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Laifi-Necibi N, Amor N, Merella P, Mohammed OB, Medini L. DNA barcoding reveals cryptic species in the sea slater Ligia italica (Crustacea, Isopoda) from Tunisia. Mitochondrial DNA A DNA Mapp Seq Anal 2024:1-11. [PMID: 38899428 DOI: 10.1080/24701394.2024.2363350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Barcoding studies have provided significant insights into phylogenetic relationships among species belonging to the genus Ligia (Crustacea, Isopoda). Herein the diversity of the Italian sea slater Ligia italica from Tunisia is studied for the first time. Samples were collected from 18 localities in Tunisia, and the analysis included previously published sequences from Italy and Greece available in GenBank. Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic analyses were carried out using a fragment of the mitochondrial COI gene. Putative cryptic species were explored using the 'barcode gap' approach in the software ASAP. A genetic landscape shape analysis was carried out using the program Alleles in Space. The analyses revealed highly divergent and well-supported clades of L. italica dispersed across Tunisia (Clades A1 and A2), Greece (Clade B) and Italy (Clades C1 and C2). High genetic dissimilarity among clades suggested that L. italica constitute a cryptic species complex. Divergence among different L. italica lineages (Clades A, B and C) occurred around 7-4.5 Ma. The detected high genetic distances among clades did not result from atypical mitochondrial DNAs or intracellular infection by Wolbachia bacteria. The complex history of the Mediterranean Sea appears to have played a significant role in shaping the phylogeographic pattern of Ligia italica. Additional morphological and molecular studies are needed to confirm the existence of cryptic species in Ligia italica in Mediterranean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nermine Laifi-Necibi
- Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, Laboratoire Diversité, Gestion et Conservation des Systèmes Biologiques, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Nabil Amor
- Higher Institute of Applied Biological Sciences of Tunis, University Tunis EL Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Paolo Merella
- Parassitologia e Malattie Parassitarie, Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | | | - Lamia Medini
- Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, Laboratoire Diversité, Gestion et Conservation des Systèmes Biologiques, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
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2
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Dimitriou AC, Soares Campos-Filho I, Georgiou A, Taiti S, Sfenthourakis S. Intra-island patterns of cryptic diversity within an oceanic island: Insights from the differentiation of Schizidium Verhoeff, 1901 (Oniscidea, Armadillidiidae) within Cyprus, with descriptions of two new species. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2023; 187:107884. [PMID: 37467903 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2023.107884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Cyprus is a Mediterranean island of volcanic origin isolated for at least 5.3 Myr from surrounding continental areas. The present study focuses on the diversification of the isopod genus Schizidium within the island, including also specimens from surrounding continental areas. The genus Schizidium sensu lato is probably non monophyletic, comprising 26 species distributed from Greece to Iran. Up to date the only representative of the genus reported from Cyprus was Schizidium fissum. Aiming to investigate the patterns of genetic diversity within the focal island, to evaluate the morphology-based taxonomy of the species in the genus, and at the same time to explore phylogenetic relationships with mainland populations, we applied genome-wide ddRADseq as well as Sanger sequencing targeting three mitochondrial (16S, COI and 12S) and the nuclear NaK loci. Results of phylogenetic analyses support the existence of two distinct epigean Schizidium clades with well-defined geographic boundaries that conform to the known paleogeography of Cyprus, plus one endogean clade with restricted distribution within the island. Genetic data and morphology corroborate the assignment of this latter endogean clade to a new species, Schizidium myrrae n. sp. The two epigean clades are also considered as distinct species, one corresponding to the known S. fissum at the eastern part of the island (Pentadaktylos massif) and the other to the newly described S. christosi n. sp. distributed along the western part of the island (Troodos massif). Even though detailed examination of many specimens could not retrieve any morphological differences among representatives of these two clades, clado-chronological analysis indicates a long isolation between them, estimated at ∼ 9 Mya, as well as the sharing of a common ancestor with S. tiberianum from Israel at ∼ 15 Mya. Hence, we can consider these epigean Schizidium species as one more case of cryptic diversity on Cyprus, exhibiting similar patterns with the recently described case in the genus Armadillo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas C Dimitriou
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, Panepistimiou Ave. 1, 2109 Aglantzia, Nicosia, Cyprus.
| | | | - Anastasia Georgiou
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, Panepistimiou Ave. 1, 2109 Aglantzia, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Stefano Taiti
- Istituto di Ricerca sugli Ecosistemi Terrestri, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), Italy; Museo di Storia Naturale dell'Università di Firenze, Sezione di Zoologia "La Specola", Via Romana 17, 50125 Florence, Italy
| | - Spyros Sfenthourakis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, Panepistimiou Ave. 1, 2109 Aglantzia, Nicosia, Cyprus
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Campos-Filho IS, Dimitriou AC, Taiti S, Sfenthourakis S. The genus Armadillo Latreille, 1802 (Oniscidea, Armadillidae) from Cyprus, with descriptions of two new species. Zootaxa 2023; 5270:67-91. [PMID: 37518177 DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5270.1.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
The present work aims to morphologically characterize the species of Armadillo from Cyprus. Moreover, two new species of the genus are described, A. konstantinoui sp. nov. from several places along the island, and A. karametae sp. nov. from Pafos region. The circum-Mediterranean species A. officinalis is also redescribed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andreas C Dimitriou
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Cyprus; Lefkosia (Nicosia); Cyprus..
| | - Stefano Taiti
- Istituto di Ricerca sugli Ecosistemi Terrestri; Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche; Sesto Fiorentino (Florence); Italy.; Museo di Storia Naturale; Sezione di Zoologia "La Specola"; Florence; Italy.,Department of Biological Sciences; University of Cyprus; Lefkosia (Nicosia); Cyprus..
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Khalaji-Pirbalouty V, Oraie H, Santamaria CA, Wägele JW. Redescription of Tylos maindroni Giordani Soika, 1954 (Crustacea, Isopoda, Oniscidea) based on SEM and molecular data. Zookeys 2022; 1087:123-139. [PMID: 35437363 PMCID: PMC8891231 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.1087.76668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The woodlouse species Tylos maindroni Giordani Soika, 1954 (Crustacea, Isopoda, Oniscidea) is redescribed from the Persian Gulf based on light and scanning electron microscopy. This species differs from the closely related T. exiguus Stebbing, 1910, from the Red Sea (coasts of Sudan and Eritrea), and Socotra Island, by pereopod 1 superior margin without a prominent projection and pleopod 2 endopod 2.3 times as long as exopod, vs. 3.6 in T. exiguus. A distribution map for T. maindroni is provided. In addition, we studied the molecular differentiation of five populations of T. maindroni from the Persian Gulf, based on partial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequences. The results revealed low levels of population structuring between the analyzed populations.
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OUP accepted manuscript. Zool J Linn Soc 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlac032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Discovering symbiosis in the supralittoral: bacterial metabarcoding analysis from the hepatopancreas of Orchestia and Tylos (Crustacea). Symbiosis 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-021-00749-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Greenan TM, Griffiths CL, Santamaria CA. Molecular approaches uncover cryptic diversity in intertidal Ligia isopods (Crustacea, Isopoda, Ligiidae) across the southern Africa coastline. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4658. [PMID: 29686947 PMCID: PMC5911383 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent phylogeographic studies along the coastline of southern Africa have uncovered cryptic diversity in several coastal invertebrates, including direct developing crustaceans in the superorder Peracarida. These findings indicating the possible existence of additional cryptic diversity in other yet to be studied peracarids, particularly those known to harbor said cryptic diversity in other regions of the world. Isopods in the genus Ligia are one such taxon. They inhabit patchy rocky beaches, are direct developers, avoid the open water, and exhibit other biological traits that severely constrain their dispersal potential (e.g., poor desiccation resistance). These traits are thought to have led to long-term isolation of populations, and allopatric diversification in Ligia species around the world; however, Ligia species in southern Africa, where three endemic Ligia species of uncertain validity are known to exist, remain unstudied to date. In this study, we used mitochondrial and nuclear markers to characterize Ligia collected in 18 localities from Namibia to the KwaZulu-Natal region of South Africa. We report the presence of cryptic lineages within Ligia species in the region that suggest the need for taxonomic reevaluation of these isopod species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor M Greenan
- Biology Program, College of Science and Mathematics, University of South Florida Sarasota-Manatee, Sarasota, FL, United States of America
| | - Charles L Griffiths
- Department of Biological Sciences and Marine Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
| | - Carlos A Santamaria
- Biology Program, College of Science and Mathematics, University of South Florida Sarasota-Manatee, Sarasota, FL, United States of America.,Department of Biological Sciences, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX, United States of America
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Hurtado LA, Mateos M, Wang C, Santamaria CA, Jung J, Khalaji-Pirbalouty V, Kim W. Out of Asia: mitochondrial evolutionary history of the globally introduced supralittoral isopod Ligia exotica. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4337. [PMID: 29576934 PMCID: PMC5853605 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The native ranges and invasion histories of many marine species remain elusive due to a dynamic dispersal process via marine vessels. Molecular markers can aid in identification of native ranges and elucidation of the introduction and establishment process. The supralittoral isopod Ligia exotica has a wide tropical and subtropical distribution, frequently found in harbors and ports around the globe. This isopod is hypothesized to have an Old World origin, from where it was unintentionally introduced to other regions via wooden ships and solid ballast. Its native range, however, remains uncertain. Recent molecular studies uncovered the presence of two highly divergent lineages of L. exotica in East Asia, and suggest this region is a source of nonindigenous populations. In this study, we conducted phylogenetic analyses (Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian) of a fragment of the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal (r)DNA gene using a dataset of this isopod that greatly expanded previous representation from Asia and putative nonindigenous populations around the world. For a subset of samples, sequences of 12S rDNA and NaK were also obtained and analyzed together with 16S rDNA. Our results show that L. exotica is comprised of several highly divergent genetic lineages, which probably represent different species. Most of the 16S rDNA genetic diversity (48 haplotypes) was detected in East and Southeast Asia. Only seven haplotypes were observed outside this region (in the Americas, Hawai'i, Africa and India), which were identical or closely related to haplotypes found in East and Southeast Asia. Phylogenetic patterns indicate the L. exotica clade originated and diversified in East and Southeast Asia, and only members of one of the divergent lineages have spread out of this region, recently, suggesting the potential to become invasive is phylogenetically constrained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis A. Hurtado
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States of America
| | - Mariana Mateos
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States of America
| | - Chang Wang
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States of America
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York City, NY, United States of America
| | - Carlos A. Santamaria
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States of America
- Biology Faculty, College of Science and Mathematics, University of South Florida, Sarasota, FL, United States of America
| | - Jongwoo Jung
- Department of Science Education, Ewha Women’s University, Seoul, South Korea
| | | | - Won Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
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9
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Hurtado LA, Mateos M, Liu S. Phylogeographic patterns of a lower intertidal isopod in the Gulf of California and the Caribbean and comparison with other intertidal isopods. Ecol Evol 2017; 7:346-357. [PMID: 28070297 PMCID: PMC5214745 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A growing body of knowledge on the diversity and evolution of intertidal isopods across different regions worldwide has enhanced our understanding on biological diversification at the poorly studied, yet vast, sea-land interface. High genetic divergences among numerous allopatric lineages have been identified within presumed single broadly distributed species. Excirolana mayana is an intertidal isopod that is commonly found in sandy beaches throughout the Gulf of California. Its distribution in the Pacific extends from this basin to Colombia and in the Atlantic from Florida to Venezuela. Despite its broad distribution and ecological importance, its evolutionary history has been largely neglected. Herein, we examined phylogeographic patterns of E. mayana in the Gulf of California and the Caribbean, based on maximum-likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences from four mitochondrial genes (16S rDNA, 12S rDNA, cytochrome oxidase I gene, and cytochrome b gene). We compared the phylogeographic patterns of E. mayana with those of the coastal isopods Ligia and Excirolana braziliensis (Gulf of California and Caribbean) and Tylos (Gulf of California). We found highly divergent lineages in both, the Gulf of California and Caribbean, suggesting the presence of multiple species. We identified two instances of Atlantic-Pacific divergences. Some geographical structuring among the major clades found in the Caribbean is observed. Haplotypes from the Gulf of California form a monophyletic group sister to a lineage found in Venezuela. Phylogeographic patterns of E. mayana in the Gulf of California differ from those observed in Ligia and Tylos in this region. Nonetheless, several clades of E. mayana have similar distributions to clades of these two other isopod taxa. The high levels of cryptic diversity detected in E. mayana also pose challenges for the conservation of this isopod and its fragile environment, the sandy shores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis A. Hurtado
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries SciencesTexas A&M UniversityCollege StationTXUSA
| | - Mariana Mateos
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries SciencesTexas A&M UniversityCollege StationTXUSA
| | - Shuang Liu
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries SciencesTexas A&M UniversityCollege StationTXUSA
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10
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Hurtado LA, Mateos M, Mattos G, Liu S, Haye PA, Paiva PC. Multiple transisthmian divergences, extensive cryptic diversity, occasional long-distance dispersal, and biogeographic patterns in a marine coastal isopod with an amphi-American distribution. Ecol Evol 2016; 6:7794-7808. [PMID: 30128130 PMCID: PMC6093162 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Excirolana braziliensis is a coastal intertidal isopod with a broad distribution spanning the Atlantic and Pacific tropical and temperate coasts of the American continent. Two separate regional studies (one in Panama and one in Chile) revealed the presence of highly genetically divergent lineages, implying that this taxon constitutes a cryptic species complex. The relationships among the lineages found in these two different regions and in the rest of the distribution, however, remain unknown. To better understand the phylogeographic patterns of E. braziliensis, we conducted phylogenetic analyses of specimens from much of its entire range. We obtained DNA sequences for fragments of four mitochondrial genes (16S rDNA, 12S rDNA, COI, and Cytb) and also used publicly available sequences. We conducted maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic reconstruction methods. Phylogeographic patterns revealed the following: (1) new highly divergent lineages of E. braziliensis; (2) three instances of Atlantic–Pacific divergences, some of which appear to predate the closure of the Isthmus of Panama; (3) the distributional limit of highly divergent lineages found in Brazil coincides with the boundary between two major marine coastal provinces; (4) evidence of recent long‐distance dispersal in the Caribbean; and (5) populations in the Gulf of California have closer affinities with lineages further south in the Pacific, which contrasts with the closer affinity with the Caribbean reported for other intertidal organisms. The high levels of cryptic diversity detected also bring about challenges for the conservation of this isopod and its fragile environment, the sandy shores. Our findings underscore the importance of comprehensive geographic sampling for phylogeographic and taxonomical studies of broadly distributed putative species harboring extensive cryptic diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis A Hurtado
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas
| | - Mariana Mateos
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas
| | - Gustavo Mattos
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - Shuang Liu
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas
| | - Pilar A Haye
- Departamento de Biología Marina Universidad Católica del Norte Coquimbo Chile.,Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Áridas (CEAZA) Coquimbo Chile.,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR) Universidad de Concepción Casilla 160-C Concepción Chile
| | - Paulo C Paiva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil.,Departamento de Zoologia Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil
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Santamaria CA, Mateos M, DeWitt TJ, Hurtado LA. Constrained body shape among highly genetically divergent allopatric lineages of the supralittoral isopod Ligia occidentalis (Oniscidea). Ecol Evol 2016; 6:1537-54. [PMID: 26900449 PMCID: PMC4747314 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Revised: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple highly divergent lineages have been identified within Ligia occidentalis sensu lato, a rocky supralittoral isopod distributed along a ~3000 km latitudinal gradient that encompasses several proposed marine biogeographic provinces and ecoregions in the eastern Pacific. Highly divergent lineages have nonoverlapping geographic distributions, with distributional limits that generally correspond with sharp environmental changes. Crossbreeding experiments suggest postmating reproductive barriers exist among some of them, and surveys of mitochondrial and nuclear gene markers do not show evidence of hybridization. Populations are highly isolated, some of which appear to be very small; thus, the effects of drift are expected to reduce the efficiency of selection. Large genetic divergences among lineages, marked environmental differences in their ranges, reproductive isolation, and/or high isolation of populations may have resulted in morphological differences in L. occidentalis, not detected yet by traditional taxonomy. We used landmark‐based geometric morphometric analyses to test for differences in body shape among highly divergent lineages of L. occidentalis, and among populations within these lineages. We analyzed a total of 492 individuals from 53 coastal localities from the southern California Bight to Central Mexico, including the Gulf of California. We conducted discriminant function analyses (DFAs) on body shape morphometrics to assess morphological variation among genetically differentiated lineages and their populations. We also tested for associations between phylogeny and morphological variation, and whether genetic divergence is correlated to multivariate morphological divergence. We detected significant differences in body shape among highly divergent lineages, and among populations within these lineages. Nonetheless, neither lineages nor populations can be discriminated on the basis of body shape, because correct classification rates of cross‐validated DFAs were low. Genetic distance and phylogeny had weak to no effect on body shape variation. The supralittoral environment appears to exert strong stabilizing selection and/or strong functional constraints on body shape in L. occidentalis, thereby leading to morphological stasis in this isopod.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Santamaria
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas; Biology Faculty College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Sarasota-Manatee Sarasota Florida
| | - Mariana Mateos
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas
| | - Thomas J DeWitt
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas
| | - Luis A Hurtado
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas
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12
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Lewis PO, Holder MT, Swofford DL. Phycas: Software for Bayesian Phylogenetic Analysis. Syst Biol 2015; 64:525-31. [DOI: 10.1093/sysbio/syu132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Paul O. Lewis
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 N. Eagleville Road, Unit 3043, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; 2Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Avenue, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA; and 3Department of Biology, Box 90338, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Mark T. Holder
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 N. Eagleville Road, Unit 3043, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; 2Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Avenue, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA; and 3Department of Biology, Box 90338, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - David L. Swofford
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 N. Eagleville Road, Unit 3043, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; 2Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Avenue, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA; and 3Department of Biology, Box 90338, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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