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Lambert EE, van Twillert I, Beckers L, Poelen MCM, Han WGH, Pieren DKJ, van Els CACM. Reduced Bordetella pertussis-specific CD4+ T-Cell Responses at Older Age. FRONTIERS IN AGING 2022; 2:737870. [PMID: 35822011 PMCID: PMC9261443 DOI: 10.3389/fragi.2021.737870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Pertussis, a human-specific respiratory infectious disease caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Bordetella pertussis (Bp), remains endemic with epidemic years despite high vaccination coverage. Whereas pertussis vaccines and natural infection with Bp confer immune protection, the duration of protection varies and is not lifelong. Recent evidence indicates a considerable underestimation of the pertussis burden among older adults. Whereas the impact of increasing age on Bp-specific humoral immunity has been demonstrated, little is known on immunosenescence of CD4+ T-cell responses in the context of Bp. Here, we aimed to address whether increasing age impacts responsiveness of the Bp-specific CD4+ T-cells in the memory pool following a clinically symptomatic pertussis infection in whole cell vaccine-primed pediatric and adult cases. Cytokine and proliferative responses and phenotypical profiles of CD4+ T cells specific for Bp antigens at an early and late convalescent timepoint were compared. Responses of various Th cytokines, including IFNγ, were significantly lower in older adults at early and late timepoints post diagnosis. In addition, we found lower frequencies of Bp-specific proliferated CD4+ T cells in older adults, in the absence of differences in replication profile. Phenotyping of Bp-specific CD4+ T cells suggested reduced expression of activation markers rather than increased expression of co-inhibitory markers. Altogether, our findings show that the magnitude and functionality of the Bp-specific memory CD4+ T-cell pool decrease at older age. Declined CD4+ T-cell responsiveness to Bp is suggested to contribute to the burden of pertussis in older adults.
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Bazmara S, Shadmani M, Ghasemnejad A, Aghazadeh H, Pooshang Bagheri K. In silico rational design of a novel tetra-epitope tetanus vaccine with complete population coverage using developed immunoinformatics and surface epitope mapping approaches. Med Hypotheses 2019; 130:109267. [PMID: 31383332 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2019.109267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Presentation of many unwanted epitopes within tetanus toxoid vaccine to lymphocyte clones may lead to production of many unwanted antibodies. Moreover an ideal vaccine must cover all individuals in a population that is dependent to the kinds of human leukocyte antigen alleles. Concerning these issues, our study was aimed to in silico design of a multi-epitope tetanus vaccine (METV) in order to improve population coverage and protectivity of tetanus vaccine as well as reduction of complications. Concerning these issues, a novel rational filtration was implemented to design a novel METV using immunoinformatics and surface epitope mapping approaches. Prediction of epitopes for tetanus toxin was performed in the candidate country in which the frequency had been gathered from almost all geographical distributions. The most strong binder epitopes for major histocompatibility complex class II were selected and among them the surface epitopes of native toxin were selected. The population coverage of the selected epitopes was estimated. The final candidate epitopes had highly population coverage. Molecular docking was performed to prediction of binding affinity of our candidate epitopes to the HLA-DRB1 alleles. At first, 680 strong binder epitopes were predicted. Among them 11 epitopes were selected. Finally, 4 epitopes had the most population coverage and suggested as a tetra-epitope tetanus vaccine. 99.41% of inessential strong binders were deleted using our tree steps filtration. HLA-DP had the most roles in epitope presentation. Molecular docking analysis proved the strong binding affinity of candidate epitopes to the HLA-DRB1 alleles. In conclusion, we theoretically reduced 99.41% of unwanted antibodies using our novel filtration strategies. Our tetra-epitope tetanus vaccine showed 100% population coverage in the candidate country. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that HLA-DP and HLA-DQ had more potential in epitope presentation in comparison to HLA-DRB1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samira Bazmara
- Venom and Biotherapeutics Molecules Lab., Biotechnology Dept., Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahsa Shadmani
- Venom and Biotherapeutics Molecules Lab., Biotechnology Dept., Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Atefeh Ghasemnejad
- Venom and Biotherapeutics Molecules Lab., Biotechnology Dept., Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Aghazadeh
- Venom and Biotherapeutics Molecules Lab., Biotechnology Dept., Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kamran Pooshang Bagheri
- Venom and Biotherapeutics Molecules Lab., Biotechnology Dept., Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
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Di Mattia G, Nicolai A, Frassanito A, Petrarca L, Nenna R, Midulla F. Pertussis: New preventive strategies for an old disease. Paediatr Respir Rev 2019; 29:68-73. [PMID: 29914744 DOI: 10.1016/j.prrv.2018.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In the last twenty years, despite high vaccination coverage, epidemics of pertussis are occurring in both developing and developed countries. Many reasons could explain the pertussis resurgence: the increasing awareness of the disease, the availability of new diagnostic tests with higher sensitivity, the emergence of new Bordetella pertussis (B. pertussis) strains different from those contained in the current vaccines, the asymptomatic transmission of B. pertussis in adolescents and adults and the shorter duration of protection given by the acellular pertussis (aP) vaccine. New preventive strategies have already been implemented, such as booster doses of aP vaccine in adolescents and adults, maternal immunisation during pregnancy and the "cocooning" strategy, but more are still needed. Knowing what is new about this old disease is necessary to reduce its incidence and to protect infants too young to be vaccinated, which have the highest risk of complications and death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greta Di Mattia
- Department of Paediatrics, "Sapienza" University of Rome, V.le Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Ambra Nicolai
- Department of Paediatrics, "Sapienza" University of Rome, V.le Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Frassanito
- Department of Paediatrics, "Sapienza" University of Rome, V.le Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Petrarca
- Department of Paediatrics, "Sapienza" University of Rome, V.le Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Raffaella Nenna
- Department of Paediatrics, "Sapienza" University of Rome, V.le Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Fabio Midulla
- Department of Paediatrics, "Sapienza" University of Rome, V.le Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy.
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Lambert EE, Buisman AM, van Els CACM. Superior B. pertussis Specific CD4+ T-Cell Immunity Imprinted by Natural Infection. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1183:81-98. [PMID: 31321753 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2019_405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Pertussis remains endemic in vaccinated populations due to waning of vaccine-induced immunity and insufficient interruption of transmission. Correlates of long-term protection against whooping cough remain elusive but increasing evidence from experimental models indicates that the priming of particular lineages of B. pertussis (Bp) specific CD4+ T cells is essential to control bacterial load. Critical hallmarks of these protective CD4+ T cell lineages in animals are suggested to be their differentiation profile as Th1 and Th17 cells and their tissue residency. These features seem optimally primed by previous infection but insufficiently or only partially by current vaccines. In this review, evidence is sought indicating whether infection also drives such superior Bp specific CD4+ T cell lineages in humans. We highlight key features of effector immunity downstream of Th1 and Th17 cell cytokines that explain clearing of primary Bp infections in naïve hosts, and effective prevention of infection in convalescent hosts during secondary challenge. Outstanding questions are put forward that need answers before correlates of human Bp infection-primed CD4+ T cell immunity can be used as benchmark for the development of improved pertussis vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora E Lambert
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Anne-Marie Buisman
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Cécile A C M van Els
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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Bancroft T, Dillon MBC, da Silva Antunes R, Paul S, Peters B, Crotty S, Lindestam Arlehamn CS, Sette A. Th1 versus Th2 T cell polarization by whole-cell and acellular childhood pertussis vaccines persists upon re-immunization in adolescence and adulthood. Cell Immunol 2016; 304-305:35-43. [PMID: 27212461 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The recent increase in cases of whooping cough among teenagers in the US suggests that the acellular Bordetella pertussis vaccine (aP) that became standard in the mid 1990s might be relatively less effective than the whole-bacteria formulation (wP) previously used since the 1950s. To understand this effect, we compared antibody and T cell responses to a booster immunization in subjects who received either the wP or aP vaccine as their initial priming dose in childhood. Antibody responses in wP- and aP-primed donors were similar. Magnitude of T cell responses was higher in aP-primed individuals. Epitope mapping revealed the T cell immunodominance patterns were similar for both vaccines. Further comparison of the ratios of IFNγ and IL-5 revealed that IFNγ strongly dominates the T cell response in wP-primed donors, while IL-5 is dominant in aP primed individuals. Surprisingly, this differential pattern is maintained after booster vaccination, at times from eighteen years to several decades after the original aP/wP priming. These findings suggest that childhood aP versus wP vaccination induces functionally different T cell responses to pertussis that become fixed and are unchanged even upon boosting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara Bancroft
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Myles B C Dillon
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | | | - Sinu Paul
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Bjoern Peters
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Shane Crotty
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | | | - Alessandro Sette
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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van Twillert I, Bonačić Marinović AA, van Gaans-van den Brink JAM, Kuipers B, Berbers GAM, van der Maas NAT, Verheij TJM, Versteegh FGA, Teunis PFM, van Els CACM. The Use of Innovative Two-Component Cluster Analysis and Serodiagnostic Cut-Off Methods to Estimate Prevalence of Pertussis Reinfections. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148507. [PMID: 26848833 PMCID: PMC4743910 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Bordetella pertussis circulates even in highly vaccinated countries affecting all age groups. Insight into the scale of concealed reinfections is important as they may contribute to transmission. We therefore investigated whether current single-point serodiagnostic methods are suitable to estimate the prevalence of pertussis reinfection. Two methods based on IgG-Ptx plasma levels alone were used to evaluate the proportion of renewed seroconversions in the past year in a cohort of retrospective pertussis cases ≥ 24 months after a proven earlier symptomatic infection. A Dutch population database was used as a baseline. Applying a classical 62.5 IU/ml IgG-Ptx cut-off, we calculated a seroprevalence of 15% in retrospective cases, higher than the 10% observed in the population baseline. However, this method could not discriminate between renewed seroconversion and waning of previously infection-enhanced IgG-Ptx levels. Two-component cluster analysis of the IgG-Ptx datasets of both pertussis cases and the general population revealed a continuum of intermediate IgG-Ptx levels, preventing the establishment of a positive population and the comparison of prevalence by this alternative method. Next, we investigated the complementary serodiagnostic value of IgA-Ptx levels. When modelling datasets including both convalescent and retrospective cases we obtained new cut-offs for both IgG-Ptx and IgA-Ptx that were optimized to evaluate renewed seroconversions in the ex-cases target population. Combining these cut-offs two-dimensionally, we calculated 8.0% reinfections in retrospective cases, being below the baseline seroprevalence. Our study for the first time revealed the shortcomings of using only IgG-Ptx data in conventional serodiagnostic methods to determine pertussis reinfections. Improved results can be obtained with two-dimensional serodiagnostic profiling. The proportion of reinfections thus established suggests a relatively increased period of protection to renewed infection after clinical pertussis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inonge van Twillert
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Axel A. Bonačić Marinović
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | | | - Betsy Kuipers
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Guy A. M. Berbers
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Nicoline A. T. van der Maas
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Theo J. M. Verheij
- Julius Center Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Florens G. A. Versteegh
- Department of Pediatrics, Groene Hart Ziekenhuis, Gouda, the Netherlands
- Ghent University Hospital, department of pediatrics, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Peter F. M. Teunis
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
- RSPH, Emory University, Atlanta, United States of America
| | - Cécile A. C. M. van Els
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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van Twillert I, Han WGH, van Els CACM. Waning and aging of cellular immunity to Bordetella pertussis. Pathog Dis 2015; 73:ftv071. [PMID: 26371178 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftv071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
While it is clear that the maintenance of Bordetella pertussis-specific immunity evoked both after vaccination and infection is insufficient, it is unknown at which pace waning occurs and which threshold levels of sustained functional memory B and T cells are required to provide long-term protection. Longevity of human cellular immunity to B. pertussis has been studied less extensively than serology, but is suggested to be key for the observed differences between the duration of protection induced by acellular vaccination and whole cell vaccination or infection. The induction and maintenance of levels of protective memory B and T cells may alter with age, associated with changes of the immune system throughout life and with accumulating exposures to circulating B. pertussis or vaccine doses. This is relevant since pertussis affects all age groups. This review summarizes current knowledge on the waning patterns of human cellular immune responses to B. pertussis as addressed in diverse vaccination and infection settings and in various age groups. Knowledge on the effectiveness and flaws in human B. pertussis-specific cellular immunity ultimately will advance the improvement of pertussis vaccination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inonge van Twillert
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Wanda G H Han
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Cécile A C M van Els
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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Brummelman J, Wilk MM, Han WGH, van Els CACM, Mills KHG. Roads to the development of improved pertussis vaccines paved by immunology. Pathog Dis 2015; 73:ftv067. [PMID: 26347400 PMCID: PMC4626578 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftv067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Current acellular pertussis vaccines have various shortcomings, which may contribute to their suboptimal efficacy and waning immunity in vaccinated populations. This calls for the development of new pertussis vaccines capable of inducing long-lived protective immunity. Immunization with whole cell pertussis vaccines and natural infection with Bordetella pertussis induce distinct and more protective immune responses when compared with immunization with acellular pertussis vaccines. Therefore, the immune responses induced with whole cell vaccine or after infection can be used as a benchmark for the development of third-generation vaccines against pertussis. Here, we review the literature on the immunology of B. pertussis infection and vaccination and discuss the lessons learned that will help in the design of improved pertussis vaccines. To develop improved pertussis vaccines capable of inducing long-lived protective immunity, lessons have to be learned from immunology of Bordetella pertussis infection and current vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanda Brummelman
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Mieszko M Wilk
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Wanda G H Han
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Cécile A C M van Els
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Kingston H G Mills
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
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Fedele G, Cassone A, Ausiello CM. T-cell immune responses to Bordetella pertussis infection and vaccination. Pathog Dis 2015; 73:ftv051. [PMID: 26242279 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftv051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent immunological investigations, stemming from the studies performed in the nineties within the clinical trials of the acellular pertussis vaccines, have highlighted the important role played by T-cell immunity to pertussis in humans. These studies largely confirmed earlier investigations in the murine respiratory infection models that humoral immunity alone is not sufficient to confer protection against Bordetella pertussis infection and that T-cell immunity is required. Over the last years, knowledge of T-cell immune response to B. pertussis has expanded broadly, taking advantage of the general progress in the understanding of anti-bacterial immunity and of refinements in methods to approach immunological investigations. In particular, experimental models of B. pertussis infection highlighted the cooperative role played by T-helper (Th)1 and Th17 cells for protection. Furthermore, the new baboon experimental model suggested a plausible explanation for the differences observed in the strength and persistence of protective immunity induced by the acellular or whole-cell pertussis vaccines and natural infection in humans, contributing to explain the upsurge of recent pertussis outbreaks. Despite the progress, open questions remain, the answer to them will possibly provide better tools to fight one of the hardest-to-control vaccine preventable disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Fedele
- Anti-Infectious Immunity Unit, Department of Infectious Parasitic and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonio Cassone
- Anti-Infectious Immunity Unit, Department of Infectious Parasitic and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy Center of functional genomics, Polo della genomica, genetica e biologia, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Clara Maria Ausiello
- Anti-Infectious Immunity Unit, Department of Infectious Parasitic and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
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Han WGH, Helm K, Poelen MMC, Otten HG, van Els CACM. Ex vivo peptide-MHC II tetramer analysis reveals distinct end-differentiation patterns of human pertussis-specific CD4(+) T cells following clinical infection. Clin Immunol 2015; 157:205-15. [PMID: 25728491 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2015.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Pertussis is occurring in highly vaccinated populations, suggesting insufficient protective memory CD4(+) T cells to Bordetella (B.) pertussis. P.69 Pertactin (P.69 Prn) is an important virulence factor of B. pertussis, and P.69 Prn7-24 is an immunodominant CD4(+) T cell epitope in mice and broadly recognized in humans. P.69 Prn7-24 peptide-MHC II tetramers (DRB4*0101/IVKT) were designed to ex vivo interrogate the presence and differentiation state of P.69 Prn7-24 specific CD4(+) T cells in six symptomatic pertussis cases. Cases with relatively more CD45RA(-)CCR7(+) central memory CD4(+)DRB4*0101/IVKT(+) T cells secreted Th1 cytokines, while cases with more CD45RA(-)CCR7(-) effector memory CD4(+)DRB4*0101/IVKT(+) T cells secreted both Th1 and Th2 cytokines upon peptide stimulation. CD45RA(+)CCR7(-) terminal differentiation pattern was associated with low or non-functionality based on cytokine secretion. This study provides proof of principle for further peptide-MHC II tetramer guided approaches in the elucidation of limited immunological memory to B. pertussis and the resurgence of pertussis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanda G H Han
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Kina Helm
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Martien M C Poelen
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Henny G Otten
- Laboratory of Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cécile A C M van Els
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Stepping up ELISpot: Multi-Level Analysis in FluoroSpot Assays. Cells 2014; 3:1102-15. [PMID: 25437440 PMCID: PMC4276915 DOI: 10.3390/cells3041102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
ELISpot is one of the most commonly used immune monitoring assays, which allows the functional assessment of the immune system at the single cell level. With its outstanding sensitivity and ease of performance, the assay has recently advanced from the mere single function cell analysis to multifunctional analysis by implementing detection reagents that are labeled with fluorophores (FluoroSpot), allowing the detection of secretion patterns of two or more analytes in a single well. However, the automated evaluation of such assays presents various challenges for image analysis. Here we dissect the technical and methodological requirements for a reliable analysis of FluoroSpot assays, introduce important quality control measures and provide advice for proper interpretation of results obtained by automated imaging systems.
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