1
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Konrad JD, Marrus N, Lohse KR, Thuet KM, Lang CE. Motor competence is related to acquisition of error-based but not reinforcement learning in children ages 6 to 12. Heliyon 2024; 10:e32731. [PMID: 39183856 PMCID: PMC11341300 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Background An essential component of childhood development is increasing motor competence. Poor motor learning is often thought to underlie impaired motor competence, but this link is unclear in previous studies. Aims Our aim was to test the relationship between motor competence and motor learning in the acquisition phase. Both reinforcement learning (RL) and error-based learning (EBL) were tested. We hypothesized that slower RL and slower EBL acquisition rates would relate to lower motor competence. Methods and procedures Eighty-six participants ages 6-12 performed a target throwing task under RL and EBL conditions. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children - 2nd edition (MABC-2) provided a measure of motor competence. We assessed EBL and RL acquisition rates, baseline variability, and baseline bias from the throwing task. Outcomes and results In a multiple linear regression model, baseline variability (β = -0.49, p = <0.001) and the EBL acquisition rate (β = -0.24, p = 0.018) significantly explained the MABC-2 score. Participants with higher baseline variability and slower EBL acquisition had lower motor competence scores. The RL acquisition rate was independent of MABC-2 score suggesting that RL may be less of a contributor to poor motor competence. Conclusions and implications Children with slower EBL acquisition had lower motor competence scores but RL acquisition was unrelated to the level of motor competence. Emphasizing the unrelated reinforcement mechanisms over error-based mechanisms during motor skill interventions may help children with poor motor competence better acquire new motor skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey D. Konrad
- Washington University School of Medicine: Program in Physical Therapy, USA
| | - Natasha Marrus
- Washington University School of Medicine: Department of Psychiatry, USA
| | - Keith R. Lohse
- Washington University School of Medicine: Program in Physical Therapy, USA
| | - Kayla M. Thuet
- Washington University School of Medicine: Program in Physical Therapy, USA
| | - Catherine E. Lang
- Washington University School of Medicine: Program in Physical Therapy, USA
- Washington University School of Medicine: Program in Occupational Therapy, USA
- Washington University School of Medicine: Department of Neurology, USA
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2
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Mariscal DM, Vasudevan EVL, Malone LA, Torres-Oviedo G, Bastian AJ. Context-Specificity of Locomotor Learning Is Developed during Childhood. eNeuro 2022; 9:ENEURO.0369-21.2022. [PMID: 35346963 PMCID: PMC9036623 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0369-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans can perform complex movements with speed and agility in the face of constantly changing task demands. To accomplish this, motor plans are adapted to account for errors in our movements because of changes in our body (e.g., growth or injury) or in the environment (e.g., walking on sand vs ice). It has been suggested that adaptation that occurs in response to changes in the state of our body will generalize across different movement contexts and environments, whereas adaptation that occurs with alterations in the external environment will be context-specific. Here, we asked whether the ability to form generalizable versus context-specific motor memories develops during childhood. We performed a cross-sectional study of context-specific locomotor adaptation in 35 children (3-18 years old) and 7 adults (19-31 years old). Subjects first adapted their gait and learned a new walking pattern on a split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that move each leg at a different speed. Then, subjects walked overground to assess the generalization of the adapted walking pattern across different environments. Our results show that the generalization of treadmill after-effects to overground walking decreases as subjects' age increases, indicating that age and experience are critical factors regulating the specificity of motor learning. Our results suggest that although basic locomotor patterns are established by two years of age, brain networks required for context-specific locomotor learning are still being developed throughout youth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dulce M Mariscal
- Bioengineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260
- Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
| | - Erin V L Vasudevan
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, 21205
- School of Health Technology and Management, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794
| | - Laura A Malone
- Neurology Department, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21205
- Physical Medicine, and Rehabilitation Department, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21205
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, 21205
| | - Gelsy Torres-Oviedo
- Bioengineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260
- Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
| | - Amy J Bastian
- Neuroscience Department, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21205
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, 21205
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3
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Park SH, Hsu CJ, Dee W, Roth EJ, Rymer WZ, Wu M. Gradual adaptation to pelvis perturbation during walking reinforces motor learning of weight shift toward the paretic side in individuals post-stroke. Exp Brain Res 2021; 239:1701-1713. [PMID: 33779790 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-021-06092-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the gradual versus abrupt adaptation to lateral pelvis assistance force improves weight shift toward the paretic side and enhance forced use of the paretic leg during walking. Sixteen individuals who had sustained a hemispheric stroke participated in two experimental sessions, which consisted of (1) treadmill walking with the application of lateral pelvis assistance force (gradual vs. abrupt condition) and (2) overground walking. In the "gradual" condition, during treadmill walking, the assistance force was gradually increased from 0 to 100% of the predetermined force step by step. In the abrupt condition, the force was applied at 100% of the predetermined force throughout treadmill walking. Participants exhibited significant improvements in hip abductor and adductor, ankle dorsiflexor, and knee extensor muscle activities, weight shift toward the paretic side, and overground walking speed in the gradual condition (P < 0.05), but showed no significant changes in the abrupt condition (P > 0.20). Changes in weight shift toward the paretic side were statistically different between conditions (P < 0.001), although changes in muscle activities were not (P > 0.11). In the gradual condition, the error amplitude was proportional to the improvement in weight shift during the late post-adaptation (R2 = 0.32, P = 0.03), but not in the abrupt condition (R2 = 0.001, P = 0.93). In conclusion, the "gradual adaptation" inducing "small errors" during constraint-induced walking may improve weight shift and enhance forced use of the paretic leg in individuals post-stroke. Applying gradual pelvis assistance force during walking may be used as an intervention strategy to improve walking in individuals post-stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seoung Hoon Park
- Legs and Walking Lab, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, 355 E. Erie Street, 23rd floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Chao-Jung Hsu
- Legs and Walking Lab, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, 355 E. Erie Street, 23rd floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Weena Dee
- Legs and Walking Lab, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, 355 E. Erie Street, 23rd floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Elliot J Roth
- Legs and Walking Lab, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, 355 E. Erie Street, 23rd floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - William Z Rymer
- Legs and Walking Lab, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, 355 E. Erie Street, 23rd floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Ming Wu
- Legs and Walking Lab, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, 355 E. Erie Street, 23rd floor, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA. .,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA. .,Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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4
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De Stefani E, Rodà F, Volta E, Pincolini V, Farnese A, Rossetti S, Pedretti F, Ferrari PF. Learning new sport actions: Pilot study to investigate the imitative and the verbal instructive teaching methods in motor education. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237697. [PMID: 32797070 PMCID: PMC7428179 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the project was to investigate the effects of two strategies of teaching new sport actions on performance of eight-year-old children: observational-imitative method (OIM) and descriptive-directive method (DDM). The OIM group was provided with a pre-practice instruction in the form of expert modeling observation by an expert athlete. The DDM group received only verbal explanations of few selected static images. Thirty-six children (18 males and 18 females, mean age = 8,8) participated in the experiment. Subjects were randomly assigned to the OIM or DDM groups. Participants were instructed to perform four sport motor sequences never performed before (shoulder stand, soccer action, vortex howler throw, step action). Actions were videotaped and 2D kinematic analysis performed. A 10-point Likert questionnaire was administered to blind sport experts to assess the correctness and accuracy of each action. Results suggest that the OIM is the most effective instruction method when participants have no experience with the sport action to be performed. On the contrary, if the athlete needs to learn specific aspects of an exercise (such as grasping a tool) the best method is the DDM. In fact, detailed information on how to grab the vortex helped children in throwing it. We also found gender differences which might reflect cultural influences in specific sports (e.g. soccer). Finally, repetition of the exercise also improved the DDM group's performance. This has potential applications in sport teaching, suggesting that in the absence of a model performing the action to be imitated, the DDM can be as effective as the OIM if the observer repeats the sport action many times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa De Stefani
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Francesca Rodà
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- * E-mail:
| | - Elio Volta
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Giocampus Steering Committee, Parma, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Pier Francesco Ferrari
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS, Université de Lyon, Bron, France
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5
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Dewolf AH, Sylos-Labini F, Cappellini G, Lacquaniti F, Ivanenko Y. Emergence of Different Gaits in Infancy: Relationship Between Developing Neural Circuitries and Changing Biomechanics. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:473. [PMID: 32509753 PMCID: PMC7248179 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
How does gait-specific pattern generation evolve in early infancy? The idea that neural and biomechanical mechanisms underlying mature walking and running differ to some extent and involve distinct spinal and supraspinal neural circuits is supported by various studies. Here we consider the issue of human gaits from the developmental point of view, from neonate stepping to adult mature gaits. While differentiating features of the walk and run are clearly distinct in adults, the gradual and progressive developmental bifurcation between the different gaits suggests considerable sharing of circuitry. Gaits development and their biomechanical determinants also depend on maturation of the musculoskeletal system. This review outlines the possible overlap in the neural and biomechanical control of walking and running in infancy, supporting the idea that gaits may be built starting from common, likely phylogenetically conserved elements. Bridging connections between movement mechanics and neural control of locomotion could have profound clinical implications for technological solutions to understand better locomotor development and to diagnose early motor deficits. We also consider the neuromuscular maturation time frame of gaits resulting from active practice of locomotion, underlying plasticity of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Henri Dewolf
- Department of Systems Medicine and Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Germana Cappellini
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy.,Department of Pediatric Neurorehabilitation, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Lacquaniti
- Department of Systems Medicine and Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Yury Ivanenko
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
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6
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Gonzalez-Rubio M, Velasquez NF, Torres-Oviedo G. Explicit Control of Step Timing During Split-Belt Walking Reveals Interdependent Recalibration of Movements in Space and Time. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:207. [PMID: 31333429 PMCID: PMC6619396 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Split-belt treadmills that move the legs at different speeds are thought to update internal representations of the environment, such that this novel condition generates a new locomotor pattern with distinct spatio-temporal features compared to those of regular walking. It is unclear the degree to which such recalibration of movements in the spatial and temporal domains is interdependent. In this study, we explicitly altered subjects' limb motion in either space or time during split-belt walking to determine its impact on the adaptation of the other domain. Interestingly, we observed that motor adaptation in the spatial domain was susceptible to altering the temporal domain, whereas motor adaptation in the temporal domain was resilient to modifying the spatial domain. This non-reciprocal relation suggests a hierarchical organization such that the control of timing in locomotion has an effect on the control of limb position. This is of translational interest because clinical populations often have a greater deficit in one domain compared to the other. Our results suggest that explicit changes to temporal deficits cannot occur without modifying the spatial control of the limb.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gelsy Torres-Oviedo
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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7
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Gradual increase of perturbation load induces a longer retention of locomotor adaptation in children with cerebral palsy. Hum Mov Sci 2018; 63:20-33. [PMID: 30481722 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this study is to determine whether the size and the variability of error have an impact on the retention of locomotor adaptation in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Eleven children with CP, aged 7-16 years old, were recruited to participate in this study. Three types of force perturbations (i.e., abrupt, gradual and noisy loads) were applied to the right leg above the ankle starting from late stance to mid-swing in three test sessions while the subject walked on a treadmill. Spatial-temporal gait parameters were recorded using a custom designed 3D position sensor during treadmill walking. We observed that children with CP adapted to the resistance force perturbation and showed an aftereffect consisting of increased step length after load release. Further, we observed a longer retention of the aftereffect for the condition with a gradual load than that with an abrupt load. Results from this study suggested that the size of error might have an impact on the retention of motor adaptation in children with CP with a longer retention of motor adaptation for the condition with a small size of error than that with a large error. In addition, enhanced variability of error seems facilitate motor learning during treadmill training. Results from this study may be used for the development of force perturbation based training paradigms for improving walking function in children with CP.
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8
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Abstract
More than a century after the description of its cardinal components, the cerebellar motor syndrome (CMS) remains a cornerstone of daily clinical ataxiology, in both children and adults. Anatomically, motor cerebellum involves lobules I-V, VI, and VIII. CMS is typically associated with errors in the metrics of voluntary movements and a lack of coordination. Symptoms and motor signs consist of speech deficits, impairments of limb movements, and abnormalities of posture/gait. Ataxic dysarthria has a typical scanning (explosive with staccato) feature, voice has a nasal character, and speech is slurred. Cerebellar mutism is most common in children and occurs after resection of a large midline cerebellar tumor. Ataxia of limbs includes at various degrees dysmetria (hypermetria: overshoot, hypometria: undershoot), dysdiadochokinesia, cerebellar tremor (action tremor, postural tremor, kinetic tremor, some forms of orthostatic tremor), isometrataxia, disorders of muscle tone (both hypotonia and cerebellar fits), and impaired check and rebound. Handwriting is irregular and some patients exhibit megalographia. Cerebellar patients show an increased body sway with a broad-based stance (ataxia of stance). Gait is irregular and staggering. Delayed learning of complex motor skills may be a prominent feature in children. CMS is currently explained by the inability of the cerebellum to handle feedback signals during slow movements and to create, store, select, and update internal models during fast movements. The cerebellum is embedded in large-scale brain networks and is essential to perform accurate motor predictions related to body dynamics and environmental stimuli. Overall, the observations in children and adults exhibiting a CMS fit with the hypothesis that the cerebellum contains neural representations reproducing the dynamic properties of body, and generates and calibrates sensorimotor predictions. Therapies aiming at a reinforcement or restoration of internal models should be implemented to cancel CMS in cerebellar ataxias. The developmental trajectory of the cerebellum, the immature motor behavior in children, and the networks implicated in CMS need to be taken into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Manto
- Neurology Service, CHU-Charleroi, Charleroi, Belgium; Neuroscience Service, Université de Mons, Mons, Belgium.
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9
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Avraham G, Leib R, Pressman A, Simo LS, Karniel A, Shmuelof L, Mussa-Ivaldi FA, Nisky I. State-Based Delay Representation and Its Transfer from a Game of Pong to Reaching and Tracking. eNeuro 2017; 4:ENEURO.0179-17.2017. [PMID: 29379875 PMCID: PMC5788056 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0179-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
To accurately estimate the state of the body, the nervous system needs to account for delays between signals from different sensory modalities. To investigate how such delays may be represented in the sensorimotor system, we asked human participants to play a virtual pong game in which the movement of the virtual paddle was delayed with respect to their hand movement. We tested the representation of this new mapping between the hand and the delayed paddle by examining transfer of adaptation to blind reaching and blind tracking tasks. These blind tasks enabled to capture the representation in feedforward mechanisms of movement control. A Time Representation of the delay is an estimation of the actual time lag between hand and paddle movements. A State Representation is a representation of delay using current state variables: the distance between the paddle and the ball originating from the delay may be considered as a spatial shift; the low sensitivity in the response of the paddle may be interpreted as a minifying gain; and the lag may be attributed to a mechanical resistance that influences paddle's movement. We found that the effects of prolonged exposure to the delayed feedback transferred to blind reaching and tracking tasks and caused participants to exhibit hypermetric movements. These results, together with simulations of our representation models, suggest that delay is not represented based on time, but rather as a spatial gain change in visuomotor mapping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy Avraham
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
| | - Raz Leib
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
| | - Assaf Pressman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
- Sensory Motor Performance Program, Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL
| | - Lucia S. Simo
- Department of Physiology Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL
| | - Amir Karniel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
| | - Lior Shmuelof
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
| | - Ferdinando A. Mussa-Ivaldi
- Sensory Motor Performance Program, Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL
- Department of Physiology Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL
| | - Ilana Nisky
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel
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10
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The Role of the Pediatric Cerebellum in Motor Functions, Cognition, and Behavior: A Clinical Perspective. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2017; 26:317-29. [PMID: 27423796 DOI: 10.1016/j.nic.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This article discusses the contribution of the pediatric cerebellum to locomotion, ocular motor control, speech articulation, cognitive function, and behavior modulation. Hypotheses on cerebellar function are discussed. Clinical features in patients with cerebellar disorders are outlined. Cerebellar abnormalities in cognitive and behavioral disorders are detailed.
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11
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Invited commentary: Differential learning is different from contextual interference learning. Hum Mov Sci 2016; 47:240-245. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2015.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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12
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Musselman KE, Roemmich RT, Garrett B, Bastian AJ. Motor learning in childhood reveals distinct mechanisms for memory retention and re-learning. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 23:229-37. [PMID: 27084930 PMCID: PMC4836637 DOI: 10.1101/lm.041004.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Adults can easily learn and access multiple versions of the same motor skill adapted for different conditions (e.g., walking in water, sand, snow). Following even a single session of adaptation, adults exhibit clear day-to-day retention and faster re-learning of the adapted pattern. Here, we studied the retention and re-learning of an adapted walking pattern in children aged 6–17 yr. We found that all children, regardless of age, showed adult-like patterns of retention of the adapted walking pattern. In contrast, children under 12 yr of age did not re-learn faster on the next day after washout had occurred—they behaved as if they had never adapted their walking before. Re-learning could be improved in younger children when the adaptation time on day 1 was increased to allow more practice at the plateau of the adapted pattern, but never to adult-like levels. These results show that the ability to store a separate, adapted version of the same general motor pattern does not fully develop until adolescence, and furthermore, that the mechanisms underlying the retention and rapid re-learning of adapted motor patterns are distinct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin E Musselman
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore Maryland 21205, USA Motion Analysis Laboratory, The Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
| | - Ryan T Roemmich
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore Maryland 21205, USA Motion Analysis Laboratory, The Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
| | - Ben Garrett
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore Maryland 21205, USA Motion Analysis Laboratory, The Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
| | - Amy J Bastian
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore Maryland 21205, USA Motion Analysis Laboratory, The Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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13
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Tajino J, Ito A, Nagai M, Zhang X, Yamaguchi S, Iijima H, Aoyama T, Kuroki H. Discordance in recovery between altered locomotion and muscle atrophy induced by simulated microgravity in rats. J Mot Behav 2015; 47:397-406. [PMID: 25789843 DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2014.1003779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to a microgravity environment leads to adverse effects in motion and musculoskeletal properties. However, few studies have investigated the recovery of altered locomotion and muscle atrophy simultaneously. The authors investigated altered locomotion in rats submitted to simulated microgravity by hindlimb unloading for 2 weeks. Motion deficits were characterized by hyperextension of the knees and ankle joints and forward-shifted limb motion. Furthermore, these locomotor deficits did not revert to their original form after a 2-week recovery period, although muscle atrophy in the hindlimbs had recovered, implying discordance in recovery between altered locomotion and muscle atrophy, and that other factors such as neural drives might control behavioral adaptations to microgravity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junichi Tajino
- a Department of Motor Function Analysis , Human Health Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University , Japan
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14
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Yang JF, Mitton M, Musselman KE, Patrick SK, Tajino J. Characteristics of the developing human locomotor system: Similarities to other mammals. Dev Psychobiol 2015; 57:397-408. [PMID: 25754858 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Similarities in the development of locomotion between young children and other mammals are explored by reanalysis of data accrued over ~18 years. Supported stepping in children was tested on a treadmill. Although the time course of development is more protracted in humans compared to other mammals, the same trends are seen. For example, the duration of the stepping cycle shortens rapidly in the first 5 months of life. Hypermetric flexion of the hip and knee during stepping is seen in children <3 mo old. Stability of the locomotor rhythm both with respect to cycle duration within a limb and coupling between limbs improves slowly. Finally, coordination between the left and right legs can be manipulated with training, indicating experience-dependent learning at a young age. The possible reasons for these remarkably similar trends in development are explored as a function of maturational time tables for neural structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaynie F Yang
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine and The Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada.
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