1
|
Peach CJ, Edgington-Mitchell LE, Bunnett NW, Schmidt BL. Protease-activated receptors in health and disease. Physiol Rev 2023; 103:717-785. [PMID: 35901239 PMCID: PMC9662810 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00044.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteases are signaling molecules that specifically control cellular functions by cleaving protease-activated receptors (PARs). The four known PARs are members of the large family of G protein-coupled receptors. These transmembrane receptors control most physiological and pathological processes and are the target of a large proportion of therapeutic drugs. Signaling proteases include enzymes from the circulation; from immune, inflammatory epithelial, and cancer cells; as well as from commensal and pathogenic bacteria. Advances in our understanding of the structure and function of PARs provide insights into how diverse proteases activate these receptors to regulate physiological and pathological processes in most tissues and organ systems. The realization that proteases and PARs are key mediators of disease, coupled with advances in understanding the atomic level structure of PARs and their mechanisms of signaling in subcellular microdomains, has spurred the development of antagonists, some of which have advanced to the clinic. Herein we review the discovery, structure, and function of this receptor system, highlight the contribution of PARs to homeostatic control, and discuss the potential of PAR antagonists for the treatment of major diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chloe J Peach
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology and Neuroscience Institute, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York
| | - Laura E Edgington-Mitchell
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Bluestone Center for Clinical Research, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York
| | - Nigel W Bunnett
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology and Neuroscience Institute, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York
| | - Brian L Schmidt
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York
- Bluestone Center for Clinical Research, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
During sepsis, an initial prothrombotic shift takes place, in which coagulatory acute-phase proteins are increased, while anticoagulatory factors and platelet count decrease. Further on, the fibrinolytic system becomes impaired, which contributes to disease severity. At a later stage in sepsis, coagulation factors may become depleted, and sepsis patients may shift into a hypo-coagulable state with an increased bleeding risk. During the pro-coagulatory shift, critically ill patients have an increased thrombosis risk that ranges from developing micro-thromboses that impair organ function to life-threatening thromboembolic events. Here, thrombin plays a key role in coagulation as well as in inflammation. For thromboprophylaxis, low molecular weight heparins (LMWH) and unfractionated heparins (UFHs) are recommended. Nevertheless, there are conditions such as heparin resistance or heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), wherein heparin becomes ineffective or even puts the patient at an increased prothrombotic risk. In these cases, argatroban, a direct thrombin inhibitor (DTI), might be a potential alternative anticoagulatory strategy. Yet, caution is advised with regard to dosing of argatroban especially in sepsis. Therefore, the starting dose of argatroban is recommended to be low and should be titrated to the targeted anticoagulation level and be closely monitored in the further course of treatment. The authors of this review recommend using DTIs such as argatroban as an alternative anticoagulant in critically ill patients suffering from sepsis or COVID-19 with suspected or confirmed HIT, HIT-like conditions, impaired fibrinolysis, in patients on extracorporeal circuits and patients with heparin resistance, when closely monitored.
Collapse
|
3
|
Wilde S, Johnson AF, LaRock CN. Playing With Fire: Proinflammatory Virulence Mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:704099. [PMID: 34295841 PMCID: PMC8290871 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.704099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus is an obligate human pathogen that is a major cause of infectious morbidity and mortality. It has a natural tropism for the oropharynx and skin, where it causes infections with excessive inflammation due to its expression of proinflammatory toxins and other virulence factors. Inflammation directly contributes to the severity of invasive infections, toxic shock syndrome, and the induction of severe post-infection autoimmune disease caused by autoreactive antibodies. This review discusses what is known about how the virulence factors of Group A Streptococcus induce inflammation and how this inflammation can promote disease. Understanding of streptococcal pathogenesis and the role of hyper-immune activation during infection may provide new therapeutic targets to treat the often-fatal outcome of severe disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shyra Wilde
- Microbiology and Molecular Genetics Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Anders F Johnson
- Microbiology and Molecular Genetics Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Christopher N LaRock
- Microbiology and Molecular Genetics Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, and Antibiotic Resistance Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Andreoni F, Ugolini F, Keller N, Neff A, Nizet V, Hollands A, Marques Maggio E, Zinkernagel AS, Schuepbach RA. Immunoglobulin Attenuates Streptokinase-Mediated Virulence in Streptococcus dysgalactiae Subspecies equisimilis Necrotizing Fasciitis. J Infect Dis 2019; 217:270-279. [PMID: 29099935 PMCID: PMC7263839 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jix560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) retains a very high mortality rate despite prompt and adequate antibiotic treatment and surgical debridement. Necrotizing fasciitis has recently been associated withStreptococcus dysgalactiae subspeciesequisimilis (SDSE). Methods We investigated the causes of a very severe clinical manifestation of SDSE-NF by assessing both host and pathogen factors. Results We found a lack of streptokinase-function blocking antibodies in the patient resulting in increased streptokinase-mediated fibrinolysis and bacterial spread. At the same time, the clinical SDSE isolate produced very high levels of streptokinase. Exogenous immunoglobulin Gs (ex-IgGs) efficiently blocked streptokinase-mediated fibrinolysis in vitro, indicating a protective role against the action of streptokinase. In vivo, SDSE infection severity was also attenuated by ex-IgGs in a NF mouse model. Conclusions These findings illustrate for the first time that the lack of specific antibodies against streptococcal virulence factors, such as streptokinase, may contribute to NF disease severity. This can be counteracted by ex-IgGs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Andreoni
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Fabio Ugolini
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland.,Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nadia Keller
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrina Neff
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pharmacology and Drug Discovery, San Diego, California.,Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, San Diego, California
| | - Andrew Hollands
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pharmacology and Drug Discovery, San Diego, California
| | - Ewerton Marques Maggio
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Pathology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annelies S Zinkernagel
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reto A Schuepbach
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Human polyspecific immunoglobulin attenuates group A streptococcal virulence factor activity and reduces disease severity in a murine necrotizing fasciitis model. Clin Microbiol Infect 2019; 25:512.e7-512.e13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
|
6
|
Heuberger DM, Schuepbach RA. Protease-activated receptors (PARs): mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic modulators in PAR-driven inflammatory diseases. Thromb J 2019; 17:4. [PMID: 30976204 PMCID: PMC6440139 DOI: 10.1186/s12959-019-0194-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory diseases have become increasingly prevalent with industrialization. To address this, numerous anti-inflammatory agents and molecular targets have been considered in clinical trials. Among molecular targets, protease-activated receptors (PARs) are abundantly recognized for their roles in the development of chronic inflammatory diseases. In particular, several inflammatory effects are directly mediated by the sensing of proteolytic activity by PARs. PARs belong to the seven transmembrane domain G protein-coupled receptor family, but are unique in their lack of physiologically soluble ligands. In contrast with classical receptors, PARs are activated by N-terminal proteolytic cleavage. Upon removal of specific N-terminal peptides, the resulting N-termini serve as tethered activation ligands that interact with the extracellular loop 2 domain and initiate receptor signaling. In the classical pathway, activated receptors mediate signaling by recruiting G proteins. However, activation of PARs alternatively lead to the transactivation of and signaling through receptors such as co-localized PARs, ion channels, and toll-like receptors. In this review we consider PARs and their modulators as potential therapeutic agents, and summarize the current understanding of PAR functions from clinical and in vitro studies of PAR-related inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea M Heuberger
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Surgical Research Division, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reto A Schuepbach
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Heuberger DM, Franchini AG, Madon J, Schuepbach RA. Thrombin cleaves and activates the protease-activated receptor 2 dependent on thrombomodulin co-receptor availability. Thromb Res 2019; 177:91-101. [PMID: 30861432 DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2019.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Protease-activated receptors (PARs) evolved to react to extracellular proteolytic activity. In mammals, three of the four PARs (PAR1, PAR3, and PAR4) that are expressed respond to the prototypical procoagulant enzyme thrombin, whereas PAR2 was assumed to resist activation by thrombin. To date, involvement of cell surface thrombin-recruiting co-receptors such as thrombomodulin (TM), which potentially facilitates PAR2 cleavage, has not been addressed. Thus, we examined whether TM-bound thrombin cleaved PAR2 and tested biological responses such as nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) DNA binding activity and cytokine release. MATERIALS AND METHODS We examined 293T cells overexpressing PAR2 and TM for thrombin recruitment by TM promoting PAR2 cleavage. To test for the TM-thrombin interactions required for PAR2 cleavage and to map cleavage sites on PAR2, mutant constructs of TM or PAR2 were engineered. Biological effects because of PAR2 activation were investigated using an NF-κB reporter system and cytokine release. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS We identified that, at low to moderate concentrations, thrombin cleaved PAR2 in a TM co-receptor-dependent manner with cleavage efficiency comparable to that of trypsin. In TM's presence, thrombin efficiently cleaved both, PAR1 and PAR2, albeit kinetics differed. Whereas the majority of surface expressed PAR1 was immediately cleaved off, prolonged exposure to thrombin resulted in few additional cleavage. In contrast, PAR2 cleavage was sustained upon prolonged exposure to thrombin. However, TM EGF-like domain 5 was required and TM chondroitin sulfate (CS) proteoglycan sites serine 490 and serine 492 assisted in PAR2 cleavage, while thrombin preferentially cleaved at arginine 36 on PAR2's N-terminus. Note that thrombin-induced activation of NF-κB via PAR2 resulted in release of interleukin-8. Thus, we provide a novel concept of how thrombin efficiently cleaves PAR2 in a TM-dependent manner, resulting in pro-inflammatory interleukin-8 release. This unexpected pro-inflammatory role of TM, promoting cleavage and activation of PAR2 by thrombin, may lead to novel therapeutic options for treating inflammatory and malignant diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea M Heuberger
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Surgical Research Division, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alessandro G Franchini
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jerzy Madon
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reto A Schuepbach
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Widera D, Martínez Aguilar R, Cottrell GS. Toll-like receptor 4 and protease-activated receptor 2 in physiology and pathophysiology of the nervous system: more than just receptor cooperation? Neural Regen Res 2019; 14:1196-1201. [PMID: 30804245 PMCID: PMC6425834 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.251290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) play pivotal roles in the mammalian innate immune response. Notably, in addition to their involvement in detection of invading pathogens, PAR2 and TLR4 modulate the levels of cell death-induced sterile inflammation by activating pro- or anti-inflammatory downstream signaling cascades. Within the central nervous system, there is emerging evidence that both receptors are involved in synaptic transmission and brain plasticity. Furthermore, due to their prominent role in mediating neuroinflammation, PAR2 and TLR4 are associated with development and progression of neurodegenerative disorders including but not limited to Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and multiple sclerosis. In this article, we summarise the current knowledge on the cooperation between PAR2 and TLR4, discuss the potential cross-talk levels and highlight the impact of the cross-coupling on neuroinflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Darius Widera
- Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine Group, School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights campus, Reading, UK
| | - Rocío Martínez Aguilar
- Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine Group, School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights campus, Reading, UK; Unidad de Inmunología, IBIMER, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Graeme S Cottrell
- Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Andreoni F, Zürcher C, Tarnutzer A, Schilcher K, Neff A, Keller N, Marques Maggio E, Poyart C, Schuepbach RA, Zinkernagel AS. Clindamycin Affects Group A Streptococcus Virulence Factors and Improves Clinical Outcome. J Infect Dis 2017; 215:269-277. [PMID: 27247345 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiw229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (GAS) has acquired an arsenal of virulence factors, promoting life-threatening invasive infections such as necrotizing fasciitis. Current therapeutic regimens for necrotizing fasciitis include surgical debridement and treatment with cell wall-active antibiotics. Addition of clindamycin (CLI) is recommended, although clinical evidence is lacking. Reflecting the current clinical dilemma, an observational study showed that only 63% of the patients with severe invasive GAS infection received CLI. This work thus aimed to address whether CLI improves necrotizing fasciitis outcome by modulating virulence factors of CLI-susceptible and CLI-resistant GAS in vitro and in vivo. Treatment with CLI reduced extracellular DNase Sda1 and streptolysin O (SLO) activity in vivo, whereas subinhibitory CLI concentrations induced expression and activity of SLO, DNase, and Streptococcus pyogenes cell envelope protease in vitro. Our in vivo results suggest that CLI should be administered as soon as possible to patients with necrotizing fasciitis, while our in vitro studies emphasize that a high dosage of CLI is essential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Andrina Neff
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology
| | - Nadia Keller
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology
| | | | - Claire Poyart
- Centre national de référence des Streptocoques, INSERM 1016, Université Paris Descartes, France
| | - Reto A Schuepbach
- Division of Surgical Intensive Care, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Duan ZZ, Zhang F, Li FY, Luan YF, Guo P, Li YH, Liu Y, Qi SH. Protease activated receptor 1 (PAR1) enhances Src-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of NMDA receptor in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Sci Rep 2016; 6:29246. [PMID: 27385592 PMCID: PMC4935874 DOI: 10.1038/srep29246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that Src could modulate NMDA receptor, and PAR1 could also affect NMDAR signaling. However, whether PAR1 could regulate NMDAR through Src under ICH has not yet been investigated. In this study, we demonstrated the role of Src-PSD95-GluN2A signaling cascades in rat ICH model and in vitro thrombin challenged model. Using the PAR1 agonist SFLLR, antagonist RLLFS and Src inhibitor PP2, electrophysiological analysis showed that PAR1 regulated NMDA-induced whole-cell currents (INMDA) though Src in primary cultured neurons. Both in vivo and in vitro results showed the elevated phosphorylation of tyrosine in Src and GluN2A and enhanced interaction of the Src-PSD95-GluN2A under model conditions. Treatment with the PAR1 antagonist RLLFS, AS-PSD95 (Antisense oligonucleotide against PSD95) and Src inhibitor PP2 inhibited the interaction among Src-PSD95-GluN2A, and p-Src, p-GluN2A. Co-application of SFLLR and AS-PSD95, PP2, or MK801 (NMDAR inhibitor) abolished the effect of SF. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that activated thrombin receptor PAR1 induced Src activation, enhanced the interaction among Src-PSD95-GluN2A signaling modules, and up-regulated GluN2A phosphorylation after ICH injury. Elucidation of such signaling cascades would possibly provide novel targets for ICH treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhen-Zhen Duan
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Disease Bioinformation, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, 221002, P. R. China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Disease Bioinformation, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, 221002, P. R. China
| | - Feng-Ying Li
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Disease Bioinformation, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, 221002, P. R. China
| | - Yi-Fei Luan
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Disease Bioinformation, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, 221002, P. R. China
| | - Peng Guo
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Disease Bioinformation, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, 221002, P. R. China
| | - Yi-Hang Li
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Disease Bioinformation, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, 221002, P. R. China
| | - Yong Liu
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Disease Bioinformation, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, 221002, P. R. China
| | - Su-Hua Qi
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Disease Bioinformation, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, 221002, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
The majority of 9,729 group A streptococcus strains causing disease secrete SpeB cysteine protease: pathogenesis implications. Infect Immun 2015; 83:4750-8. [PMID: 26416912 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00989-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Group A streptococcus (GAS), the causative agent of pharyngitis and necrotizing fasciitis, secretes the potent cysteine protease SpeB. Several lines of evidence suggest that SpeB is an important virulence factor. SpeB is expressed in human infections, protects mice from lethal challenge when used as a vaccine, and contributes significantly to tissue destruction and dissemination in animal models. However, recent descriptions of mutations in genes implicated in SpeB production have led to the idea that GAS may be under selective pressure to decrease secreted SpeB protease activity during infection. Thus, two divergent hypotheses have been proposed. One postulates that SpeB is a key contributor to pathogenesis; the other, that GAS is under selection to decrease SpeB during infection. In order to distinguish between these alternative hypotheses, we performed casein hydrolysis assays to measure the SpeB protease activity secreted by 6,775 GAS strains recovered from infected humans. The results demonstrated that 84.3% of the strains have a wild-type SpeB protease phenotype. The availability of whole-genome sequence data allowed us to determine the relative frequencies of mutations in genes implicated in SpeB production. The most abundantly mutated genes were direct transcription regulators. We also sequenced the genomes of 2,954 GAS isolates recovered from nonhuman primates with experimental necrotizing fasciitis. No mutations that would result in a SpeB-deficient phenotype were identified. Taken together, these data unambiguously demonstrate that the great majority of GAS strains recovered from infected humans secrete wild-type levels of SpeB protease activity. Our data confirm the important role of SpeB in GAS pathogenesis and help end a long-standing controversy.
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Bacteria that enter the bloodstream will encounter components of the cellular and soluble immune response. Platelets contribute to this response and have emerged as an important target for bacterial pathogens. Bacteria produce diverse extracellular proteins and toxins that have been reported to modulate platelet function. These interactions can result in complete or incomplete platelet activation or inhibition of platelet activation, depending on the bacteria and bacterial product. The nature of the platelet response may be highly relevant to disease pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oonagh Shannon
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University , Lund , Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Kuo CF, Tsao N, Cheng MH, Yang HC, Wang YC, Chen YP, Lin KJ. Application of the C3-binding motif of streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B to protect mice from invasive group a streptococcal infection. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0117268. [PMID: 25629609 PMCID: PMC4309557 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Group A streptococcus (GAS) is an important human pathogen that produces several extracellular exotoxins to facilitate invasion and infection. Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B (SPE B) has been demonstrated to be an important virulence factor of GAS. Our previous studies indicate that SPE B cleaves complement 3 (C3) and inhibits the activation of complement pathways. In this study, we constructed and expressed recombinant fragments of SPE B to examine the C3-binding site of SPE B. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and pull-down assays, we found that the C-terminal domain, containing amino-acid residues 345–398, of SPE B was the major binding site of human serum C3. We further identified a major, Ala376-Pro398, and a minor C3-binding motif, Gly346-Gly360, that both mediated the binding of C3 complement. Immunization with the C3-binding motifs protected mice against challenge with a lethal dose of non-invasive M49 strain GAS but not invasive M1 strains. To achieve higher efficiency against invasive M1 GAS infection, a combination of synthetic peptides derived from C-terminal epitope of streptolysin S (SLSpp) and from the major C3-binding motif of SPE B (PP6, Ala376-Pro398) was used to elicit specific immune response to those two important streptococcal exotoxins. Death rates and the severity of skin lesions decreased significantly in PP6/SLSpp-immunized mice that were infected with invasive M1 strains of GAS. These results indicate a combination of the C3-binding motif of SPE B and the protective epitope of SLS could be used as a subunit vaccine against invasive M1 strains group A streptococcal infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Feng Kuo
- Department of Nursing, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
| | - Nina Tsao
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
| | - Miao-Hui Cheng
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
| | - Hsiu-Chen Yang
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chieh Wang
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
| | - Ying-Pin Chen
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Jen Lin
- Department of Pathology, E-DA Hospital, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Andreoni F, Ogawa T, Ogawa M, Madon J, Uchiyama S, Schuepbach RA, Zinkernagel AS. The IL-8 protease SpyCEP is detrimental for Group A Streptococcus host-cells interaction and biofilm formation. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:339. [PMID: 25071751 PMCID: PMC4090674 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
SpyCEP-mediated chemokine degradation translates into more efficient spreading and increased severity of invasive Group A Streptococcus (GAS) infections, due to impaired neutrophil recruitment to the site of infection. SpyCEP is markedly up-regulated in invasive as compared to colonizing GAS isolates raising the question whether SpyCEP expression hinders bacterial attachment and thus colonization of the host. To address this question we used a molecular approach involving the use of homologous GAS strains either expressing or not SpyCEP or expressing an enzymatically inactive variant of SpyCEP. We found that expression of enzymatically functional SpyCEP lowered GAS adherence and invasion potential toward various epithelial and endothelial cells. SpyCEP also blunted biofilm formation capacity. Our data indicate that expression of SpyCEP decreases colonization and thus might be detrimental for the spreading of GAS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Andreoni
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Taiji Ogawa
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mariko Ogawa
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jerzy Madon
- Surgical Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Satoshi Uchiyama
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reto A Schuepbach
- Surgical Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annelies S Zinkernagel
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Chen J, Ma Y, Wang Z, Wang H, Wang L, Xiao F, Wang H, Tan J, Guo Z. Thrombin promotes fibronectin secretion by bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells via the protease-activated receptor mediated signalling pathways. Stem Cell Res Ther 2014; 5:36. [PMID: 24636778 PMCID: PMC4055141 DOI: 10.1186/scrt424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Fibronectin (FN) is commonly used in the development of serum-free media for the expansion of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). This study was aimed to observe if thrombin could stimulate FN secretion by human bone marrow MSCs and investigate the potential underlying mechanisms. Methods PCR was performed to detect the expression of the protease-activated receptors (PARs) in MSCs. After thrombin treatment, the expression level and secretion of FN were observed by RT-PCR, immunofluorescence staining and ELISA, respectively, and the activation of ERK1/2 and NF kappa B pathways was revealed by Western blotting, with or without pre-treatment of small-molecule blockers specific for PAR-1 and –2. The phenotypic and functional activities of thrombin-treated MSCs were also observed. Results PCR analysis showed that human bone marrow MSCs expressed two subtypes of PARs, PAR-1 and PAR-2. Thrombin treatment enhanced MSCs to express FN at mRNA and protein levels and promoted FN secretion by MSCs, accompanied by potent adherence to the culture plastic. Thrombin induced prompt phosphorylation of ERK 1/2 and NF kappa B p65 and the stimulatory effects of thrombin on FN secretion were blunted by specific inhibitors of these signaling molecules. Blockage to PAR-1 and PAR-2 partially abrogated thrombin-elicited FN secretion by MSCs and ERK 1/2 phosphorylation, whereas that of NF kappa B p65 was unaffected. Moreover, thrombin-treated MSCs maintained the phenotypic features, in vitro osteogenesis and adipogenesis capacities, and inhibitory activity on Phytohemagglutinin-induced allogeneic lymphocyte proliferation. Conclusions Thrombin could promote FN secretion by MSCs via PAR-mediated ERK 1/2 activation, while NF kappa B might be also involved in an undefined manner.
Collapse
|