PCR-based molecular characterization of Toxocara spp. using feces of stray cats: a study from Southwest Iran

Gastrointestinal parasites of cats in the Middle East (2000-2023): A literature review

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Gastrointestinal parasites in stray cats are of significant clinical and zoonotic importance and pose a potential threat to public health. Hence, the current review has practical implications as it aims to present the diversity and the prevalence of cat parasites in Middle Eastern countries.

METHODS

The research process was rigorous and thorough, spanning from 2000 to 2023. Data collection and analysis were conducted utilizing multiple international and national databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and Irandoc. This meticulous approach ensures the reliability and validity of the findings, providing a solid foundation for further research and preventive measures.

RESULTS

A total of 159 articles were collected and comprehensively reviewed. Among these, 85 articles were from Iran, 25 from Türkiye, 20 from Iraq, 11 from Egypt, five from Qatar, three from Cyprus, three from Kuwait, and one each from the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine. Toxocara cati was the most prevalent nematode, exhibiting the highest prevalence in Iran, ranging from 8% to 90%, followed by Egypt, with a range of 8.23% to 58.7%. In comparison, the lowest prevalence was recorded in Qatar at 8%. Hydatigera taeniaeformis, a common cestode in the feline, showed the highest prevalence in Qatar, with a range of 73.6% to 75.8%, while the lowest was in Kuwait at 0.8%. In Iran, the prevalence ranged from 0.9% to 64.7%. Toxoplasma gondii, a cosmopolitan protozoan, showcased the highest prevalence in Lebanon at 78.1% and the lowest in the UAE at 0.8%. In Iran, the prevalence ranged between 1.2% and 90%. Additionally, noteworthy patterns regarding the distribution and potential risk factors associated with these parasites were observed. While gender variations were not significant, environmental conditions such as high humidity and absence of sunlight exposure, along with the age and behavior of cats, were among the risk factors associated with the prevalence of parasites.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of parasites among stray cats in Iran and other Middle Eastern countries remains notably high. This emphasizes the urgent need for a series of control and preventive measures. Implementing effective anti-parasitic strategies and emphasizing the development of multiple diagnostic methods are essential.

Microscopic and molecular prevalence and associated risk factors with Toxocara and Blastocystis infection in dogs and cats in Mitidja, Algeria

Domestic dogs and cats can serve as a source of environmental contamination with Toxocara spp. and Blastocystis spp., and this represents a neglected public and veterinary health problem. We assessed the microscopic and molecular prevalence of these species in a locality in Algeria and identified the associated risk factors. The faeces of 225 dogs and 78 cats were collected in Mitidja between March and July 2022. The samples were analysed by coproscopy and by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the Internal Transcribed Spacer 2 (ITS2) and Small Subunit Ribosomal (SSU-RNA) of T. canis and Blastocystis spp. respectively. The overall microscopic prevalence of Toxocara spp. in dogs and cats was 9.78 ± 1.98% and 12.82 ± 7.42%, respectively. The rate of Blastocystis spp. was 15.11 ± 2.39% and 15.38 ± 4.08% in dogs and cats, respectively while the molecular prevalence of T. canis in dogs was 4.89 ± 1.44% and in cats 1.28 ± 1.27%; the prevalence of Blastocystis spp. was 41.78 ± 3.29% and 34.62 ± 5.39% in dogs and cats, respectively. Phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses identified the presence of the H1 subtype of T. canis in dogs, and the ST1 subtype of Blastocystis in dogs and cats. Dogs with clinical signs were more likely to be infected with T. canis (OR 6.039, P < 0.05) than healthy dogs. This study demonstrates that dogs and cats are carriers of Toxocara spp. and Blastocystis spp. and are therefore a source of environmental contamination. Veterinarians and human health professionals should work together to implement control strategies as part of a "One Health" approach to improving animal health and reducing the risk of transmission to humans.

Understanding the research and practical needs required to control toxocariasis in Iran

Human toxocariasis (HT) is a widespread zoonotic infection globally, notably prevalent in tropical areas. Enhancing our understanding of toxocariasis can lead to increased attention towards the socioeconomic impact and control of this neglected zoonosis. We conducted a comprehensive review of all available articles and official documents on toxocariasis in Iran to identify research gaps and critical needs for its control. This review highlights that despite numerous studies exploring various aspects of toxocariasis in definitive and paratenic hosts, as well as humans and environmental contamination, significant data deficiencies and gaps persist across different regions in the country. These gaps involve investigating the worm burden and reinfection rates in definitive hosts, developing more sensitive methods to detect and differentiate of Toxocara species, and understanding the behavior of definitive host animals. Additionally, identifying potential paratenic hosts for HT and exploring the organ-specific affinity and survival duration of Toxocara larvae within these hosts are essential areas for exploration. It's also imperative to comprehend the sylvatic and domestic cycles of the parasite in paratenic hosts. Furthermore, assessing egg density in the environment, exploring potential new sources such as water, and identifying regions with optimal climatic conditions for the survival and development of Toxocara eggs are crucial for the formulation of effective prevention and control strategies. Identifying at-risk groups, developing early diagnosis techniques, employing imaging methods, and identifying long-term complications in humans are also crucial. Community health organizations should prioritize health education for the public and professionals. Furthermore, accurately estimating definitive host populations, monitoring and preventing their movements in public places, implementing regular deworming practices for pets and stray hosts, and recognizing the infection's significance as a health priority are critical. This comprehensive understanding advocates for a holistic "one health" approach to control of HT.

Toxascaris leonina infected domestic cat (Felis catus) in Egypt; PCR-based molecular characterization of nematode eggs: a potential hazards to human health

This molecular-epidemiological study was conducted in several locations in Cairo and Giza Governorates in domestic cats (Felis catus) to detect the most common intestinal helminths in feces and molecularly characterize this nematode. So, three hundred domestic cats were admitted to different clinics around Cairo and Giza Governorates with severe diarrhea, even watery, between January 2023 and April 2023. The ages of the cats ranged from 1 to 2.5 years old. Blood, sera, and urine samples were collected for further investigation of the health condition of the animals. Toxascaris leonina was the major intestinal parasite found in cat stools, with a prevalence rate of 5% (15 cats). Toxascaris leonina (T. leonina) eggs had oval elliptical surfaces and thick cuticles. An embryo was located inside the smooth outer shell wall of the shell. The animals suffer from normocytic normochromic anemia with leukocytosis, relative lymphocytosis, and thrombocytopenia. The amplification of the ITS-rDNA region from the ascaridoid nematodes was successfully performed using NC5 and NC2 primers. The PCR product of the ITS-rDNA fragment was sequenced and yielded 860 bp. The accession number of the sequenced ITS-rDNA region was OQ735413, submitted to Gene Bank, and based on the blast analysis of NCBI, the current ascaridoid nematode proved to be genetically related to the family Ascarididae and identified as T. leonina.

Genetic and population diversity of Toxocara cati (Schrank, 1788) Brumpt, 1927, on the basis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region

The present investigation was aimed to study the sequence, phylogenetic and haplotype analyses of Toxocara cati based on the ITS region, along with the genetic diversity, demographic history and population-genetic structure. The maximum likelihood tree based on Kimura 2-parameter model was constructed using the complete ITS region of all the nucleotide sequences (n = 57) of Toxocara spp. and other related ascarid worms available in the GenBank™. It placed all the sequences of T. cati into four major clades designated as T. cati genotypes 1-4 (TcG1-G4). A total of 66 signature nucleotides were identified in the ITS region between genotypes. The median-joining haplotype network displayed a total of 24 haplotypes, with China exhibiting the highest number of haplotypes (h = 20) followed by India (h = 4), and Japan and Russia (h = 1). It indicated a clear distinction between all the four genotypes. The pairwise F_ST values between all the genotypes indicated huge genetic differentiation (> 0.25) between different T. cati genotypes. Moreover, the gene flow (Nm) between T. cati genotypes was very low. Results of AMOVA revealed higher genetic variation between genotypes (92.82%) as compared to the variation within genotypes (7.18%). The neutrality indices and mismatch distributions for the G1-G4 genotypes, Indian isolates and the overall dataset of T. cati indicated either a constant population size or a slight population increase. The geographical distribution of all the genotypes of T. cati is also reported. This is the first report of genotyping of T. cati on the basis of the ITS region.

Prevalence and Molecular Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara cati Among Stray and Household Cats and Cat Owners in Tehran, Iran

Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara spp. are the most critical parasites common between humans and cats. The close association of cats with humans in urban areas persuaded us to investigate the prevalence of these parasites in stray and household cats and their possible role in the owners' infection. Herein, 132 and 33 fecal samples of stray and household cats, respectively, and 33 blood samples of their owners were collected in Tehran, Iran. The prevalence of T. gondii was determined by targeting the B1 gene in the feces of stray and household cats and the blood of cat owners. Furthermore, genotypes of T. gondii were identified based on the multilocus genotyping of BTUB, GRA6, SAG3, and APICO loci. Toxocara spp. were detected by targeting the second internal transcribed spacer (ITS-2) of the ribosomal DNA of these parasites in the cats' feces and the humans' blood. Also, Toxocara IgG was assessed in the human serum samples. The B1 gene amplification showed that 15.2% of stray cats, 18.2% of household cats, and 51.5% of cat owners were infected with T. gondii. The multilocus sequence analysis revealed the predominance of genotype I of T. gondii in stray cats and genotype II of T. gondii in household cats and cat owners. The amplifying of ITS-2 revealed a high prevalence of T. cati infection (47.0%) in stray cats, whereas no infection was found in the feces of household cats or the serum of cat owners. Likewise, Toxocara IgG was not detected in the serum of humans. The lower prevalence of T. gondii in stray/household cats than in the cat owners indicates the limited impact of close contact with infected cats in human toxoplasmosis. However, the high prevalence of T. cati infection in stray cats can cause contamination of the environment by excreting eggs that may lead to infecting humans through soil or water. Therefore, public health education in urban management planning is necessary for routine urban cat deworming programs and for training the healthcare workers to prevent, control, and treat these infections.

Molecular evaluation of Toxocara species in stray cats using loop-mediated isothermal amplification (lamp) technique as a rapid, sensitive and simple screening assay

Toxocara species are parasitic nematodes of dogs and cats with a worldwide distribution. The adult worm lives in the intestine, and horizontal transmission of the infection occurs through eating paratenic host or embryonated eggs. This study aimed to estimate the molecular prevalence of Toxocara species in stray cats using the loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) technique. A total of 95 stool samples were randomly collected from stray cats in Khorramabad city in western Iran. Microscopic examination was performed after the separation and extraction of supernatants. The LAMP reaction was performed using the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) gene primers of Toxocara species and the appropriate master mix. The overall prevalence of Toxocara spp. in stray cats was 20% (19/95, CI 95%: 0.2 ± 0.08) by parasitological and molecular assessments. The microscopic examination of stool samples revealed that 19 samples were positive for Toxocara. The same 19 positive samples were also positive by the LAMP technique. Interestingly, based on the results of the LAMP assay, out of 95 studied samples, 18 (18.94%; CI 95%: 0.19 ± 0.08) specimens were Toxocara canis, while only 1 (1.05%; CI 95%: 0.005 ± 0.01) sample was diagnosed as Toxocara cati. The relatively high prevalence of Toxocara species in the studied cats shows the role of this species in spreading the parasite and the role of the cats in transmitting this zoonotic parasite. Preventive measures including the control of stray cat's population by castration and protection of public gardens where children play are recommended. The easy, highly sensitive and specific LAMP method is proposed for the differential detection of Toxocara species in animals and humans.

Soil Contamination with Toxocara Eggs in Public Schools in Rural Areas of Southern Thailand

Soil is considered the primary source of Toxocara transmission to humans, especially children. The status of soil contamination with Toxocara eggs in southern Thailand is unknown. This study aimed at estimating the soil contamination with Toxocara eggs in public schools in Nakhon Si Thammarat province in southern Thailand. Soil samples were collected from 12 public schools between August and September 2017. At each site, ten soil samples were collected from the following five types of locations: (1) playgrounds, (2) football fields, (3) sidewalks, (4) schoolyards, and (5) areas around cafeterias. In total, 120 samples were examined for Toxocara eggs with a modified flotation method using a sucrose solution. Toxocara eggs were detected in 8 (66.7%) of the 12 studied public schools. Of the 120 soil samples, 22 (18.3%; 95% CI: 11.9, 26.4) were contaminated with Toxocara eggs. The highest levels of Toxocara egg contamination were observed in playgrounds (41.7%; 95% CI: 22.1, 63.4), followed by football fields (20.8%; 95% CI: 7.1, 42.2), sidewalks (12.5%; 95% CI: 2.7, 32.4), and schoolyards (12.5%; 95% CI: 2.7, 32.4). There were significant differences in the distribution of Toxocara eggs across location types (p < 0.05). The findings demonstrated that the soil samples from public schools were contaminated with Toxocara eggs. Playgrounds were the most heavily contaminated locations. Teaching children proper handwashing steps and discouraging geophagia should be implemented to reduce the distribution of Toxocara and limit future Toxocara infections.

A new tool for early diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis using combined biomarkers; synovial MAGE-1 mRNA and serum anti-CCP and RF

Introduction

rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common autoimmune disease with unknown etiology and pathogenesis. Biomarkers have the potential to aid in the clinical diagnosis of the disease, or to provide means of detecting early signs of the disease. Evaluating Melanoma associated antigen genes (MAGE-1) mRNA expression rate in synovial fluid cells and serum levels of anti-cyclic citrullinated peptides (anti-CCP) and rheumatoid factor (RF) for RA early diagnosis.

Methods

a total of 213 subjects were enrolled in the study, 135 RA patients and 78 normal subjects with traumatic knee joints (control group). Serum RF and anti-CCP were estimated quantitatively using ELISA. MAGE-1 mRNA expression rate was analyzed by RT-PCR.

Results

a significant increase in serum levels of RF IgM and anti-CCP in RA patients compared to the controls. A positively significant correlation was found between serum anti-CCP and RF IgM. The expression rate of MAGE-1 mRNA was 100% in RA patients versus the controls (0%). The specificity and the sensitivity of the three biomarkers was 100%.

Conclusion

the high expression rate of MAGE-1 in synovial fluid cells of RA patients is encouraging its utilization as a diagnostic biomarker for RA. The combined use of MAGE-1 transcript in synovial fluid cells, serum RF and anti-CCP is recommended for improving early diagnostic ability of RA.

Efficacy of a chlorocresol-based disinfectant product on Toxocara canis eggs

Toxocara canis is a common parasite of dogs and can cause zoonotic toxocariasis in humans. As a part of control programs for this agent, optimized hygiene including chemical disinfection is considered essential in the prevention and control of zoonotic toxocariasis in humans. However, commonly used disinfectants at present mostly fail to inhibit the embryogenesis and viability of T. canis eggs. To this effect, the present study was designed to evaluate the effect of a chlorocresol-based disinfectant product Neopredisan®135-1 (NP) on embryonic development of T. canis eggs in vitro and to investigate the infectivity of exposed eggs by assessing larval establishment in a mouse model. Under in vitro conditions, NP at a final concentration of 0.25, 0.50, 1, 2, or 4% all exhibited significant killing effect on T. canis embryogenesis compared with the control eggs (P < 0.05), regardless of contact times (30, 60, 90, or 120 min). Such killing activity increased in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, with a maximum killing efficacy of 95.81% at 4% concentration and 120 min exposure time. Comparisons between low and high concentrations and between short and long contact times concluded that a protocol using the 1% concentration of NP with a 90-min contact could be the most suitable for practical application. Additionally, the lower larval recovery in mice inoculated with eggs treated by either 0.25 or 0.5% NP than that from their corresponding controls (P < 0.05) verified once again that NP had an adverse impact on the larval development of T. canis eggs even at a low concentration. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report the effect of the chlorocresol-based disinfectant NP on the embryonation and larval development of T. canis eggs, and the results presented here would contribute to environmental clearance and control of toxocariasis by providing an alternative disinfectant resource. However, it is highlighted that the clearance of the novel and existing sources of infection including larvated eggs in places treated with NP is not guaranteed and therefore continuous monitoring and additional disinfection are still required.

Sources of environmental contamination with Toxocara spp.: An omnipresent parasite

Embryonated Toxocara eggs in the environment are considered to be the most important source of human toxocariasis. These eggs, however, are also a source of infection for the definitive and paratenic hosts. Most available literature focuses on Toxocara canis in dogs, or other canids. There are, however, other Toxocara species with their accompanying definitive hosts. Results from studies that modelled patent infections in dogs, cats and foxes show that although dogs are a very important source for environmental contamination with Toxocara eggs, other sources cannot be ignored. For a good understanding of the relative contributions of different definitive hosts to environmental contamination with Toxocara eggs, computational models should be built and fed with data from different fields of expertise as is discussed in this paper.

Larval distribution, migratory pattern and histological effects of Toxocara canis in Rattus norvegicus

The common dog roundworm Toxocara canis can infect other animals and humans which may act as their paratenic and accidental hosts, respectively. Larvae do not further develop to adult worms in these hosts. Instead, they undergo migration to various body organs, causing the neglected parasitic disease known as toxocariasis. Although rats are considered as potential paratenic hosts of the parasite, there are only few studies which utilized Rattus norvegicus (Sprague-Dawley strain) for experimental infections involving toxocariasis. This study aimed to determine whether T. canis could establish in Sprague-Dawley rats artificially infected with 500 T. canis embryonated eggs and if the animals can be used as animal models for toxocariasis. Following squash method and tissue digestion, larvae were recovered from the lungs, liver and brain of the infected rats. Furthermore, gross examination of organs revealed macroscopic lesions and hemorrhages in the lungs and brain. Microscopically, accumulation of inflammatory cells, thickening of alveoli lining and destruction of bronchial walls and hepatic necrosis were observed. This study showed that T. canis has established in Sprague-Dawley rats and could serve as a model for Toxocara infection studies.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of zoonotic helminths in dogs

A cross sectional study was designed to ascertain the prevalence of zoonotic helminths and protozoan parasites in dogs by employing conventional techniques and molecular characterization using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Companion animals are reservoir hosts for helminths and protozoa species, and cohabitation with humans play a pivotal role in the transmission of zoonotic parasites to humans. A total of 510 faecal samples were collected from pet dogs belongs to various zones of Chennai city, Tamil Nadu, India and were processed by conventional techniques and molecular techniques. Out of 510 dog faeces, 121 samples were found positive for the parasitic eggs, prevalence rate was found to be 23.72%. Species-wise prevalence of the parasite was tabulated. PCR for the species-specific identification of the parasitic eggs was performed. The results revealed 38 samples were positive with product size of 540 bp specific for Ancylostoma caninum, 25 samples were positive which yielded a product size of 380 bp which is specific for Toxocara canis. None of the faecal samples tested were positive for Echinococcus granulosus which were positive for the presence of Taenia spp. eggs by microscopy. We recommend prevention and control measures focused on improving regular deworming, enhancing awareness of parasitic zoonotic diseases to minimize the transmission risk of parasitic zoonotic diseases from companion animals to humans. PCR can be widely used for species-specific identification of the zoonotic parasites.

Genetic Analysis of Toxocara Spp. in Stray Cats and Dogs in Van Province, Eastern Turkey

INTRODUCTION

Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati are roundworms of dogs and cats. The purpose of this study was to investigate the infection caused by these ascarids in cats and dogs, using microscopic and molecular analysis methods.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Adult ascarids were gathered from the faeces of dogs and cats in Van province, in 2015-2016. Existing keys and PCR sequencing of the ITS-2 fragment were used to identify the morphological features of the parasite species.

RESULTS

It was observed that out of 20 adult ascarids, 17 and 3 were found to be Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati, respectively. The ITS-2 gene region was amplified by PCR to perform molecular analysis. Genotyping indicated that the dogs and cats were infected with T. canis and T. cati, respectively, and none had Toxascaris leonina.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the molecular characteristics of adult ascaridoid nematodes from cats and dogs in Turkey. The molecular approaches established in this study enable molecular identification and genetic structure studies of the ascaridoids.

Molecular Determination of Fasciola Spp. Isolates from Domestic Ruminants Fecal Samples in the Northwest of Iran

BACKGROUND

Fasciola species are the main causes for fascioliasis with great financial losses and are among the most important food/water-borne parasites worldwide. The basic proceedings such as epidemiology and effective control of fascioliasis rely mainly on precise identification of Fasciola species. The present study was conducted to determine the Fasciola species in ruminant fecal samples from East Azerbaijan Province in Iran.

METHODS

Overall, 2012 fecal samples were collected and processed initially for microscopic examination of Fasciola eggs in 2014-15. Then, recovered eggs were subjected to molecular identification. A fragment of 618 bp of the 28S rRNA gene pertaining to Fasciola genus was amplified under PCR. The amplified fragment was restricted by fast digest Ava II enzyme in order to a Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism.

RESULTS

Based on microscopic examination, 72 samples were infected, from which, 10 and 62 cases pertained to cattle and sheep samples respectively. Based on RFLP, the PCR products restricted by the Ava II restriction enzyme produced 529 bp fragments only. According to the positive controls, all restriction patterns were related to Fasciola hepatica, while no restriction patterns were linked to F. gigantica.

CONCLUSION

Based on PCR-RFLP, F. hepatica was dominant species in animals of the studied areas and no evidence of F. gigantica was observed. Therefore, further field studies to verify these results are suggested.

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Toxocara canis Infection in Serbia During 2015

We report data on the Toxocara seroprevalence evidenced in 2015 from samples of 40 children and 298 adults of the population living in different areas of Serbia, and on possible association of certain variables with infection. Detection of specific antibodies was performed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; all ambiguous results and part of the positive and negative sera were further analyzed by confirmatory Western blot test. An overall 23.5% seroprevalence was noticed, which was confirmed in 13.0% of the examined population with no significant difference regarding the age (children = 10.0%; adults = 13.4%) or by country area (East = 18.2%; North = 15.5%, Southeastern = 9.5%; p = 0.005). In contrast, the group of adult women proved more reactive than men (p = 0.001), and subjects both who spend spare time in square/parks (p = 0.041) and with positive onychophagy (p = 0.001) habit turned out more exposed to the infection. Possible reasons of these differences were analyzed, and the medical, veterinary, and economic impact of this soil-transmitted zoonosis were discussed.

First report of Toxocara cati in the domestic land snail Rumina decollata

The prospective role of the land snail Rumina decollata as a potential paratenic host of Toxocara cati for domestic cats was studied. R. decollata specimens and cats' feces were collected from the open spaces of a Buenos Aires city hospital. Cats' feces were analyzed and snails were digested to identify T. cati stages, by morphological and molecular analyses. T. cati larval eggs were recovered from 23.5% (4/17) of the sampled feces. Twenty percent of snail pools (5/25) were confirmed to be positive for Toxocara spp. third larval stage (L3) by PCR. The mean value of total larvae recovered per gram of snail in all positive pools was 5.1, with a maximum 33 L3/pool. This is the first report of T. cati infective larvae in R. decollata domestic snail as a paratenic host, since the relationship between infection in snails and in cats' feces could be demonstrated in a common environment.

Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Toxocara infection in Korean, Manchu, Mongol, and Han ethnic groups in northern China

Toxocariasis is a very prevalent zoonotic disease worldwide. Recently, investigators have focused more on Toxocara spp. seroprevalence in humans. Information regarding Toxocara seroprevalence in people from different ethnic backgrounds in China is limited. For this study, blood samples were collected from a total of 802 Han, 520 Korean, 303 Manchu, and 217 Mongol subjects from Jilin and Shandong provinces. The overall Toxocara seroprevalence was 16·07% (14·21% Han, 20·58% Korean, 11·22% Manchu, 18·89% Mongol). Living in suburban or rural areas, having dogs at home, exposure to soil, and consumption of raw/undercooked meat were risk factors for Toxocara infection. Exposure to soil was identified as the major risk factor for Toxocara seropositivity in all of the tested ethnicities. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report concerning Toxocara infection in Manchus and Mongols in China. The present study provided baseline data for effective prevention strategies of toxocariasis in northeast China and recommends improvements in personal hygiene standards to achieve this goal.

Fungi predatory activity on embryonated Toxocara canis eggs inoculated in domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) and destruction of second stage larvae

The objective of this study was to evaluate the infectivity of Toxocara canis eggs after interacting with isolated nematophagous fungi of the species Duddingtonia flagrans (AC001) and Pochonia chlamydosporia (VC4), and test the predatory activity of the isolated AC001 on T. canis second stage larvae after 7 days of interaction. In assay A, 5000 embryonated T. canis eggs previously in contact with the AC001 and VC4 isolated for 10 days were inoculated into domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus), and then these animals were necropsied to collect material (digested liver, intestine, muscles and lungs) at 3-, 7-, 14-, and 21-day intervals after inoculation. In assay A, the results demonstrated that the prior interaction of the eggs with isolated AC001 and VC4 decreases the amount of larvae found in the collected organs. Difference (p < 0.01) was observed in the medium larvae counts recovered from liver, lung, intestine, and muscle of animals in the treated groups when compared to the animals in the control group. At the end of assay A, a percentage reduction of 87.1 % (AC001) and 84.5 % (VC4) respectively was recorded. In the result of assay B, the isolated AC001 showed differences (p < 0.01) compared to the control group, with a reduction of 53.4 % in the recovery of L2. Through these results, it is justified to mention that prior interaction of embryonated T. canis eggs with the tested fungal isolates were efficient in reducing the development and migration of this parasite, in addition to the first report of proven predatory activity on L2.

Frequency of Toxoplasma and Toxocara Sp. Antibodies in Epileptic Patients, in South Western Iran

OBJECTIVE

Epilepsy is a disorder of the brain characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate seizures. Infectious agents are mentioned in its etiology. With identifying and appropriate treatment of these infectious agents, preventing their secondary outcomes, including seizure is possible. This study was conducted to determine frequency of anti-Toxoplasma antibodies (IgG, IgM) and anti-Toxocara antibody (IgG) in epileptic patients.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Study sample consisted of 141 epileptic patients and 144 healthy people. After obtaining informed consents and completing demographic questionnaire, serum samples were taken from participants. The diagnostic test of Toxoplasma IgG & IgM and Toxocara antibodies was performed under the same conditions using ELISA method in a qualified private laboratory. Samples from patients and control groups with positive ELISA test in terms of anti-Toxocara antibody were also used for confirmatory Western blot test.

RESULT

According to ELISA results, 28 (19.85%) epileptic patients and 2(1.38%) of healthy people had anti-Toxocara antibodies (P<001), while 39 (30.46%) of the control group people and 14.18% of patients had anti-Toxoplsma antibodies (P=0.001).

CONCLUSION

Frequency of anti-Toxoplasma gondii is lower in epileptic than healthy individuals and this result is contrary to investigations that have reported higher levels of this antibody in such patient groups. ELISA results for Toxocara showed that the frequency of anti-Toxocara antibody in epileptic patients might empower the probability that this parasite may cause central nervous system damage. Western blotting has high specificity and is a proper confirmative method for diagnosis of toxocariasis.

Molecular characterization of Toxocara spp. from soil of public areas in Ahvaz southwestern Iran

In the present study, the microscopy and polymerase chain reaction methods were used for detection and identification of soil contamination by Toxocara eggs in squares, streets, public parks, and rubbish dumps in Ahvaz, southwestern Iran. A total of 210 soil samples were collected from different parts of the city and examined by microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods, following sodium nitrate flotation. Nucleotide sequencing was performed to confirm the results of the PCR method. Toxocara eggs were found in 64 and 71 soil samples using the microscopy and PCR methods, respectively. The highest contamination rate was observed in the central part of Ahvaz (39.5% and 46.5% by the microscopy and PCR methods, respectively). Based on internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) PCR identification, 28% of the samples were diagnosed as Toxocara cati and 5.7% as Toxocara canis; no mixed contamination was observed. DNA sequencing of the ITS2 gene confirmed our findings. Compared to the conventional microscopic detection following by flotation, used as the gold standard, the PCR method appears to be rapid and sensitive as well as allows analysis of Toxocara spp. isolated from soil independent of the stage of egg development. Therefore, the PCR method appears to be a valuable tool for the diagnosis and differentiation of Toxocara spp. from soil samples in epidemiological studies, and will help the local health systems in effective prevention and control of disease.

Investigation of anti-Toxocara and anti-toxoplasma antibodies in patients with schizophrenia disorder

Objective. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara spp. infections in patients with schizophrenia disorder. Method. A total of 100 patients with schizophrenia disorder and 95 healthy individuals participated in the study. Participants were tested for the presence of anti-T. gondii and anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies by ELISA and Western blotting. Data were analyzed using Chi-square test and Fisher 9 s exact test. Results. There were no differences in T. gondii IgG seroprevalence between patients with schizophrenia and healthy individuals (P = 0.1), but there were differences in seroprevalence between males and females with schizophrenia (P = 0.009). In contrast, Toxocara spp. IgG seroprevalence was greater in patients with schizophrenia disorder than in healthy individuals (P = 0.02), but there were no differences in seroprevalence between men and women with schizophrenia (P = 0.5). Finally, there were no differences in seroprevalence of T. gondii or Toxocara spp. IgG among different subtypes of schizophrenia, various age groups, residential area, or clinical course of treatment (P > 0.05). Conclusion. The present study suggests that patients with schizophrenia disorder are at elevated risk of Toxocara spp. infection. Moreover, contamination with T. gondii is a risk factor for schizophrenia in women.

Molecular diagnosis of an ocular toxocariasis patient in Vietnam

An ocular Toxocara canis infection is reported for the first time in Vietnam. A 34-year-old man residing in a village of Son La Province, North Vietnam, visited the National Eye Hospital (NEH) in August 2011. He felt a bulge-sticking pain in his left eye and loss of vision occurred over 3 months before visiting the hospital. The eye examination in the hospital showed damage of the left eye, red eye, retinal fibrosis, retinal detachment, inflammation of the eye tissues, retinal granulomas, and a parasitic cyst inside. A larva of Toxocara was collected with the cyst by a medical doctor by surgery. Comparison of 264 nucleotides of internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) of ribosomal DNA was done between our Vietnamese Toxocara canis and other Toxocara geographical isolates, including Chinese T. canis, Japanese T. canis, Sri Lankan T. canis, and Iranian T. canis. The nucleotide homology was 97-99%, when our T. canis was compared with geographical isolates. Identification of a T. canis infection in the eye by a molecular method was performed for the first time in Vietnam.