models of synucleinopathies. Sci Transl Med 2020; 12:eaay0399. [PMID: 33055242 PMCID: PMC8100991 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aay0399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Synucleinopathies are neurodegenerative disorders characterized by abnormal α-synuclein deposition that include Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy. The pathology of these conditions also includes neuronal loss and neuroinflammation. Neuron-released α-synuclein has been shown to induce neurotoxic, proinflammatory microglial responses through Toll-like receptor 2, but the molecular mechanisms involved are poorly understood. Here, we show that leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) plays a critical role in the activation of microglia by extracellular α-synuclein. Exposure to α-synuclein was found to enhance LRRK2 phosphorylation and activity in mouse primary microglia. Furthermore, genetic and pharmacological inhibition of LRRK2 markedly diminished α-synuclein-mediated microglial neurotoxicity via lowering of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 expression in mouse cultures. We determined that LRRK2 promoted a neuroinflammatory cascade by selectively phosphorylating and inducing nuclear translocation of the immune transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic 2 (NFATc2). NFATc2 activation was seen in patients with synucleinopathies and in a mouse model of synucleinopathy, where administration of an LRRK2 pharmacological inhibitor restored motor behavioral deficits. Our results suggest that modulation of LRRK2 and its downstream signaling mediator NFATc2 might be therapeutic targets for treating synucleinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changyoun Kim
- Molecular Neuropathology Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | - Alexandria Beilina
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Nathan Smith
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Redox Biology Center, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Yan Li
- Protein/Peptide Sequencing Facility, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Minhyung Kim
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - Ravindran Kumaran
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Alice Kaganovich
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Adamantios Mamais
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Anthony Adame
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michiyo Iba
- Molecular Neuropathology Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Somin Kwon
- Molecular Neuropathology Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Won-Jae Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, and Department of Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Soo-Jean Shin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, and Department of Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Robert A Rissman
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Sungyong You
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
- Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - Seung-Jae Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, and Department of Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Andrew B Singleton
- Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Mark R Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Eliezer Masliah
- Molecular Neuropathology Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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23
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Chen C, Soto G, Dumrongprechachan V, Bannon N, Kang S, Kozorovitskiy Y, Parisiadou L. Pathway-specific dysregulation of striatal excitatory synapses by LRRK2 mutations. eLife 2020; 9:58997. [PMID: 33006315 PMCID: PMC7609054 DOI: 10.7554/elife.58997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
LRRK2 is a kinase expressed in striatal spiny projection neurons (SPNs), cells which lose dopaminergic input in Parkinson’s disease (PD). R1441C and G2019S are the most common pathogenic mutations of LRRK2. How these mutations alter the structure and function of individual synapses on direct and indirect pathway SPNs is unknown and may reveal pre-clinical changes in dopamine-recipient neurons that predispose toward disease. Here, R1441C and G2019S knock-in mice enabled thorough evaluation of dendritic spines and synapses on pathway-identified SPNs. Biochemical synaptic preparations and super-resolution imaging revealed increased levels and altered organization of glutamatergic AMPA receptors in LRRK2 mutants. Relatedly, decreased frequency of miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents accompanied changes in dendritic spine nano-architecture, and single-synapse currents, evaluated using two-photon glutamate uncaging. Overall, LRRK2 mutations reshaped synaptic structure and function, an effect exaggerated in R1441C dSPNs. These data open the possibility of new neuroprotective therapies aimed at SPN synapse function, prior to disease onset. Parkinson’s disease is caused by progressive damage to regions of the brain that regulate movement. This leads to a loss in nerve cells that produce a signaling molecule called dopamine, and causes patients to experience shakiness, slow movement and stiffness. When dopamine is released, it travels to a part of the brain known as the striatum, where it is received by cells called spiny projection neurons (SPNs), which are rich in a protein called LRRK2. Mutations in this protein have been shown to cause the motor impairments associated with Parkinson’s disease. SPNs send signals to other regions of the brain either via a ‘direct’ route, which promotes movement, or an ‘indirect’ route, which suppresses movement. Previous studies suggest that mutations in the gene for LRRK2 influence the activity of these pathways even before dopamine signaling has been lost. Yet, it remained unclear how different mutations independently affected each pathway. To investigate this further, Chen et al. studied two of the mutations most commonly found in the human gene for LRRK2, known as G2019S and R1441C. This involved introducing one of these mutations in to the genetic code of mice, and using fluorescent proteins to mark single SPNs in either the direct or indirect pathway. The experiments showed that both mutations disrupted the connections between SPNs in the direct and indirect pathway, which altered the activity of nerve cells in the striatum. Chen et al. found that individual connections were more strongly affected by the R1441C mutation. Further experiments showed that this was caused by the re-organization of a receptor protein in the nerve cells of the direct pathway, which increased how SPNs responded to inputs from other nerve cells. These findings suggest that LRRK2 mutations disrupt neural activity in the striatum before dopamine levels become depleted. This discovery could help researchers identify new therapies for treating the early stages of Parkinson’s disease before the symptoms of dopamine loss arise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuyu Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, United States
| | - Giulia Soto
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Chicago, United States
| | | | - Nicholas Bannon
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Chicago, United States
| | - Shuo Kang
- Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, United States
| | | | - Loukia Parisiadou
- Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, United States
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24
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Kuhlmann N, Milnerwood AJ. A Critical LRRK at the Synapse? The Neurobiological Function and Pathophysiological Dysfunction of LRRK2. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:153. [PMID: 32973447 PMCID: PMC7482583 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the discovery of LRRK2 mutations causal to Parkinson's disease (PD) in the early 2000s, the LRRK2 protein has been implicated in a plethora of cellular processes in which pathogenesis could occur, yet its physiological function remains elusive. The development of genetic models of LRRK2 PD has helped identify the etiological and pathophysiological underpinnings of the disease, and may identify early points of intervention. An important role for LRRK2 in synaptic function has emerged in recent years, which links LRRK2 to other genetic forms of PD, most notably those caused by mutations in the synaptic protein α-synuclein. This point of convergence may provide useful clues as to what drives dysfunction in the basal ganglia circuitry and eventual death of substantia nigra (SN) neurons. Here, we discuss the evolution and current state of the literature placing LRRK2 at the synapse, through the lens of knock-out, overexpression, and knock-in animal models. We hope that a deeper understanding of LRRK2 neurobiology, at the synapse and beyond, will aid the eventual development of neuroprotective interventions for PD, and the advancement of useful treatments in the interim.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naila Kuhlmann
- Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Austen J Milnerwood
- Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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25
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Cerri S, Blandini F. In vivo modeling of prodromal stage of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 342:108801. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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26
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Mancini A, Mazzocchetti P, Sciaccaluga M, Megaro A, Bellingacci L, Beccano-Kelly DA, Di Filippo M, Tozzi A, Calabresi P. From Synaptic Dysfunction to Neuroprotective Strategies in Genetic Parkinson's Disease: Lessons From LRRK2. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:158. [PMID: 32848606 PMCID: PMC7399363 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is thought to rely on a complex interaction between the patient’s genetic background and a variety of largely unknown environmental factors. In this scenario, the investigation of the genetic bases underlying familial PD could unveil key molecular pathways to be targeted by new disease-modifying therapies, still currently unavailable. Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are responsible for the majority of inherited familial PD cases and can also be found in sporadic PD, but the pathophysiological functions of LRRK2 have not yet been fully elucidated. Here, we will review the evidence obtained in transgenic LRRK2 experimental models, characterized by altered striatal synaptic transmission, mitochondrial dysfunction, and α-synuclein aggregation. Interestingly, the processes triggered by mutant LRRK2 might represent early pathological phenomena in the pathogenesis of PD, anticipating the typical neurodegenerative features characterizing the late phases of the disease. A comprehensive view of LRRK2 neuronal pathophysiology will support the possible clinical application of pharmacological compounds targeting this protein, with potential therapeutic implications for patients suffering from both familial and sporadic PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Mancini
- Section of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Petra Mazzocchetti
- Section of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Miriam Sciaccaluga
- Section of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Alfredo Megaro
- Section of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Laura Bellingacci
- Section of Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Dayne A Beccano-Kelly
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | | | - Alessandro Tozzi
- Section of Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Paolo Calabresi
- Neurologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Neuroscience Department, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
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27
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Korecka JA, Thomas R, Hinrich AJ, Moskites AM, Macbain ZK, Hallett PJ, Isacson O, Hastings ML. Splice-Switching Antisense Oligonucleotides Reduce LRRK2 Kinase Activity in Human LRRK2 Transgenic Mice. MOLECULAR THERAPY-NUCLEIC ACIDS 2020; 21:623-635. [PMID: 32736291 PMCID: PMC7393423 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2020.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurological disorder estimated to affect 7–10 million people worldwide. There is no treatment available that cures or slows the progression of PD. Elevated leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) activity has been associated with genetic and sporadic forms of PD and, thus, reducing LRRK2 function is a promising therapeutic strategy. We have previously reported that an antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) that blocks splicing of LRRK2 exon 41, which encodes part of the kinase domain, reverses aberrant endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium levels and mitophagy defects in PD patient-derived cell lines harboring the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. In this study, we show that treating transgenic mice expressing human wild-type or G2019S LRRK2 with a single intracerebroventricular injection of ASO induces exon 41 skipping and results in a decrease in phosphorylation of the LRRK2 kinase substrate RAB10. Exon 41 skipping also reverses LRRK2 kinase-dependent changes in LC3B II/I ratios, a marker for the autophagic process. These results demonstrate the potential of LRRK2 exon 41 skipping as a possible therapeutic strategy to modulate pathogenic LRRK2 kinase activity associated with PD development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna A Korecka
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA 02478, USA.
| | - Ria Thomas
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Anthony J Hinrich
- Center for Genetic Diseases, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Alyssa M Moskites
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Zach K Macbain
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Penelope J Hallett
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Ole Isacson
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Michelle L Hastings
- Center for Genetic Diseases, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.
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28
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Huntley GW, Benson DL. Origins of Parkinson's Disease in Brain Development: Insights From Early and Persistent Effects of LRRK2-G2019S on Striatal Circuits. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:265. [PMID: 32273839 PMCID: PMC7113397 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Late-onset Parkinson's disease (PD) is dominated clinically and experimentally by a focus on dopamine neuron degeneration and ensuing motor system abnormalities. There are, additionally, a number of non-motor symptoms - including cognitive and psychiatric - that can appear much earlier in the course of the disease and also significantly impair quality of life. The neurobiology of such cognitive and psychiatric non-motor symptoms is poorly understood. The recognition of genetic forms of late-onset PD, which are clinically similar to idiopathic forms in both motor and non-motor symptoms, raises the perspective that brain cells and circuits - and the behaviors they support - differ in significant ways from normal by virtue of the fact that these mutations are carried throughout life, including especially early developmental critical periods where circuit structure and function is particularly susceptible to the influence of experience-dependent activity. In this focused review, we support this central thesis by highlighting studies of LRRK2-G2019S mouse models. We describe work that shows that in G2019S mutants, corticostriatal activity and plasticity are abnormal by P21, the end of a period of excitatory synaptogenesis in striatum. Moreover, by young adulthood, impaired striatal synaptic and non-synaptic forms of plasticity likely underlie altered and variable performance by mutant mice in validated tasks that test for depression-like and anhedonia-like behaviors. Mechanistically, deficits in cellular, synaptic and behavioral plasticity may be unified by mutation-linked defects in trafficking of AMPAR subunits and other membrane channels, which in turn may reflect impairment in the function of the Rab family of GTPases, a major target of LRRK2 phosphorylation. These findings underscore the need to better understand how PD-related mutant proteins influence brain structure and function during an extended period of brain development, and offer new clues for future therapeutic strategies to target non-motor cognitive or psychiatric symptoms of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- George W. Huntley
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Deanna L. Benson
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
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29
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Wallings R, Connor-Robson N, Wade-Martins R. LRRK2 interacts with the vacuolar-type H+-ATPase pump a1 subunit to regulate lysosomal function. Hum Mol Genet 2020; 28:2696-2710. [PMID: 31039583 PMCID: PMC6687951 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddz088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysosomal dysfunction lies at the centre of the cellular mechanisms underlying Parkinson’s disease although the precise underlying mechanisms remain unknown. We investigated the role of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) on lysosome biology and the autophagy pathway in primary neurons expressing the human LRRK2-G2019S or LRKK2-R1441C mutant or the human wild-type (hWT-LRRK2) genomic locus. The expression of LRRK2-G2019S or hWT-LRRK2 inhibited autophagosome production, whereas LRRK2-R1441C induced a decrease in autophagosome/lysosome fusion and increased lysosomal pH. In vivo data from the cortex and substantia nigra pars compacta of aged LRRK2 transgenic animals revealed alterations in autophagosome puncta number reflecting those phenotypes seen in vitro. Using the two selective and potent LRRK2 kinase inhibitors, MLi-2 and PF-06447475, we demonstrated that the LRRK2-R1441C-mediated decrease in autolysosome maturation is not dependent on LRRK2 kinase activity. We showed that hWT-LRRK2 and LRRK2-G2019S bind to the a1 subunit of vATPase, which is abolished by the LRRK2-R1441C mutation, leading to a decrease in a1 protein and cellular mislocalization. Modulation of lysosomal zinc increased vATPase a1 protein levels and rescued the LRRK2-R1441C-mediated cellular phenotypes. Our work defines a novel interaction between the LRRK2 protein and the vATPase a1 subunit and demonstrates a mode of action by which drugs may rescue lysosomal dysfunction. These results demonstrate the importance of LRRK2 in lysosomal biology, as well as the critical role of the lysosome in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Wallings
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Natalie Connor-Robson
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Richard Wade-Martins
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
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30
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Dwyer Z, Rudyk C, Thompson A, Farmer K, Fenner B, Fortin T, Derksen A, Sun H, Hayley S. Leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2) modulates microglial phenotype and dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Neurobiol Aging 2020; 91:45-55. [PMID: 32247534 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a common gene implicated in Parkinson's disease and many inflammatory processes. Thus, we assessed the role of LRRK2 in the context of endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS)-induced inflammation of the substantia nigra together with the environmental toxicant, paraquat, that has been implicated in PD. Here we found that LRRK2 ablation prevented the loss of dopaminergic neurons and behavioral deficits (motor) induced by LPS priming followed by paraquat exposure. The LRRK2 ablation also provoked a phenotypic shift in LPS-primed microglia cells. The LRRK2 deficiency reduced their "activated" morphology and upregulation of the inflammatory phagocytic regulator, WAVE2 (critical for actin remodeling), while the chemokine receptor, CX3CR1, was elevated in isolated CD11b+ myeloid cells. Furthermore, LRRK2 knockout attenuated the signs of oxidative stress and morphological changes induced in primary microglia by LPS treatment. However, induced WAVE2 expression together with LPS exposure in microglia overcame the inhibitory effects of LRRK2 knockout, suggesting WAVE2 may be acting downstream of LRRK2. Neither WAVE2 nor did LRRK2 knockout influence LPS-induced cytokine elevations in the microglia. We are the first to show the importance of LRRK2 in neurodegenerative and inflammatory processes in this multi-hit toxin model of PD. These data are consistent with the proposition that LRRK2 and WAVE2 are useful therapeutic targets for PD or other conditions with a prominent neuroinflammatory component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zach Dwyer
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Chris Rudyk
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ashley Thompson
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kyle Farmer
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Barbara Fenner
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Teresa Fortin
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alexa Derksen
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hongyu Sun
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shawn Hayley
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
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- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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Chen X, Xie C, Tian W, Sun L, Wang Z, Hawes S, Chang L, Kung J, Ding J, Chen S, Le W, Cai H. Parkinson's disease-related Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 modulates nuclear morphology and genomic stability in striatal projection neurons during aging. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:12. [PMID: 32075681 PMCID: PMC7031993 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00360-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple missense mutations in Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are associated with familial forms of late onset Parkinson's disease (PD), the most common age-related movement disorder. The dysfunction of dopamine transmission contributes to PD-related motor symptoms. Interestingly, LRRK2 is more abundant in the dopaminoceptive striatal spiny projection neurons (SPNs) compared to the dopamine-producing nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Aging is the most important risk factor for PD and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, whether LRRK2 modulates the aging of SPNs remains to be determined. METHODS We conducted RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) analyses of striatal tissues isolated from Lrrk2 knockout (Lrrk2-/-) and control (Lrrk2+/+) mice at 2 and 12 months of age. We examined SPN nuclear DNA damage and epigenetic modifications; SPN nuclear, cell body and dendritic morphology; and the locomotion and motor skill learning of Lrrk2+/+ and Lrrk2-/- mice from 2 to 24 months of age. Considering the strength of cell cultures for future mechanistic studies, we also performed preliminary studies in primary cultured SPNs derived from the Lrrk2+/+ and Lrrk2-/- mice as well as the PD-related Lrrk2 G2019S and R1441C mutant mice. RESULTS Lrrk2-deficiency accelerated nuclear hypertrophy and induced dendritic atrophy, soma hypertrophy and nuclear invagination in SPNs during aging. Additionally, increased nuclear DNA damage and abnormal histone methylations were also observed in aged Lrrk2-/- striatal neurons, together with alterations of molecular pathways involved in regulating neuronal excitability, genome stability and protein homeostasis. Furthermore, both the PD-related Lrrk2 G2019S mutant and LRRK2 kinase inhibitors caused nuclear hypertrophy, while the Lrrk2 R1441C mutant and γ-Aminobutyric acid type A receptor (GABA-AR) inhibitors promoted nuclear invagination in the cultured SPNs. On the other hand, inhibition of neuron excitability prevented the formation of nuclear invagination in the cultured Lrrk2-/- and R1441C SPNs. CONCLUSIONS Our findings support an important physiological function of LRRK2 in maintaining nuclear structure integrity and genomic stability during the normal aging process, suggesting that PD-related LRRK2 mutations may cause the deterioration of neuronal structures through accelerating the aging process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Chen
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
- Clinical Research Center on Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Chengsong Xie
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Wotu Tian
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 20025 China
| | - Lixin Sun
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Zheng Wang
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Sarah Hawes
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Lisa Chang
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Justin Kung
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Jinhui Ding
- Computational Biology Group, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Shengdi Chen
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 20025 China
| | - Weidong Le
- Clinical Research Center on Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Huaibin Cai
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
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Cogo S, Manzoni C, Lewis PA, Greggio E. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 and lysosomal dyshomeostasis in Parkinson disease. J Neurochem 2020; 152:273-283. [PMID: 31693760 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Over the last two decades, a number of studies have underlined the importance of lysosomal-based degradative pathways in maintaining the homeostasis of post-mitotic cells, and revealed the remarkable contribution of a functional autophagic machinery in the promotion of longevity. In contrast, defects in the clearance of organelles and aberrant protein aggregates have been linked to accelerated neuronal loss and neurological dysfunction. Several neurodegenerative disorders, among which Alzheimer disease (AD), Frontotemporal dementia, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis to name a few, are associated with alterations of the autophagy and endo-lysosomal pathways. In Parkinson disease (PD), the most prevalent genetic determinant, Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), is believed to be involved in the regulation of intracellular vesicle traffic, autophagy and lysosomal function. Here, we review the current understanding of the mechanisms by which LRRK2 regulates lysosomal-based degradative pathways in neuronal and non-neuronal cells and discuss the impact of pathogenic PD mutations in contributing to lysosomal dyshomeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Cogo
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Claudia Manzoni
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, University College London, London, UK
| | - Patrick A Lewis
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, University College London, London, UK
| | - Elisa Greggio
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Benson DL, Huntley GW. Are we listening to everything the PARK genes are telling us? J Comp Neurol 2019; 527:1527-1540. [PMID: 30680728 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Revised: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The cardinal motor symptoms that define Parkinson's disease (PD) clinically have been recognized for over 200 years. That these symptoms arise following the loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra has been known for the last 50. These long-established facts have fueled a broadly held expectation that degenerating dopaminergic neurons alone hold the key to understanding and curing PD. This prevalent expectation is at odds with the observation that many nonmotor symptoms, including depression and cognitive inflexibility among others, can appear years earlier than the overt dopaminergic neuron degeneration that drives motor abnormalities and are not improved by levodopa treatment. Thus, preserving or rescuing dopamine neuron health and function is of paramount importance, but this alone fails to capture the underlying neurobiology of earlier-appearing nonmotor symptoms. Insight into the complete landscape of disease-related abnormalities and the context in which they arise can be gleaned from a more comprehensive consideration of the PARK genes that are known to cause PD. Here, we make the case that a full incorporation of research showing when and where PARK genes are expressed as well as the impact of gene mutation on function throughout life, in tandem with research studying how dopaminergic neuron degeneration begins, is essential for a full understanding of the multi-dimensional etiology of PD. A broad view may also reveal something about long-term adjustments cells and systems make in response to gene mutation and help to identify mechanisms conferring the resilience or susceptibility of some cells and systems over others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deanna L Benson
- Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute and the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - George W Huntley
- Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute and the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
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Functional and behavioral consequences of Parkinson's disease-associated LRRK2-G2019S mutation. Biochem Soc Trans 2018; 46:1697-1705. [PMID: 30514770 DOI: 10.1042/bst20180468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Revised: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
LRRK2 mutation is the most common inherited, autosomal dominant cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) and has also been observed in sporadic cases. Most mutations result in increased LRRK2 kinase activity. LRRK2 is highly expressed in brain regions that receive dense, convergent innervation by dopaminergic and glutamatergic axons, and its levels rise developmentally coincident with glutamatergic synapse formation. The onset and timing of expression suggests strongly that LRRK2 regulates the development, maturation and function of synapses. Several lines of data in mice show that LRRK2-G2019S, the most common LRRK2 mutation, produces an abnormal gain of pathological function that affects synaptic activity, spine morphology, persistent forms of synapse plasticity and behavioral responses to social stress. Effects of the mutation can be detected as early as the second week of postnatal development and can last or have consequences that extend into adulthood and occur in the absence of dopamine loss. These data suggest that the generation of neural circuits that support complex behaviors is modified by LRRK2-G2019S. Whether such alterations impart vulnerability to neurons directly or indirectly, they bring to the forefront the idea that neural circuits within which dopamine neurons eventually degenerate are assembled and utilized in ways that are distinct from circuits that lack this mutation and may contribute to non-motor symptoms observed in humans with PD.
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Non-cell-autonomous actions of α-synuclein: Implications in glial synucleinopathies. Prog Neurobiol 2018; 169:158-171. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Parkinson's Disease-Linked LRRK2-G2019S Mutation Alters Synaptic Plasticity and Promotes Resilience to Chronic Social Stress in Young Adulthood. J Neurosci 2018; 38:9700-9711. [PMID: 30249796 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1457-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The G2019S mutation in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a prevalent cause of late-onset Parkinson's disease, producing psychiatric and motor symptoms, including depression, that are indistinguishable from sporadic cases. Here we tested how this mutation impacts depression-related behaviors and associated synaptic responses and plasticity in mice expressing a Lrrk2-G2019S knock-in mutation. Young adult male G2019S knock-in and wild-type mice were subjected to chronic social defeat stress (CSDS), a validated depression model, and other tests of anhedonia, anxiety, and motor learning. We found that G2019S mice were highly resilient to CSDS, failing to exhibit social avoidance compared to wild-type mice, many of which exhibited prominent social avoidance and were thus susceptible to CSDS. In the absence of CSDS, no behavioral differences between genotypes were found. Whole-cell recordings of spiny projection neurons (SPNs) in the nucleus accumbens revealed that glutamatergic synapses in G2019S mice lacked functional calcium-permeable AMPARs, and following CSDS, failed to accumulate inwardly rectifying AMPAR responses characteristic of susceptible mice. Based on this abnormal AMPAR response profile, we asked whether long-term potentiation (LTP) of corticostriatal synaptic strength was affected. We found that both D1 receptor (D1R)- and D2R-SPNs in G2019S mutants were unable to express LTP, with D2R-SPNs abnormally expressing long-term depression following an LTP-induction protocol. Thus, G2019S promotes resilience to chronic social stress in young adulthood, likely reflecting synapses constrained in their ability to undergo experience-dependent plasticity. These unexpected findings may indicate early adaptive coping mechanisms imparted by the G2019S mutation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The G2019S mutation in LRRK2 causes late-onset Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 is highly expressed in striatal neurons throughout life, but it is unclear how mutant LRRK2 affects striatal neuron function and behaviors in young adulthood. We addressed this question using Lrrk2-G2019S knock-in mice. The data show that young adult G2019S mice were unusually resilient to a depression-like syndrome resulting from chronic social stress. Further, mutant striatal synapses were incapable of forms of synaptic plasticity normally accompanying depression-like behavior and important for supporting the full range of cognitive function. These data suggest that in humans, LRRK2 mutation may affect striatal circuit function in ways that alter normal responses to stress and could be relevant for treatment strategies for non-motor PD symptoms.
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Marrone L, Bus C, Schöndorf D, Fitzgerald JC, Kübler M, Schmid B, Reinhardt P, Reinhardt L, Deleidi M, Levin T, Meixner A, Klink B, Glatza M, Gloeckner CJ, Gasser T, Sterneckert J. Generation of iPSCs carrying a common LRRK2 risk allele for in vitro modeling of idiopathic Parkinson's disease. PLoS One 2018. [PMID: 29513666 PMCID: PMC5841660 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have recapitulated several aspects of Parkinson’s disease (PD), but most iPSCs are derived from familial cases, which account for only about 15% of patients. Thus, while the emphasis has justifiably been on using iPSCs to model rare familial cases, models for the most common forms of PD are critically lacking. Here, we report the generation of an iPSC-based model of idiopathic PD (iPD) with or without RS1491923, which is a common risk variant in the LRRK2 locus. Consistent with GWA studies, we found large variability in our datasets. However, iPSC-derived neurons carrying the risk allele emerged for displaying subtle disturbances of cellular degradative systems, in line with familial PD models. We also observed that treatment with the LRRK2 inhibitor CZC-25146 slightly reduced a marker of aSYN pathology in all iPD lines. Future iPSC-based studies may need to be structured similarly to large GWA studies in order to obtain relevant statistical power. However, results from this pilot study suggest that iPSC-based modeling represents an attractive way to investigate idiopathic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Marrone
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Technische Universität Dresden (CRTD), Dresden, Germany
| | - Christine Bus
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centre of Neurology and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany
| | - David Schöndorf
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centre of Neurology and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Julia Catherine Fitzgerald
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centre of Neurology and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Manuela Kübler
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centre of Neurology and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Benjamin Schmid
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centre of Neurology and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Peter Reinhardt
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Technische Universität Dresden (CRTD), Dresden, Germany
| | - Lydia Reinhardt
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Technische Universität Dresden (CRTD), Dresden, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Münster, Germany
| | - Michela Deleidi
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centre of Neurology and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Tanya Levin
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Technische Universität Dresden (CRTD), Dresden, Germany
| | - Andrea Meixner
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Barbara Klink
- Institut für Klinische Genetik, Medizinische Fakultät Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Michael Glatza
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Technische Universität Dresden (CRTD), Dresden, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Münster, Germany
| | - Christian Johannes Gloeckner
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Gasser
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centre of Neurology and Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany
- * E-mail: (TG); (JS)
| | - Jared Sterneckert
- DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Technische Universität Dresden (CRTD), Dresden, Germany
- * E-mail: (TG); (JS)
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Malik N, Gifford AN, Sandell J, Tuchman D, Ding YS. Synthesis and In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of [ 3H]LRRK2-IN-1 as a Novel Radioligand for LRRK2. Mol Imaging Biol 2017; 19:837-845. [PMID: 28289968 PMCID: PMC5597475 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-017-1070-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) has recently been proven to be a promising drug target for Parkinson's disease (PD) due to an apparent enhanced activity caused by mutations associated with familial PD. To date, there have been no reports in which a LRRK2 inhibitor has been radiolabeled and used for in in vitro or in vivo studies of LRRK2. In the present study, we radiolabeled the LRRK2 ligand, LRRK-IN-1, for the purposes of performing in vitro (IC50, K d , B max, autoradiography) and in vivo (biodistribution, and blocking experiments) evaluations in rodents and human striatum tissues. PROCEDURES [3H]LRRK2-IN-1 was prepared with high radiochemical purity (>99 %) and a specific activity of 41 Ci/mmol via tritium/hydrogen (T/H) exchange using Crabtree's catalyst. For IC50, K d , and B max determination, LRRK2-IN-1 was used as a competing drug for nonspecific binding assessment. The specific binding of the tracer was further evaluated via an in vivo blocking study in mice with a potent LRRK2 inhibitor, Pf-06447475. RESULTS In vitro binding studies demonstrated a saturable binding site for [3H]LRRK2-IN-1 in rat kidney, rat brain striatum and human brain striatum with K d of 26 ± 3 and 43 ± 8, 48 ± 2 nM, respectively. In rat, the density of LRRK2 binding sites (B max) was higher in kidney (6.4 ± 0.04 pmol/mg) than in brain (2.5 ± 0.03 pmol/mg), however, in human brain striatum, the B max was 0.73 ± 0.01 pmol/mg protein. Autoradiography imaging in striatum of rat and human brain tissues gave results consistent with binding studies. In in vivo biodistribution and blocking studies in mice, co-administration with Pf-06447475 (10 mg/kg) reduced the uptake of [3H]LRRK2-IN-1 (%ID/g) by 50-60% in the kidney or brain. CONCLUSION The high LRRK2 brain density observed in our study suggests the feasibility for positron emission tomography imaging of LRRK2 (a potential target) with radioligands of higher affinity and specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noeen Malik
- Department of Radiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA
| | | | | | - Daniel Tuchman
- Department of Radiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA
| | - Yu-Shin Ding
- Department of Radiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA.
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Steger M, Diez F, Dhekne HS, Lis P, Nirujogi RS, Karayel O, Tonelli F, Martinez TN, Lorentzen E, Pfeffer SR, Alessi DR, Mann M. Systematic proteomic analysis of LRRK2-mediated Rab GTPase phosphorylation establishes a connection to ciliogenesis. eLife 2017; 6:31012. [PMID: 29125462 PMCID: PMC5695910 DOI: 10.7554/elife.31012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported that Parkinson’s disease (PD) kinase LRRK2 phosphorylates a subset of Rab GTPases on a conserved residue in their switch-II domains (Steger et al., 2016) (PMID: 26824392). Here, we systematically analyzed the Rab protein family and found 14 of them (Rab3A/B/C/D, Rab5A/B/C, Rab8A/B, Rab10, Rab12, Rab29, Rab35 and Rab43) to be specifically phosphorylated by LRRK2, with evidence for endogenous phosphorylation for ten of them (Rab3A/B/C/D, Rab8A/B, Rab10, Rab12, Rab35 and Rab43). Affinity enrichment mass spectrometry revealed that the primary ciliogenesis regulator, RILPL1 specifically interacts with the LRRK2-phosphorylated forms of Rab8A and Rab10, whereas RILPL2 binds to phosphorylated Rab8A, Rab10, and Rab12. Induction of primary cilia formation by serum starvation led to a two-fold reduction in ciliogenesis in fibroblasts derived from pathogenic LRRK2-R1441G knock-in mice. These results implicate LRRK2 in primary ciliogenesis and suggest that Rab-mediated protein transport and/or signaling defects at cilia may contribute to LRRK2-dependent pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Steger
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck-Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Federico Diez
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Herschel S Dhekne
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, United States
| | - Pawel Lis
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Raja S Nirujogi
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Ozge Karayel
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck-Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Francesca Tonelli
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Terina N Martinez
- The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research, New York, United States
| | - Esben Lorentzen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Suzanne R Pfeffer
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, United States
| | - Dario R Alessi
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Matthias Mann
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck-Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
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Altered Development of Synapse Structure and Function in Striatum Caused by Parkinson's Disease-Linked LRRK2-G2019S Mutation. J Neurosci 2017; 36:7128-41. [PMID: 27383589 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3314-15.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) can cause Parkinson's disease (PD), and the most common disease-associated mutation, G2019S, increases kinase activity. Because LRRK2 expression levels rise during synaptogenesis and are highest in dorsal striatal spiny projection neurons (SPNs), we tested the hypothesis that the LRRK2-G2019S mutation would alter development of excitatory synaptic networks in dorsal striatum. To circumvent experimental confounds associated with LRRK2 overexpression, we used mice expressing LRRK2-G2019S or D2017A (kinase-dead) knockin mutations. In whole-cell recordings, G2019S SPNs exhibited a fourfold increase in sEPSC frequency compared with wild-type SPNs in postnatal day 21 mice. Such heightened neural activity was increased similarly in direct- and indirect-pathway SPNs, and action potential-dependent activity was particularly elevated. Excitatory synaptic activity in D2017A SPNs was similar to wild type, indicating a selective effect of G2019S. Acute exposure to LRRK2 kinase inhibitors normalized activity, supporting that excessive neural activity in G2019S SPNs is mediated directly and is kinase dependent. Although dendritic arborization and densities of excitatory presynaptic terminals and postsynaptic dendritic spines in G2019S SPNs were similar to wild type, G2019S SPNs displayed larger spines that were matched functionally by a shift toward larger postsynaptic response amplitudes. Acutely isolating striatum from overlying neocortex normalized sEPSC frequency in G2019S mutants, supporting that abnormal corticostriatal activity is involved. These findings indicate that the G2019S mutation imparts a gain-of-abnormal function to SPN activity and morphology during a stage of development when activity can permanently modify circuit structure and function. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Mutations in the kinase domain of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) follow Parkinson's disease (PD) heritability. How such mutations affect brain function is poorly understood. LRRK2 expression levels rise after birth at a time when synapses are forming and are highest in dorsal striatum, suggesting that LRRK2 regulates development of striatal circuits. During a period of postnatal development when activity plays a large role in permanently shaping neural circuits, our data show how the most common PD-causing LRRK2 mutation dramatically alters excitatory synaptic activity and the shape of postsynaptic structures in striatum. These findings provide new insight into early functional and structural aberrations in striatal connectivity that may predispose striatal circuitry to both motor and nonmotor dysfunction later in life.
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Giesert F, Glasl L, Zimprich A, Ernst L, Piccoli G, Stautner C, Zerle J, Hölter SM, Vogt Weisenhorn DM, Wurst W. The pathogenic LRRK2 R1441C mutation induces specific deficits modeling the prodromal phase of Parkinson's disease in the mouse. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 105:179-193. [PMID: 28576705 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2017] [Revised: 05/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to further explore the in vivo function of the Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2)-gene, which is mutated in certain familial forms of Parkinson's disease (PD). We generated a mouse model harboring the disease-associated point mutation R1441C in the GTPase domain of the endogenous murine LRRK2 gene (LRRK2 R1441C line) and performed a comprehensive analysis of these animals throughout lifespan in comparison with an existing knockdown line of LRRK2 (LRRK2 knockdown line). Animals of both lines do not exhibit severe motor dysfunction or pathological signs of neurodegeneration neither at young nor old age. However, at old age the homozygous LRRK2 R1441C animals exhibit clear phenotypes related to the prodromal phase of PD such as impairments in fine motor tasks, gait, and olfaction. These phenotypes are only marginally observable in the LRRK2 knockdown animals, possibly due to activation of compensatory mechanisms as suggested by in vitro studies of synaptic transmission. Thus, at the organismal level the LRRK2 R1441C mutation does not emerge as a loss of function of the protein, but induces mutation specific deficits. Furthermore, judged by the phenotypes presented, the LRRK2-R1441C knock-in line is a valid preclinical model for the prodromal phase of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Giesert
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - L Glasl
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - A Zimprich
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - L Ernst
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - G Piccoli
- Center for Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento and Dulbecco Telethon Institute Trento, Italy
| | - C Stautner
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - J Zerle
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - S M Hölter
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - D M Vogt Weisenhorn
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - W Wurst
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Feodor-Lynen-Str. 17, 81377 Munich, Germany; Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 17, 81377 München, Germany.
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42
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Xing WR, Goodluck H, Zeng C, Mohan S. Role and mechanism of action of leucine-rich repeat kinase 1 in bone. Bone Res 2017; 5:17003. [PMID: 28326224 PMCID: PMC5348726 DOI: 10.1038/boneres.2017.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 1 (LRRK1) plays a critical role in regulating cytoskeletal organization, osteoclast activity, and bone resorption with little effect on bone formation parameters. Deficiency of Lrrk1 in mice causes a severe osteopetrosis in the metaphysis of the long bones and vertebrae bones, which makes LRRK1 an attractive alternative drug target for the treatment of osteoporosis and other high-turnover bone diseases. This review summarizes recent advances on the functions of the Lrrk1-related family members, Lrrk1 deficiency-induced skeletal phenotypes, LRRK1 structure–function, potential biological substrates and interacting proteins, and the mechanisms of LRRK1 action in osteoclasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weirong R Xing
- Musculoskeletal Disease Center, Jerry L. Pettis Memorial VA Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Helen Goodluck
- Musculoskeletal Disease Center, Jerry L. Pettis Memorial VA Medical Center , Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Canjun Zeng
- Musculoskeletal Disease Center, Jerry L. Pettis Memorial VA Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, USA; Department of Orthopedics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Subburaman Mohan
- Musculoskeletal Disease Center, Jerry L. Pettis Memorial VA Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
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43
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Maas JWJ, Yang J, Edwards RH. Endogenous Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 Slows Synaptic Vesicle Recycling in Striatal Neurons. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2017; 9:5. [PMID: 28280464 PMCID: PMC5322269 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2017.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Dominant mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) produce the most common inherited form of Parkinson’s disease (PD) but the function of LRRK2 remains poorly understood. The presynaptic role of multiple genes linked to PD including α-synuclein (α-syn) has suggested that LRRK2 may also influence neurotransmitter release, a possibility supported by recent work. However, the use of disease-associated mutants that cause toxicity complicates the analysis. To determine whether LRRK2 normally influences the synaptic vesicle, we have now used a combination of imaging and electrophysiology to study LRRK2 knockout (KO) mice. Surprisingly, we find that in hippocampal (generally excitatory) neurons, the loss of LRRK2 does not affect synaptic vesicle exocytosis, endocytosis or the mobility of α-syn. Double KO (DKO) mice lacking LRRK1 as well as LRRK2 also show no defect in transmitter release by hippocampal neurons. However, in striatal neurons, which express LRRK2 at higher levels, the loss of LRRK2 leads to modest acceleration of synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Thus, endogenous LRRK2 normally slows synaptic vesicle recycling at striatal terminals.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Jr Maas
- Departments of Neurology and Physiology, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, UCSF School of Medicine San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jing Yang
- Departments of Neurology and Physiology, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, UCSF School of Medicine San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Robert H Edwards
- Departments of Neurology and Physiology, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, UCSF School of Medicine San Francisco, CA, USA
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Azkona G, López de Maturana R, Del Rio P, Sousa A, Vazquez N, Zubiarrain A, Jimenez-Blasco D, Bolaños JP, Morales B, Auburger G, Arbelo JM, Sánchez-Pernaute R. LRRK2 Expression Is Deregulated in Fibroblasts and Neurons from Parkinson Patients with Mutations in PINK1. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 55:506-516. [PMID: 27975167 PMCID: PMC5808058 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0303-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in PINK1 (PARK6), a serine/threonine kinase involved in mitochondrial homeostasis, are associated with early onset Parkinson’s disease. Fibroblasts from Parkinson’s disease patients with compound heterozygous mutations in exon 7 (c.1488 + 1G > A; c.1252_1488del) showed no apparent signs of mitochondrial impairment. To elucidate changes primarily caused by lack of functional PINK1, we over-expressed wild-type PINK1, which induced a significant downregulation of LRRK2 (PARK8). Indeed, we found that LRRK2 protein basal levels were significantly higher in the mutant PINK1 fibroblasts. To examine the interaction between the two PARK genes in a disease-relevant cell context, we generated induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines from mutant, carrier and control fibroblasts by lentiviral-mediated re-programming. Efficiency of neural induction and dopamine differentiation using a floor-plate induction protocol was similar in all genotypes. As observed in fibroblasts, PINK1 mutant neurons showed increased LRRK2 expression both at the RNA and protein level and transient over-expression of wild-type PINK1 efficiently downregulated LRRK2 levels. Additionally, we confirmed a dysregulation of LRRK2 expression in fibroblasts from patients with a different homozygous mutation in PINK1 exon 4, c.926G > A (G309D). Thus, our results identify a novel role of PINK1 modulating the levels of LRRK2 in Parkinson’s disease fibroblasts and neurons, suggest a convergent pathway for these PARK genes, and broaden the role of LRRK2 in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garikoitz Azkona
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain.,Animal Model Unit, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain.,Animal Research Facility, Scientific and Technological Centers, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rakel López de Maturana
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Patricia Del Rio
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaya Sousa
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Nerea Vazquez
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaia Zubiarrain
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Daniel Jimenez-Blasco
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), University of Salamanca-CSIC, Salamanca, Spain.,Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Juan P Bolaños
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), University of Salamanca-CSIC, Salamanca, Spain.,Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Blas Morales
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital San Cecilio, Granada, Spain
| | - Georg Auburger
- Experimental Neurology, Goethe University Medical School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - José Matias Arbelo
- Parkinson's and Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Rosario Sánchez-Pernaute
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain. .,Andalusian Initiative for Advanced Therapies, Junta de Andalucia, Sevilla, Spain.
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45
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Vogt Weisenhorn DM, Giesert F, Wurst W. Diversity matters - heterogeneity of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral mesencephalon and its relation to Parkinson's Disease. J Neurochem 2016; 139 Suppl 1:8-26. [PMID: 27206718 PMCID: PMC5096020 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Dopaminergic neurons in the ventral mesencephalon (the ventral mesencephalic dopaminergic complex) are known for their role in a multitude of behaviors, including cognition, reward, addiction and voluntary movement. Dysfunctions of these neurons are the underlying cause of various neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression, addiction and schizophrenia. In addition, Parkinson's disease (PD), which is the second most common degenerative disease in developed countries, is characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, leading to the core motor symptoms of the disease. However, only a subset of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral mesencephalon is highly vulnerable to the disease process. Indeed, research over several decades revealed that the neurons in the ventral mesencephalic dopaminergic complex do not form a homogeneous group with respect to anatomy, physiology, function, molecular identity or vulnerability/dysfunction in different diseases. Here, we review how the concept of dopaminergic neuron diversity, assisted by the advent and application of new technologies, evolved and was refined over time and how it shaped our understanding of PD pathogenesis. Understanding this diversity of neurons in the ventral mesencephalic dopaminergic complex at all levels is imperative for the development of new and more selective drugs for both PD and various other neuropsychiatric diseases. Several decades of research revealed that the neurons in the ventral mesencephalic dopaminergic complex do not form a homogeneous group in respect to anatomy, physiology, function, molecular identity or vulnerability/dysfunction in diseases like Parkinson's disease (PD). Here, we review how this concept evolved and was refined over time and how it shaped our understanding of the pathogenesis of PD. Source of the midbrain image: www.wikimd.org/wiki/index.php/The_Midbrain_or_Mesencephalon; downloaded 28.01.2016. See also Figures and of the paper. This article is part of a special issue on Parkinson disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Maria Vogt Weisenhorn
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Neuherberg, Germany
- Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Florian Giesert
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Neuherberg, Germany
- Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Wurst
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Neuherberg, Germany.
- Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany.
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, München, Germany.
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany.
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46
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Wang J, Song W. Regulation of LRRK2 promoter activity and gene expression by Sp1. Mol Brain 2016; 9:33. [PMID: 27004687 PMCID: PMC4802577 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-016-0215-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2015] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the nigrostriatal pathway is a prominent neuropathological feature of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Mutations in various genes have been linked to familial PD, and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene is one of them. LRRK2 is a large complex protein, belonging to the ROCO family of proteins. Recent studies suggest that the level of LRRK2 protein is one of the contributing factors to PD pathogenesis. However, it remains elusive how LRRK2 is regulated at the transcriptional and translational level. Results In this study, we cloned a 1738 bp 5’-flanking region of the human LRRK2 gene. The transcriptional start site (TSS) was located to 135 bp upstream of translational start site and the fragment −118 to +133 bp had the minimum promoter activity required for transcription. There were two functional Sp1- responsive elements on the human LRRK2 gene promoter revealed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). Sp1 overexpression promoted LRRK2 transcription and translation in the cellular model. On the contrary, application of mithramycin A inhibited LRRK2 transcriptional and translational activities. Conclusion This is the first study indicating that Sp1 signaling plays an important role in the regulation of human LRRK2 gene expression. It suggests that controlling LRRK2 level by manipulating Sp1 signaling may be beneficial to attenuate PD-related neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juelu Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Townsend Family Laboratories, Graduate Program in Neuroscience, The University of British Columbia, 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Weihong Song
- Department of Psychiatry, Townsend Family Laboratories, Graduate Program in Neuroscience, The University of British Columbia, 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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47
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Langston RG, Rudenko IN, Cookson MR. The function of orthologues of the human Parkinson's disease gene LRRK2 across species: implications for disease modelling in preclinical research. Biochem J 2016; 473:221-32. [PMID: 26811536 PMCID: PMC5165698 DOI: 10.1042/bj20150985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In the period since LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) was identified as a causal gene for late-onset autosomal dominant parkinsonism, a great deal of work has been aimed at understanding whether the LRRK2 protein might be a druggable target for Parkinson's disease (PD). As part of this effort, animal models have been developed to explore both the normal and the pathophysiological roles of LRRK2. However, LRRK2 is part of a wider family of proteins whose functions in different organisms remain poorly understood. In this review, we compare the information available on biochemical properties of LRRK2 homologues and orthologues from different species from invertebrates (e.g. Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster) to mammals. We particularly discuss the mammalian LRRK2 homologue, LRRK1, and those species where there is only a single LRRK homologue, discussing examples where each of the LRRK family of proteins has distinct properties as well as those cases where there appear to be functional redundancy. We conclude that uncovering the function of LRRK2 orthologues will help to elucidate the key properties of human LRRK2 as well as to improve understanding of the suitability of different animal models for investigation of LRRK2-related PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah G. Langston
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892
| | - Iakov N. Rudenko
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892
| | - Mark R. Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892
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48
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Patthey C, Clifford H, Haerty W, Ponting CP, Shimeld SM, Begbie J. Identification of molecular signatures specific for distinct cranial sensory ganglia in the developing chick. Neural Dev 2016; 11:3. [PMID: 26819088 PMCID: PMC4730756 DOI: 10.1186/s13064-016-0057-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The cranial sensory ganglia represent populations of neurons with distinct functions, or sensory modalities. The production of individual ganglia from distinct neurogenic placodes with different developmental pathways provides a powerful model to investigate the acquisition of specific sensory modalities. To date there is a limited range of gene markers available to examine the molecular pathways underlying this process. Results Transcriptional profiles were generated for populations of differentiated neurons purified from distinct cranial sensory ganglia using microdissection in embryonic chicken followed by FAC-sorting and RNAseq. Whole transcriptome analysis confirmed the division into somato- versus viscerosensory neurons, with additional evidence for subdivision of the somatic class into general and special somatosensory neurons. Cross-comparison of distinct ganglia transcriptomes identified a total of 134 markers, 113 of which are novel, which can be used to distinguish trigeminal, vestibulo-acoustic and epibranchial neuronal populations. In situ hybridisation analysis provided validation for 20/26 tested markers, and showed related expression in the target region of the hindbrain in many cases. Conclusions One hundred thirty-four high-confidence markers have been identified for placode-derived cranial sensory ganglia which can now be used to address the acquisition of specific cranial sensory modalities. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13064-016-0057-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cedric Patthey
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. .,Umeå Center for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Harry Clifford
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. .,MRC Functional Genomics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Wilfried Haerty
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. .,MRC Functional Genomics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Chris P Ponting
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. .,MRC Functional Genomics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | | | - Jo Begbie
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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Abstract
Pathogenic mutations and risk variants in LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) represent the most common genetic cause of familial and sporadic PD (Parkinson's disease). LRRK2 protein is widely expressed throughout the brain and the periphery. Structurally, LRRK2 contains several functional domains, including a dual enzymatic core consisting of a kinase and GTPase domain. Disease-linked variants are found in both these enzymatic domains as well as in the COR [C-terminal of ROC (Ras of complex proteins)] and WD40 protein–protein binding domain. The kinase domain is widely believed to be linked to toxicity, and thus the thrust of pharmaceutical effort has focused on developing LRRK2 kinase inhibitors. However, recent data have suggested that inhibition of LRRK2 activity results in reduced LRRK2 levels and peripheral side effects, which are similar to those observed in homozygous LRRK2-knockout and LRRK2 kinase-dead rodent models. In a recent issue of the Biochemical Journal, a study led by Nichols reveals that dephosphorylation of LRRK2 cellular phosphorylation sites (Ser910/Ser935/Ser955/Ser973) triggers its ubiquitination and subsequent degradation and thus may account for the loss of function phenotypes observed in peripheral tissues in LRRK2-knockout/kinase-dead or inhibitor-treated rodents and primates. Albeit negative from a kinase inhibitor standpoint, the data open new avenues for LRRK2 biology and therapeutic approaches to counteract LRRK2 toxicity.
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50
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Henry AG, Aghamohammadzadeh S, Samaroo H, Chen Y, Mou K, Needle E, Hirst WD. Pathogenic LRRK2 mutations, through increased kinase activity, produce enlarged lysosomes with reduced degradative capacity and increase ATP13A2 expression. Hum Mol Genet 2015; 24:6013-28. [PMID: 26251043 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddv314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysosomal dysfunction plays a central role in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD). Several genes linked to genetic forms of PD, including leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), functionally converge on the lysosomal system. While mutations in LRRK2 are commonly associated with autosomal-dominant PD, the physiological and pathological functions of this kinase remain poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that LRRK2 regulates lysosome size, number and function in astrocytes, which endogenously express high levels of LRRK2. Expression of LRRK2 G2019S, the most common pathological mutation, produces enlarged lysosomes and diminishes the lysosomal capacity of these cells. Enlarged lysosomes appears to be a common phenotype associated with pathogenic LRRK2 mutations, as we also observed this effect in cells expressing other LRRK2 mutations; R1441C or Y1699C. The lysosomal defects associated with these mutations are dependent on both the catalytic activity of the kinase and autophosphorylation of LRRK2 at serine 1292. Further, we demonstrate that blocking LRRK2's kinase activity, with the potent and selective inhibitor PF-06447475, rescues the observed defects in lysosomal morphology and function. The present study also establishes that G2019S mutation leads to a reduction in lysosomal pH and increased expression of the lysosomal ATPase ATP13A2, a gene linked to a parkinsonian syndrome (Kufor-Rakeb syndrome), in brain samples from mouse and human LRRK2 G2019S carriers. Together, these results demonstrate that PD-associated LRRK2 mutations perturb lysosome function in a kinase-dependent manner, highlighting the therapeutic promise of LRRK2 kinase inhibitors in the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia G Henry
- Pfizer Neuroscience and Pain Research Unit, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Soheil Aghamohammadzadeh
- Pfizer Neuroscience and Pain Research Unit, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Harry Samaroo
- Pfizer Neuroscience and Pain Research Unit, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Yi Chen
- Pfizer Neuroscience and Pain Research Unit, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kewa Mou
- Pfizer Neuroscience and Pain Research Unit, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Elie Needle
- Pfizer Neuroscience and Pain Research Unit, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Warren D Hirst
- Pfizer Neuroscience and Pain Research Unit, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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