Validation of reference genes for expression studies during craniofacial development in arctic charr

Heterochronic shift in gene expression leads to ontogenetic morphological divergence between two closely related polyploid species

Heterochrony-alteration to the rate or timing of development-is an important mechanism of trait differentiation associated with speciation. Heterochrony may explain the morphological divergence between two polyploid species, June sucker (Chasmistes liorus) and Utah sucker (Catostomus ardens). The larvae of both species have terminal mouths; however, as adults, June sucker and Utah sucker develop subterminal and ventral mouths, respectively. We document a difference in the timing of shape development and a corresponding change in the timing of gene expression, suggesting the distinctive mouth morphology in June suckers may result from paedomorphosis. Specifically, adult June suckers exhibit an intermediate mouth morphology between the larval (terminal) and ancestral (ventral) states. Endemic and sympatric Chasmistes/Catostomus pairs in two other lakes also are morphologically divergent, but genetically similar. These species pairs could have resulted from the differential expression of genes and corresponding divergence in trait development. Paedomorphosis may lead to adaptive diversification in Catostomids.

Insights into Early Ontogenesis of Salmo salar: RNA Extraction, Housekeeping Gene Validation and Transcriptional Expression of Important Primordial Germ Cell and Sex-Determination Genes

The challenge in extracting high-quality RNA impedes the investigation of the transcriptome of developing salmonid embryos. Furthermore, the mRNA expression pattern of important PGC and SD genes during the initial embryonic development of Salmo salar is yet to be studied. So, in the present study, we aimed to isolate high-quality RNA from eggs and developing embryos to check vasa, dnd1, nanos3a, sdf1, gsdf, amh, cyp19a, dmrt1 and foxl2 expression by qPCR. Additionally, four HKGs (GAPDH, UB2L3, eEf1a and β-actin) were validated to select the best internal control for qPCR. High-quality RNA was extracted, which was confirmed by spectrophotometer, agarose gel electrophoresis and Agilent TapeStation analysis. UB2L3 was chosen as a reference gene because it exhibited lower intra- and inter-sample variation. vasa transcripts were expressed in all the developmental stages, while dnd1 was expressed only up to 40 d°C. Nanos3a was expressed in later stages and remained at its peak for a shorter period, while sdf1 showed an irregular pattern of mRNA expression. The mRNA expression levels of SD genes were observed to be upregulated during the later stages of development, prior to hatching. This study presents a straightforward methodology for isolating high-quality RNA from salmon eggs, and the resulting transcript profiles of significant PGC and SD genes in S. salar could aid in improving our comprehension of reproductive development in this commercially important species.

Stability evaluation and validation of appropriate reference genes for real-time PCR expression analysis of immune genes in the rohu (Labeo rohita) skin following argulosis

Argulosis is one of the most unrestrained economically significant freshwater fish ectoparasitic diseases. Proper selection or normalization of the best reference gene governs the accuracy of results of gene expression studies using real-time PCR. Earlier studies in rohu carp (Labeo rohita) have used reference genes without proper validation. Here, seven candidate reference genes viz., acidic ribosomal protein (ARP0), glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, RNA polymerase II (RPo), elongation factor1α (EF1α), α- tubulin (AT), ribosomal protein L 10, and β-actin were evaluated using four algorithms (geNorm, BestKeeper, NormFinder and ∆Ct) followed by a comprehensive gene expression analysis using skin tissue of rohu at varied time points of experimental Argulus siamensis infection. ARP0 and EF1α were found to be the most stable whereas RPo and AT were considered as least stable genes based on basal expression level and variation in expression levels. Validation of candidate reference genes was undertaken by looking into the expression of six immune-related genes using the two most stable and two least stable genes as housekeeping genes in Argulus-infected rohu skin at different time points of infection. An increased expression of immune genes indicated the role of inflammation and the immune modulation process at the site of attachment of parasites in governing infection.

Investigation of chicken housekeeping genes using next-generation sequencing data

Accurate normalization of the gene expression assays, using housekeeping genes (HKGs), is critically necessary. To do so, selection of a proper set of HKGs for a specific experiment is of great importance. Despite many studies, there is no consensus about the suitable set of HKGs for implementing in the quantitative real-time PCR analyses of chicken tissues. A limited number of HKGs have been widely used. However, wide utilization of a little number of HKGs for all tissues is challenging. The emergence of high-throughput gene expression RNA-seq data has enabled the simultaneous comparison of the stability of multiple HKGs. Therefore, employing the average coefficient of variations of at least three datasets per tissue, we sorted all reliably expressed genes (REGs; with FPKM ≥ 1 in at least one sample) and introduced the top 10 most suitable and stable reference genes for each of the 16 chicken tissues. We evaluated the consistency of the results of five tissues using the same methodology on other datasets. Furthermore, we assessed 96 previously widely used HKGs (WU-HKGs) in order to challenge the accuracy of the previous studies. The New Tuxedo software suite was used for the main analyses. The results revealed novel, different sets of reference genes for each of the tissues with 17 common genes among the top 10 genes lists of 16 tissues. The results did disprove the suitability of WU-HKGs such as Actb, Ldha, Scd, B2m, and Hprt1 for any of the tissues examined. On the contrary, a total of 6, 13, 14, 23, and 32 validated housekeeping genes (V-HKGs) were discovered as the most stable and suitable reference genes for muscle, spleen, liver, heart, and kidney tissues, respectively. Although we identified a few new HKGs usable for multiple tissues, the selection of suitable HKGs is required to be tissue specific. The newly introduced reference genes from the present study, despite lacking experimental validation, will be able to contribute to the more accurate normalization for future expression analysis of chicken genes.

Appetite regulating genes in zebrafish gut; a gene expression study

The underlying molecular pathophysiology of feeding disorders, particularly in peripheral organs, is still largely unknown. A range of molecular factors encoded by appetite-regulating genes are already described to control feeding behaviour in the brain. However, the important role of the gastrointestinal tract in the regulation of appetite and feeding in connection to the brain has gained more attention in the recent years. An example of such inter-organ connection can be the signals mediated by leptin, a key regulator of body weight, food intake and metabolism, with conserved anorexigenic effects in vertebrates. Leptin signals functions through its receptor (lepr) in multiple organs, including the brain and the gastrointestinal tract. So far, the regulatory connections between leptin signal and other appetite-regulating genes remain unclear, particularly in the gastrointestinal system. In this study, we used a zebrafish mutant with impaired function of leptin receptor to explore gut expression patterns of appetite-regulating genes, under different feeding conditions (normal feeding, 7-day fasting, 2 and 6-hours refeeding). We provide evidence that most appetite-regulating genes are expressed in the zebrafish gut. On one hand, we did not observed significant differences in the expression of orexigenic genes (except for hcrt) after changes in the feeding condition. On the other hand, we found 8 anorexigenic genes in wild-types (cart2, cart3, dbi, oxt, nmu, nucb2a, pacap and pomc), as well as 4 genes in lepr mutants (cart3, kiss1, kiss1r and nucb2a), to be differentially expressed in the zebrafish gut after changes in feeding conditions. Most of these genes also showed significant differences in their expression between wild-type and lepr mutant. Finally, we observed that impaired leptin signalling influences potential regulatory connections between anorexigenic genes in zebrafish gut. Altogether, these transcriptional changes propose a potential role of leptin signal in the regulation of feeding through changes in expression of certain anorexigenic genes in the gastrointestinal tract of zebrafish.

DNA methylation differences during development distinguish sympatric morphs of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus)

Changes in DNA methylation in specific coding or non-coding regions can influence development and potentially divergence in traits within species and groups. While the impact of epigenetic variation on developmental pathways associated with evolutionary divergence is the focus of intense investigation, few studies have looked at recently diverged systems. Phenotypic diversity between closely related populations of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus), which diverged within the last 10 000 years, offers an interesting ecological model to address such effects. Using bisulfite sequencing, we studied general DNA methylation patterns during development in the four sympatric morphs of Arctic charr from Lake Thingvallavatn. The data revealed strong differences between developmental timepoints and between morphs (mainly along the benthic - limnetic axis), both at single CpG sites and in 1,000bp-regions. Genes located close to differentially methylated CpG sites were involved in nucleosome assembly, regulation of osteoclast differentiation, and cell-matrix adhesion. Differentially methylated regions were enriched in tRNA and rRNA sequences, and half of them were located close to transcription start sites. The expression of 14 genes showing methylation differences over time or between morphs was further investigated by qPCR and nine of these were found to be differentially expressed between morphs. Four genes (ARHGEF37-like, H3-like, MPP3 and MEGF9) showed a correlation between methylation and expression. Lastly, histone gene clusters displayed interesting methylation differences between timepoints and morphs, as well as intragenic methylation variation. The results presented here provide a motivation for further studies on the contribution of epigenetic traits, such as DNA methylation, to phenotypic diversity and developmental mechanisms.

Impaired leptin signaling causes subfertility in female zebrafish

Reproduction is an energetically costly event across vertebrates and tightly linked to nutritional status and energy reserves. In mammals, the hormone leptin is considered as a link between energy homeostasis and reproduction. However, its role in fish reproduction is still unclear. In this study, we investigated the possible role of leptin in the regulation of reproduction in zebrafish, using a loss of function leptin receptor (lepr) strain. Impaired leptin signaling resulted in severe reproductive deficiencies in female zebrafish. lepr mutant females laid significantly fewer eggs, with low fertilization rates compared to wild-type females. Folliculogenesis was not affected, but oocyte maturation and ovulation were disrupted in lepr mutants. Interestingly, the expression of luteinizing hormone beta (lhb) in the pituitary was significantly lower in mutant females. Analysis of candidate genes in the ovaries and isolated fully grown follicles revealed differential expression of genes involved in steroidogenesis, oocyte maturation and ovulation in the mutants, which are known to be regulated by LH signaling. Moreover, subfertility in lepr mutants could be partially restored by administration of human chorionic gonadotropin. In conclusion, our results show that leptin deficiency does not affect early stages of follicular development, but leptin might be essential in later steps, such as in oocyte maturation and ovulation. To our knowledge, this is the first time that leptin is associated to reproductive deficiencies in zebrafish.

Expression of DNA repair genes in arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) from Bjørnøya in the Norwegian Arctic

High levels of organochlorines (OCs) have been measured in arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) from Lake Ellasjøen on Bjørnøya, Norway (74.30°N, 19.0°E). In a nearby lake, Laksvatn, the OC-levels in arctic char were low. A previous study has shown that char from Ellasjøen had significantly higher levels of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) than char from Lake Laksvatn. Even though there is increasing evidence of the genotoxic effects of OCs, little is known about the effects of OCs on the DNA repair system. The aim of the present study was to determine if the two main DNA DSB repair mechanisms, homologous recombination (HR) and non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ), are affected by the higher OC and DSB level in char from Ellasjøen. This was analysed by comparing the transcript level of 11 genes involved in DNA DSB repair in char liver samples from Ellasjøen (n = 9) with char from Laksvatn (n = 12). Six of the investigated genes were significantly upregulated in char from Ellasjøen. As the expression of DNA DSB repair genes was increased in the contaminant-exposed char, it is likely that the DNA DSB repair capacity is induced in these individuals. This induction was positively correlated with the DNA DSB and negatively correlated with one or several OCs for four of these genes. However, the strongest predictor variable for DNA repair genes was habitat, indicating genetic differences in repair capacity between populations. As char from Ellasjøen still had significantly higher levels of DSBs compared to char from Laksvatn, it is possible that chronic exposure to OCs and continued production of DSB has caused selective pressure within the population for fixation of adaptive alleles. It is also possible that DSB production was exceeding the repair capacity given the prevailing conditions, or that the OC or DSB level was above the threshold value of inhibition of the DNA repair system resulting in the rate of DNA damage exceeding the rate of repair.

Differences among families in craniofacial shape at early life-stages of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus)

BACKGROUND

Organismal fitness can be determined at early life-stages, but phenotypic variation at early life-stages is rarely considered in studies on evolutionary diversification. The trophic apparatus has been shown to contribute to sympatric resource-mediated divergence in several taxa. However, processes underlying diversification in trophic traits are poorly understood. Using phenotypically variable Icelandic Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus), we reared offspring from multiple families under standardized laboratory conditions and tested to what extent family (i.e. direct genetic and maternal effects) contributes to offspring morphology at hatching (H) and first feeding (FF). To understand the underlying mechanisms behind early life-stage variation in morphology, we examined how craniofacial shape varied according to family, offspring size, egg size and candidate gene expression.

RESULTS

Craniofacial shape (i.e. the Meckel's cartilage and hyoid arch) was more variable between families than within families both across and within developmental stages. Differences in craniofacial morphology between developmental stages correlated with offspring size, whilst within developmental stages only shape at FF correlated with offspring size, as well as female mean egg size. Larger offspring and offspring from females with larger eggs consistently had a wider hyoid arch and contracted Meckel's cartilage in comparison to smaller offspring.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence for family-level variation in early life-stage trophic morphology, indicating the potential for parental effects to facilitate resource polymorphism.

Extensive genetic differentiation between recently evolved sympatric Arctic charr morphs

The availability of diverse ecological niches can promote adaptation of trophic specializations and related traits, as has been repeatedly observed in evolutionary radiations of freshwater fish. The role of genetics, environment, and history in ecologically driven divergence and adaptation, can be studied on adaptive radiations or populations showing ecological polymorphism. Salmonids, especially the Salvelinus genus, are renowned for both phenotypic diversity and polymorphism. Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) invaded Icelandic streams during the glacial retreat (about 10,000 years ago) and exhibits many instances of sympatric polymorphism. Particularly, well studied are the four morphs in Lake Þingvallavatn in Iceland. The small benthic (SB), large benthic (LB), planktivorous (PL), and piscivorous (PI) charr differ in many regards, including size, form, and life history traits. To investigate relatedness and genomic differentiation between morphs, we identified variable sites from RNA-sequencing data from three of those morphs and verified 22 variants in population samples. The data reveal genetic differences between the morphs, with the two benthic morphs being more similar and the PL-charr more genetically different. The markers with high differentiation map to all linkage groups, suggesting ancient and pervasive genetic separation of these three morphs. Furthermore, GO analyses suggest differences in collagen metabolism, odontogenesis, and sensory systems between PL-charr and the benthic morphs. Genotyping in population samples from all four morphs confirms the genetic separation and indicates that the PI-charr are less genetically distinct than the other three morphs. The genetic separation of the other three morphs indicates certain degree of reproductive isolation. The extent of gene flow between the morphs and the nature of reproductive barriers between them remain to be elucidated.

Gene expression profiling suggests differences in molecular mechanisms of fin elongation between cichlid species

Comparative analyses of gene regulation inform about the molecular basis of phenotypic trait evolution. Here, we address a fin shape phenotype that evolved multiple times independently across teleost fish, including several species within the family Cichlidae. In a previous study, we proposed a gene regulatory network (GRN) involved in the formation and regeneration of conspicuous filamentous elongations adorning the unpaired fins of the Neolamprologus brichardi. Here, we tested the members of this network in the blockhead cichlid, Steatocranus casuarius, which displays conspicuously elongated dorsal and moderately elongated anal fins. Our study provided evidence for differences in the anatomy of fin elongation and suggested gene regulatory divergence between the two cichlid species. Only a subset of the 20 genes tested in S. casuarius showed the qPCR expression patterns predicted from the GRN identified in N. brichardi, and several of the gene-by-gene expression correlations differed between the two cichlid species. In comparison to N. brichardi, gene expression patterns in S. casuarius were in better (but not full) agreement with gene regulatory interactions inferred in zebrafish. Within S. casuarius, the dorsoventral asymmetry in ornament expression was accompanied by differences in gene expression patterns, including potential regulatory differentiation, between the anal and dorsal fin.

Maternal mRNA input of growth and stress-response-related genes in cichlids in relation to egg size and trophic specialization

BACKGROUND

Egg size represents an important form of maternal effect determined by a complex interplay of long-term adaptation and short-term plasticity balancing egg size with brood size. Haplochromine cichlids are maternal mouthbrooders showing differential parental investment in different species, manifested in great variation in egg size, brood size and duration of maternal care. Little is known about maternally determined molecular characters of eggs in fishes and their relation to egg size and trophic specialization. Here we investigate maternal mRNA inputs of selected growth- and stress-related genes in eggs of mouthbrooding cichlid fishes adapted to different trophic niches from Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, Lake Victoria and compare them to their riverine allies.

RESULTS

We first identified two reference genes, atf7ip and mid1ip1, to be suitable for cross-species quantification of mRNA abundance via qRT-PCR in the cichlid eggs. Using these reference genes, we found substantial variation in maternal mRNA input for a set of candidate genes related to growth and stress response across species and lakes. We observed negative correlation of mRNA abundance between two of growth hormone receptor paralogs (ghr1 and ghr2) across all haplochromine cichlid species which also differentiate the species in the two younger lakes, Malawi and Lake Victoria, from those in Lake Tanganyika and ancestral riverine species. Furthermore, we found correlations between egg size and maternal mRNA abundance of two growth-related genes igf2 and ghr2 across the haplochromine cichlids as well as distinct clustering of the species based on their trophic specialization using maternal mRNA abundance of five genes (ghr1, ghr2, igf2, gr and sgk1).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that variations in egg size in closely related cichlid species can be linked to differences in maternal RNA deposition of key growth-related genes. In addition, the cichlid species with contrasting trophic specialization deposit different levels of maternal mRNAs in their eggs for particular growth-related genes; however, it is unclear whether such differences contribute to differential morphogenesis at later stages of development. Our results provide first insights into this aspect of gene activation, as a basis for future studies targeting their role during ecomorphological specialization and adaptive radiation.

Gene expression in the phenotypically plastic Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus): A focus on growth and ossification at early stages of development

Gene expression during development shapes the phenotypes of individuals. Although embryonic gene expression can have lasting effects on developmental trajectories, few studies consider the role of maternal effects, such as egg size, on gene expression. Using qPCR, we characterize relative expression of 14 growth and/or skeletal promoting genes across embryonic development in Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus). We test to what extent their relative expression is correlated with egg size and size at early life‐stages within the study population. We predict smaller individuals to have higher expression of growth and skeletal promoting genes, due to less maternal resources (i.e., yolk) and prioritization of energy toward ossification. We found expression levels to vary across developmental stages and only three genes (Mmp9, Star, and Sgk1) correlated with individual size at a given developmental stage. Contrary to our hypothesis, expression of Mmp9 and Star showed a non‐linear relationship with size (at post fertilization and hatching, respectively), whilst Sgk1 was higher in larger embryos at hatching. Interestingly, these genes are also associated with craniofacial divergence of Arctic charr morphs. Our results indicate that early life‐stage variation in gene expression, concomitant to maternal effects, can influence developmental plasticity and potentially the evolution of resource polymorphism in fishes.

Evaluation of Reference Genes to Analyze Gene Expression in Silverside Odontesthes humensis Under Different Environmental Conditions

Some mammalian reference genes, which are widely used to normalize the qRT-PCR, could not be used for this purpose due to its high expression variation. The normalization with false reference genes leads to misinterpretation of results. The silversides (Odontesthes spp.) has been used as models for evolutionary, osmoregulatory and environmental pollution studies but, up to now, there are no studies about reference genes in any Odontesthes species. Furthermore, many studies on silversides have used reference genes without previous validations. Thus, present study aimed to was to clone and sequence potential reference genes, thereby identifying the best ones in Odontesthes humensis considering different tissues, ages and conditions. For this purpose, animals belonging to three ages (adults, juveniles, and immature) were exposed to control, Roundup®, and seawater treatments for 24 h. Blood samples were subjected to flow-cytometry and other collected tissues to RNA extraction; cDNA synthesis; molecular cloning; DNA sequencing; and qRT-PCR. The candidate genes tested included 18s, actb, ef1a, eif3g, gapdh, h3a, atp1a, and tuba. Gene expression results were analyzed using five algorithms that ranked the candidate genes. The flow-cytometry data showed that the environmental challenges could trigger a systemic response in the treated fish. Even during this systemic physiological disorder, the consensus analysis of gene expression revealed h3a to be the most stable gene expression when only the treatments were considered. On the other hand, tuba was the least stable gene in the control and gapdh was the least stable in both Roundup® and seawater groups. In conclusion, the consensus analyses of different tissues, ages, and treatments groups revealed that h3a is the most stable gene whereas gapdh and tuba are the least stable genes, even being considered two constitutive genes.

Differential gene expression during early development in recently evolved and sympatric Arctic charr morphs

Phenotypic differences between closely related taxa or populations can arise through genetic variation or be environmentally induced, leading to altered transcription of genes during development. Comparative developmental studies of closely related species or variable populations within species can help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms related to evolutionary divergence and speciation. Studies of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) and related salmonids have revealed considerable phenotypic variation among populations and in Arctic charr many cases of extensive variation within lakes (resource polymorphism) have been recorded. One example is the four Arctic charr morphs in the ∼10,000 year old Lake Thingvallavatn, which differ in numerous morphological and life history traits. We set out to investigate the molecular and developmental roots of this polymorphism by studying gene expression in embryos of three of the morphs reared in a common garden set-up. We performed RNA-sequencing, de-novo transcriptome assembly and compared gene expression among morphs during an important timeframe in early development, i.e., preceding the formation of key trophic structures. Expectedly, developmental time was the predominant explanatory variable. As the data were affected by some form of RNA-degradation even though all samples passed quality control testing, an estimate of 3'-bias was the second most common explanatory variable. Importantly, morph, both as an independent variable and as interaction with developmental time, affected the expression of numerous transcripts. Transcripts with morph effect, separated the three morphs at the expression level, with the two benthic morphs being more similar. However, Gene Ontology analyses did not reveal clear functional enrichment of transcripts between groups. Verification via qPCR confirmed differential expression of several genes between the morphs, including regulatory genes such as AT-Rich Interaction Domain 4A (arid4a) and translin (tsn). The data are consistent with a scenario where genetic divergence has contributed to differential expression of multiple genes and systems during early development of these sympatric Arctic charr morphs.

De novo transcriptome assembly, annotation and comparison of four ecological and evolutionary model salmonid fish species

Background

Salmonid fishes exhibit high levels of phenotypic and ecological variation and are thus ideal model systems for studying evolutionary processes of adaptive divergence and speciation. Furthermore, salmonids are of major interest in fisheries, aquaculture, and conservation research. Improving understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying traits in these species would significantly progress research in these fields. Here we generate high quality de novo transcriptomes for four salmonid species: Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), brown trout (Salmo trutta), Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus), and European whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus). All species except Atlantic salmon have no reference genome publicly available and few if any genomic studies to date.

Results

We used paired-end RNA-seq on Illumina to generate high coverage sequencing of multiple individuals, yielding between 180 and 210 M reads per species. After initial assembly, strict filtering was used to remove duplicated, redundant, and low confidence transcripts. The final assemblies consisted of 36,505 protein-coding transcripts for Atlantic salmon, 35,736 for brown trout, 33,126 for Arctic charr, and 33,697 for European whitefish and are made publicly available. Assembly completeness was assessed using three approaches, all of which supported high quality of the assemblies: 1) ~78% of Actinopterygian single-copy orthologs were successfully captured in our assemblies, 2) orthogroup inference identified high overlap in the protein sequences present across all four species (40% shared across all four and 84% shared by at least two), and 3) comparison with the published Atlantic salmon genome suggests that our assemblies represent well covered (~98%) protein-coding transcriptomes. Thorough comparison of the generated assemblies found that 84-90% of transcripts in each assembly were orthologous with at least one of the other three species. We also identified 34-37% of transcripts in each assembly as paralogs. We further compare completeness and annotation statistics of our new assemblies to available related species.

Conclusion

New, high-confidence protein-coding transcriptomes were generated for four ecologically and economically important species of salmonids. This offers a high quality pipeline for such complex genomes, represents a valuable contribution to the existing genomic resources for these species and provides robust tools for future investigation of gene expression and sequence evolution in these and other salmonid species.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-017-4379-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A gene expression study of ornamental fin shape in Neolamprologus brichardi, an African cichlid species

The diversity of fin morphology within and across fish taxa offers great, but still largely unexplored, opportunities to investigate the proximate mechanisms underlying fin shape variation. Relying on available genetic knowledge brought forth mainly by the comprehensive study of the zebrafish caudal fin, we explored candidate molecular mechanisms for the maintenance and formation of the conspicuously elongated filaments adorning the unpaired fins of the East African "princess cichlid" Neolamprologus brichardi. Via qPCR assays, we detected expression differences of candidate genes between elongated and short regions of intact and regenerating fins. The identified genes include skeletogenic and growth factors (igf2b, fgf3, bmp2 and bmp4), components of the WNT pathway (lef1, wnt5b and wnt10) and a regulatory network determining fin ray segment size and junction (cx43, esco2 and sema3d), as well as other genes with different roles (mmp9, msxb and pea3). Interestingly, some of these genes showed fin specific expression differences which are often neglected in studies of model fish that focus on the caudal fin. Moreover, while the observed expression patterns were generally consistent with zebrafish results, we also detected deviating expression correlations and gene functions.

Anterior-posterior gene expression differences in three Lake Malawi cichlid fishes with variation in body stripe orientation

Morphological differentiation among closely related species provides opportunities to study mechanisms shaping natural phenotypic variation. Here, we address variation in the orientation of melanin-colored body stripes in three cichlid species of the tribe Haplochromini. Melanochromis auratus displays a common pattern of dark, straight horizontal body stripes, whereas in Aristochromis christyi and Buccochromis rhoadesii, oblique stripes extend from the anterior dorsal to the posterior mid-lateral trunk. We first validated a stably reference gene, and then, investigated the chromatophore distribution in the skin by assessing the expression levels of the iridophore and melanophore marker genes, ltk and slc24a5, respectively, as well as pmel, a melanophore pigmentation marker gene. We found anterior-posterior differences in the expression levels of the three genes in the oblique-striped species. The higher anterior expression of ltk, indicates increased iridophore density in the anterior region, i.e., uneven horizontal distribution of iridophores, which coincides with the anterior dorsalization of melanophore stripe in these species. The obliqueness of the horizontal body stripes might be a result of distinct migratory or patterning abilities of melanophores in anterior and posterior stripe regions which could be reflected by variation in the expression of genes involved in melanophore patterning. To address this, we investigated anterior-posterior expression levels of a primary set of candidate target genes with known functions in melanophore migration and stripe patterning in the adult zebrafish, and their related gene regulatory network. Among these genes, those with differences in anterior-posterior expression showed only species-specific differential expression, e.g., sdf1a, col14a1a, ifitm5, and agpat3, with the exception of fbxw4/hagoromo (differentially expressed in an oblique-and the straight-striped species). In summary, distinct anterior-posterior gradients in iridophore density found to be more similar characteristic between the two oblique-striped species. Furthermore, the species-specific differential expression of genes involved in stripe patterning might also implicate distinct molecular processes underlying the obliqueness of body stripe in two closely related cichlid species.

A gene expression study of dorso-ventrally restricted pigment pattern in adult fins of Neolamprologus meeli, an African cichlid species

Fish color patterns are among the most diverse phenotypic traits found in the animal kingdom. Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms that control in chromatophore distribution and pigmentation underlying this diversity is a major goal in developmental and evolutionary biology, which has predominantly been pursued in the zebrafish model system. Here, we apply results from zebrafish work to study a naturally occurring color pattern phenotype in the fins of an African cichlid species from Lake Tanganyika. The cichlid fish Neolamprologus meeli displays a distinct dorsal color pattern, with black and white stripes along the edges of the dorsal fin and of the dorsal half of the caudal fin, corresponding with differences in melanophore density. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms controlling the differences in dorsal and ventral color patterning in the fins, we quantitatively assessed the expression of 15 candidate target genes involved in adult zebrafish pigmentation and stripe formation. For reference gene validation, we screened the expression stability of seven widely expressed genes across the investigated tissue samples and identified tbp as appropriate reference. Relative expression levels of the candidate target genes were compared between the dorsal, striped fin regions and the corresponding uniform, grey-colored regions in the anal and ventral caudal fin. Dorso-ventral expression differences, with elevated levels in both white and black stripes, were observed in two genes, the melanosome protein coding gene pmel and in igsf11, which affects melanophore adhesion, migration and survival. Next, we predicted potential shared upstream regulators of pmel and igsf11. Testing the expression patterns of six predicted transcriptions factors revealed dorso-ventral expression difference of irf1 and significant, negative expression correlation of irf1 with both pmel and igsf11. Based on these results, we propose pmel, igsf11 and irf1 as likely components of the genetic mechanism controlling distinct dorso-ventral color patterns in N. meeli fins.

Fungal and cyanobacterial gene expression in a lichen symbiosis: Effect of temperature and location

Organisms have evolved different cellular mechanisms to deal with environmental stress, primarily through complex molecular mechanisms including protein refolding and DNA repair. As mutualistic symbioses, lichens offer the possibility of analyzing molecular stress responses in a particularly tight interspecific relationship. We study the widespread cyanolichen Peltigera membranacea, a key player in carbon and nitrogen cycling in terrestrial ecosystems at northern latitudes. We ask whether increased temperature is reflected in mRNA levels of selected damage control genes, and do the response patterns show geographical associations? Using real-time PCR quantification of 38 transcripts, differential expression was demonstrated for nine cyanobacterial and nine fungal stress response genes (plus the fungal symbiosis-related lec2 gene) when the temperature was increased from 5 °C to 15 °C and 25 °C. Principle component analysis (PCA) revealed two gene groups with different response patterns. Whereas a set of cyanobacterial DNA repair genes and the fungal lec2 (PC1 group) showed an expression drop at 15 °C vs. 5 °C, most fungal candidates (PC2 group) showed increased expression at 25 °C vs. 5 °C. PC1 responses also correlated with elevation. The correlated downregulation of lec2 and cyanobacterial DNA repair genes suggests a possible interplay between the symbionts warranting further studies.

Investigation of the effects of estrogen on skeletal gene expression during zebrafish larval head development

The development of craniofacial skeletal structures requires well-orchestrated tissue interactions controlled by distinct molecular signals. Disruptions in normal function of these molecular signals have been associated with a wide range of craniofacial malformations. A pathway mediated by estrogens is one of those molecular signals that plays role in formation of bone and cartilage including craniofacial skeletogenesis. Studies in zebrafish have shown that while higher concentrations of 17-β estradiol (E 2) cause severe craniofacial defects, treatment with lower concentrations result in subtle changes in head morphology characterized with shorter snouts and flatter faces. The molecular basis for these morphological changes, particularly the subtle skeletal effects mediated by lower E 2 concentrations, remains unexplored. In the present study we address these effects at a molecular level by quantitative expression analysis of sets of candidate genes in developing heads of zebrafish larvae treated with two different E 2 concentrations. To this end, we first validated three suitable reference genes, ppia2, rpl8 and tbp, to permit sensitive quantitative real-time PCR analysis. Next, we profiled the expression of 28 skeletogenesis-associated genes that potentially respond to estrogen signals and play role in craniofacial development. We found E 2 mediated differential expression of genes involved in extracellular matrix (ECM) remodelling, mmp2/9/13, sparc and timp2a, as well as components of skeletogenic pathways, bmp2a, erf, ptch1/2, rankl, rarab and sfrp1a. Furthermore, we identified a co-expressed network of genes, including cpn1, dnajc3, esr1, lman1, rrbp1a, ssr1 and tram1 with a stronger inductive response to a lower dose of E 2 during larval head development.

Differential expression of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway associates with craniofacial polymorphism in sympatric Arctic charr

Background

The developmental basis of craniofacial morphology hinges on interactions of numerous signalling systems. Extensive craniofacial variation in the polymorphic Arctic charr, a member of the salmonid family, from Lake Thingvallavatn (Iceland), offers opportunities to find and study such signalling pathways and their key regulators, thereby shedding light on the developmental pathways, and the genetics of trophic divergence.

Results

To identify genes involved in the craniofacial differences between benthic and limnetic Arctic charr, we used transcriptome data from different morphs, spanning early development, together with data on craniofacial expression patterns and skeletogenesis in model vertebrate species. Out of 20 genes identified, 7 showed lower gene expression in benthic than in limnetic charr morphs. We had previously identified a conserved gene network involved in extracellular matrix (ECM) organization and skeletogenesis, showing higher expression in developing craniofacial elements of benthic than in limnetic Arctic charr morphs. The present study adds a second set of genes constituting an expanded gene network with strong, benthic–limnetic differential expression. To identify putative upstream regulators, we performed knowledge-based motif enrichment analyses on the regulatory sequences of the identified genes which yielded potential binding sites for a set of known transcription factors (TFs). Of the 8 TFs that we examined using qPCR, two (Ahr2b and Ap2) were found to be differentially expressed between benthic and limnetic charr. Expression analysis of several known AhR targets indicated higher activity of the AhR pathway during craniofacial development in benthic charr morphotypes.

Conclusion

These results suggest a key role of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) pathway in the observed craniofacial differences between distinct charr morphotypes.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13227-015-0022-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The developmental transcriptome of contrasting Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) morphs

Species and populations with parallel evolution of specific traits can help illuminate how predictable adaptations and divergence are at the molecular and developmental level. Following the last glacial period, dwarfism and specialized bottom feeding morphology evolved rapidly in several landlocked Arctic charrSalvelinus alpinuspopulations in Iceland.  To study the genetic divergence between small benthic morphs and limnetic morphs, we conducted RNA-sequencing charr embryos at four stages in early development. We studied two stocks with contrasting morphologies: the small benthic (SB) charr from Lake Thingvallavatn and Holar aquaculture (AC) charr.The data reveal significant differences in expression of several biological pathways during charr development. There was also an expression difference between SB- and AC-charr in genes involved in energy metabolism and blood coagulation genes. We confirmed differing expression of five genes in whole embryos with qPCR, includinglysozymeandnatterin-likewhich was previously identified as a fish-toxin of a lectin family that may be a putative immunopeptide. We also verified differential expression of 7 genes in the developing head that associated consistently with benthic v.s.limnetic morphology (studied in 4 morphs). Comparison of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) frequencies reveals extensive genetic differentiation between the SB and AC-charr (~1300 with more than 50% frequency difference). Curiously, three derived alleles in the otherwise conserved 12s and 16s mitochondrial ribosomal RNA genes are found in benthic charr.The data implicate multiple genes and molecular pathways in divergence of small benthic charr and/or the response of aquaculture charr to domestication. Functional, genetic and population genetic studies on more freshwater and anadromous populations are needed to confirm the specific loci and mutations relating to specific ecological traits in Arctic charr.

The developmental transcriptome of contrasting Arctic charr ( Salvelinus alpinus) morphs

Species and populations with parallel evolution of specific traits can help illuminate how predictable adaptations and divergence are at the molecular and developmental level. Following the last glacial period, dwarfism and specialized bottom feeding morphology evolved rapidly in several landlocked Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus populations in Iceland.  

To study the genetic divergence between small benthic morphs and limnetic morphs, we conducted RNA-sequencing charr embryos at four stages in early development. We studied two stocks with contrasting morphologies: the small benthic (SB) charr from Lake Thingvallavatn and Holar aquaculture (AC) charr.

The data reveal significant differences in expression of several biological pathways during charr development. There was also an expression difference between SB- and AC-charr in genes involved in energy metabolism and blood coagulation genes. We confirmed differing expression of five genes in whole embryos with qPCR, including lysozyme and natterin-like which was previously identified as a fish-toxin of a lectin family that may be a putative immunopeptide. We also verified differential expression of 7 genes in the developing head that associated consistently with benthic v.s.limnetic morphology (studied in 4 morphs). Comparison of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) frequencies reveals extensive genetic differentiation between the SB and AC-charr (~1300 with more than 50% frequency difference). Curiously, three derived alleles in the otherwise conserved 12s and 16s mitochondrial ribosomal RNA genes are found in benthic charr.

The data implicate multiple genes and molecular pathways in divergence of small benthic charr and/or the response of aquaculture charr to domestication. Functional, genetic and population genetic studies on more freshwater and anadromous populations are needed to confirm the specific loci and mutations relating to specific ecological traits in Arctic charr.

Transcriptional dynamics of a conserved gene expression network associated with craniofacial divergence in Arctic charr

Background

Understanding the molecular basis of craniofacial variation can provide insights into key developmental mechanisms of adaptive changes and their role in trophic divergence and speciation. Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) is a polymorphic fish species, and, in Lake Thingvallavatn in Iceland, four sympatric morphs have evolved distinct craniofacial structures. We conducted a gene expression study on candidates from a conserved gene coexpression network, focusing on the development of craniofacial elements in embryos of two contrasting Arctic charr morphotypes (benthic and limnetic).

Results

Four Arctic charr morphs were studied: one limnetic and two benthic morphs from Lake Thingvallavatn and a limnetic reference aquaculture morph. The presence of morphological differences at developmental stages before the onset of feeding was verified by morphometric analysis. Following up on our previous findings that Mmp2 and Sparc were differentially expressed between morphotypes, we identified a network of genes with conserved coexpression across diverse vertebrate species. A comparative expression study of candidates from this network in developing heads of the four Arctic charr morphs verified the coexpression relationship of these genes and revealed distinct transcriptional dynamics strongly correlated with contrasting craniofacial morphologies (benthic versus limnetic). A literature review and Gene Ontology analysis indicated that a significant proportion of the network genes play a role in extracellular matrix organization and skeletogenesis, and motif enrichment analysis of conserved noncoding regions of network candidates predicted a handful of transcription factors, including Ap1 and Ets2, as potential regulators of the gene network. The expression of Ets2 itself was also found to associate with network gene expression. Genes linked to glucocorticoid signalling were also studied, as both Mmp2 and Sparc are responsive to this pathway. Among those, several transcriptional targets and upstream regulators showed differential expression between the contrasting morphotypes. Interestingly, although selected network genes showed overlapping expression patterns in situ and no morph differences, Timp2 expression patterns differed between morphs.

Conclusion

Our comparative study of transcriptional dynamics in divergent craniofacial morphologies of Arctic charr revealed a conserved network of coexpressed genes sharing functional roles in structural morphogenesis. We also implicate transcriptional regulators of the network as targets for future functional studies.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/2041-9139-5-40) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Patterns of miRNA expression in Arctic charr development

Micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are now recognized as a major class of developmental regulators. Sequences of many miRNAs are highly conserved, yet they often exhibit temporal and spatial heterogeneity in expression among species and have been proposed as an important reservoir for adaptive evolution and divergence. With this in mind we studied miRNA expression during embryonic development of offspring from two contrasting morphs of the highly polymorphic salmonid Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus), a small benthic morph from Lake Thingvallavatn (SB) and an aquaculture stock (AC). These morphs differ extensively in morphology and adult body size. We established offspring groups of the two morphs and sampled at several time points during development. Four time points (3 embryonic and one just before first feeding) were selected for high-throughput small-RNA sequencing. We identified a total of 326 conserved and 427 novel miRNA candidates in Arctic charr, of which 51 conserved and 6 novel miRNA candidates were differentially expressed among developmental stages. Furthermore, 53 known and 19 novel miRNAs showed significantly different levels of expression in the two contrasting morphs. Hierarchical clustering of the 53 conserved miRNAs revealed that the expression differences are confined to the embryonic stages, where miRNAs such as sal-miR-130, 30, 451, 133, 26 and 199a were highly expressed in AC, whereas sal-miR-146, 183, 206 and 196a were highly expressed in SB embryos. The majority of these miRNAs have previously been found to be involved in key developmental processes in other species such as development of brain and sensory epithelia, skeletogenesis and myogenesis. Four of the novel miRNA candidates were only detected in either AC or SB. miRNA candidates identified in this study will be combined with available mRNA expression data to identify potential targets and involvement in developmental regulation.

Reference genes for quantitative gene expression studies in multiple avian species

Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) rapidly and reliably quantifies gene expression levels across different experimental conditions. Selection of suitable reference genes is essential for meaningful normalization and thus correct interpretation of data. In recent years, an increasing number of avian species other than the chicken has been investigated molecularly, highlighting the need for an experimentally validated pan-avian primer set for reference genes. Here we report testing a set for 14 candidate reference genes (18S, ABL, GAPDH, GUSB, HMBS, HPRT, PGK1, RPL13, RPL19, RPS7, SDHA, TFRC, VIM, YWHAZ) on different tissues of the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), domestic chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), common crane (Grus grus), white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo f. domestica), cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus), Humboldt penguin (Sphenicus humboldti), ostrich (Struthio camelus) and zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata), spanning a broad range of the phylogenetic tree of birds. Primer pairs for six to 11 genes were successfully established for each of the nine species. As a proof of principle, we analyzed expression levels of 10 candidate reference genes as well as FOXP2 and the immediate early genes, EGR1 and CFOS, known to be rapidly induced by singing in the avian basal ganglia. We extracted RNA from microbiopsies of the striatal song nucleus Area X of adult male zebra finches after they had sang or remained silent. Using three different statistical algorithms, we identified five genes (18S, PGK1, RPS7, TFRC, YWHAZ) that were stably expressed within each group and also between the singing and silent conditions, establishing them as suitable reference genes. In conclusion, the newly developed pan-avian primer set allows accurate normalization and quantification of gene expression levels in multiple avian species.

A high-throughput open-array qPCR gene panel to identify housekeeping genes suitable for myometrium and leiomyoma expression analysis

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate 51 different housekeeping genes for their use as internal standards in myometrial and matched leiomyoma samples in proliferative and secretory phases.

METHODS

RNA from 6 myometrium and matched leiomyoma samples was obtained from pre-menopausal women who underwent hysterectomy. Reverse-transcription and real-time quantitative PCR were achieved using TaqMan high-density open-array human endogenous control panel.

RESULTS

Expression stability of 51 candidate genes was determined by GeNorm and NormFinder softwares. We identified 10 housekeeping genes, ARF1, MRPL19, FBXW2, PUM1, UBE2D2, EIF2B1, HPRT1, GUSB, ALAS1, and TRIM27, as the best set of normalization genes for comparing relative expression between leiomyoma and myometrium samples in proliferative and secretory phases.

CONCLUSIONS

Adequate reference genes for accurate normalization are essential to compare gene expression between leiomyoma and myometrial samples. Ideal housekeeping genes must have stable expression patterns regardless of the sample type and menstrual cycle phase. In this study, we propose a set of 10 candidate genes with greater expression stability than those housekeeping genes commonly used in leiomyoma and myometrium tissues. Their use will improve the sensitivity and specificity of the gene expression analysis in these tissues.

Validation of reference genes aiming accurate normalization of qRT-PCR data in Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro

BACKGROUND

Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro distributes widely in subtropical areas and plays vital roles as valuable natural resources. The transcriptome sequencing for D. latiflorus Munro has been performed and numerous genes especially those predicted to be unique to D. latiflorus Munro were revealed. qRT-PCR has become a feasible approach to uncover gene expression profiling, and the accuracy and reliability of the results obtained depends upon the proper selection of stable reference genes for accurate normalization. Therefore, a set of suitable internal controls should be validated for D. latiflorus Munro.

RESULTS

In this report, twelve candidate reference genes were selected and the assessment of gene expression stability was performed in ten tissue samples and four leaf samples from seedlings and anther-regenerated plants of different ploidy. The PCR amplification efficiency was estimated, and the candidate genes were ranked according to their expression stability using three software packages: geNorm, NormFinder and Bestkeeper. GAPDH and EF1α were characterized to be the most stable genes among different tissues or in all the sample pools, while CYP showed low expression stability. RPL3 had the optimal performance among four leaf samples. The application of verified reference genes was illustrated by analyzing ferritin and laccase expression profiles among different experimental sets. The analysis revealed the biological variation in ferritin and laccase transcript expression among the tissues studied and the individual plants.

CONCLUSIONS

geNorm, NormFinder, and BestKeeper analyses recommended different suitable reference gene(s) for normalization according to the experimental sets. GAPDH and EF1α had the highest expression stability across different tissues and RPL3 for the other sample set. This study emphasizes the importance of validating superior reference genes for qRT-PCR analysis to accurately normalize gene expression of D. latiflorus Munro.