Gd3+ and calcium sensitive, sodium leak currents are features of weak membrane-glass seals in patch clamp recordings

Evaluation of mechanisms involved in regulation of intrinsic excitability by extracellular calcium in CA1 pyramidal neurons of rat

It is well recognized that changes in the extracellular concentration of calcium ions influence the excitability of neurons, yet what mechanism(s) mediate these effects is still a matter of debate. Using patch-clamp recordings from rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons, we examined the contribution of G-proteins and intracellular calcium-dependent signaling mechanisms to changes in intrinsic excitability evoked by altering the extracellular calcium concentration from physiological (1.2 mM) to a commonly used experimental (2 mM) level. We find that the inhibitory effect on intrinsic excitability of calcium ions is mainly expressed as an increased threshold for action potential firing (with no significant effect on resting membrane potential) that is not blocked by either the G-protein inhibitor GDPβS or the calcium chelator BAPTA. Our results therefore argue that in the concentration range studied, G-protein coupled calcium-sensing receptors, non-selective cation conductances, and intracellular calcium signaling pathways are not involved in mediating the effect of extracellular calcium ions on intrinsic excitability. Analysis of the derivative of the action potential, dV/dt versus membrane potential, indicates a current shift towards more depolarized membrane potentials at the higher calcium concentration. Our results are thus consistent with a mechanism in which extracellular calcium ions act directly on the voltage-gated sodium channels by neutralizing negative charges on the extracellular surface of these channels to modulate the threshold for action potential activation.

Unplugging lateral fenestrations of NALCN reveals a hidden drug binding site within the pore region

The sodium (Na+) leak channel (NALCN) is a member of the four-domain voltage-gated cation channel family that includes the prototypical voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels (NaVs and CaVs, respectively). Unlike NaVs and CaVs, which have four lateral fenestrations that serve as routes for lipophilic compounds to enter the central cavity to modulate channel function, NALCN has bulky residues (W311, L588, M1145, and Y1436) that block these openings. Structural data suggest that occluded fenestrations underlie the pharmacological resistance of NALCN, but functional evidence is lacking. To test this hypothesis, we unplugged the fenestrations of NALCN by substituting the four aforementioned residues with alanine (AAAA) and compared the effects of NaV, CaV, and NALCN blockers on both wild-type (WT) and AAAA channels. Most compounds behaved in a similar manner on both channels, but phenytoin and 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB) elicited additional, distinct responses on AAAA channels. Further experiments using single alanine mutants revealed that phenytoin and 2-APB enter the inner cavity through distinct fenestrations, implying structural specificity to their modes of access. Using a combination of computational and functional approaches, we identified amino acid residues critical for 2-APB activity, supporting the existence of drug binding site(s) within the pore region. Intrigued by the activity of 2-APB and its analogues, we tested compounds containing the diphenylmethane/amine moiety on WT channels. We identified clinically used drugs that exhibited diverse activity, thus expanding the pharmacological toolbox for NALCN. While the low potencies of active compounds reiterate the pharmacological resistance of NALCN, our findings lay the foundation for rational drug design to develop NALCN modulators with refined properties.

Unplugging lateral fenestrations of NALCN reveals a hidden drug binding site within the pore module

The sodium (Na + ) leak channel (NALCN) is a member of the four-domain voltage-gated cation channel family that includes the prototypical voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels (Na V s and Ca V s, respectively). Unlike Na V s and Ca V s, which have four lateral fenestrations that serve as routes for lipophilic compounds to enter the central cavity to modulate channel function, NALCN has bulky residues (W311, L588, M1145 and Y1436) that block these openings. Structural data suggest that oc-cluded lateral fenestrations underlie the pharmacological resistance of NALCN to lipophilic compounds, but functional evidence is lacking. To test this hypothesis, we unplugged the fenestrations of NALCN by substituting the four aforementioned resi-dues with alanine (AAAA) and compared the effects of Na V , Ca V and NALCN block-ers on both wild-type (WT) and AAAA channels. Most compounds behaved in a simi-lar manner on both channels, but phenytoin and 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB) elicited additional, distinct responses on AAAA channels. Further experiments using single alanine mutants revealed that phenytoin and 2-APB enter the inner cav-ity through distinct fenestrations, implying structural specificity to their modes of ac-cess. Using a combination of computational and functional approaches, we identified amino acid residues critical for 2-APB activity, supporting the existence of drug bind-ing site(s) within the pore region. Intrigued by the activity of 2-APB and its ana-logues, we tested additional compounds containing the diphenylmethane/amine moiety on WT channels. We identified compounds from existing clinically used drugs that exhibited diverse activity, thus expanding the pharmacological toolbox for NALCN. While the low potencies of active compounds reiterate the resistance of NALCN to pharmacological targeting, our findings lay the foundation for rational drug design to develop NALCN modulators with refined properties.

Significance statement

The sodium leak channel (NALCN) is essential for survival: mutations cause life-threatening developmental disorders in humans. However, no treatment is currently available due to the resistance of NALCN to pharmacological targeting. One likely reason is that the lateral fenestrations, a common route for clinically used drugs to enter and block related ion channels, are occluded in NALCN. Using a combination of computational and functional approaches, we unplugged the fenestrations of NALCN which led us to the first molecularly defined drug binding site within the pore region. Besides that, we also identified additional NALCN modulators from existing clinically used therapeutics, thus expanding the pharmacological toolbox for this leak channel.

New insights into the physiology and pathophysiology of the atypical sodium leak channel NALCN

Cell excitability and its modulation by hormones and neurotransmitters involve the concerted action of a large repertoire of membrane proteins, especially ion channels. Unique complements of coexpressed ion channels are exquisitely balanced against each other in different excitable cell types, establishing distinct electrical properties that are tailored for diverse physiological contributions, and dysfunction of any component may induce a disease state. A crucial parameter controlling cell excitability is the resting membrane potential (RMP) set by extra- and intracellular concentrations of ions, mainly Na+, K+, and Cl-, and their passive permeation across the cell membrane through leak ion channels. Indeed, dysregulation of RMP causes significant effects on cellular excitability. This review describes the molecular and physiological properties of the Na+ leak channel NALCN, which associates with its accessory subunits UNC-79, UNC-80, and NLF-1/FAM155 to conduct depolarizing background Na+ currents in various excitable cell types, especially neurons. Studies of animal models clearly demonstrate that NALCN contributes to fundamental physiological processes in the nervous system including the control of respiratory rhythm, circadian rhythm, sleep, and locomotor behavior. Furthermore, dysfunction of NALCN and its subunits is associated with severe pathological states in humans. The critical involvement of NALCN in physiology is now well established, but its study has been hampered by the lack of specific drugs that can block or agonize NALCN currents in vitro and in vivo. Molecular tools and animal models are now available to accelerate our understanding of how NALCN contributes to key physiological functions and the development of novel therapies for NALCN channelopathies.

The gating pore blocker 1-(2,4-xylyl)guanidinium selectively inhibits pacemaking of midbrain dopaminergic neurons

Although several ionic mechanisms are known to control rate and regularity of the slow pacemaker in dopamine (DA) neurons, the core mechanism of pacing is controversial. Here we tested the hypothesis that pacemaking of SNc DA neurons is enabled by an unconventional conductance. We found that 1-(2,4-xylyl)guanidinium (XG), an established blocker of gating pore currents, selectively inhibits pacemaking of DA neurons. The compound inhibited all slow pacemaking DA neurons that were tested, both in the substantia nigra pars compacta, and in the ventral tegmental area. Interestingly, bursting behavior was not affected by XG. Furthermore, the drug did not affect fast pacemaking of GABAergic neurons from substantia nigra pars reticulata neurons or slow pacemaking of noradrenergic neurons. In DA neurons, current-clamp analysis revealed that XG did not appear to affect ion channels involved in the action potential. Its inhibitory effect persisted during blockade of all ion channels previously suggested to contribute to pacemaking. RNA sequencing and voltage-clamp recordings yielded no evidence for a gating pore current to underlie the conductance. However, we could isolate a small subthreshold XG-sensitive current, which was carried by both Na⁺ and Cl^- ions. Although the molecular target of XG remains to be defined, these observations represent a step towards understanding pacemaking in DA neurons.

The NALCN channel complex is voltage sensitive and directly modulated by extracellular calcium

The sodium leak channel (NALCN) is essential for survival in mammals: NALCN mutations are life-threatening in humans and knockout is lethal in mice. However, the basic functional and pharmacological properties of NALCN have remained elusive. Here, we found that robust function of NALCN in heterologous systems requires co-expression of UNC79, UNC80, and FAM155A. The resulting NALCN channel complex is constitutively active and conducts monovalent cations but is blocked by physiological concentrations of extracellular divalent cations. Our data support the notion that NALCN is directly responsible for the increased excitability observed in a variety of neurons in reduced extracellular Ca²⁺. Despite the smaller number of voltage-sensing residues in NALCN, the constitutive activity is modulated by voltage, suggesting that voltage-sensing domains can give rise to a broader range of gating phenotypes than previously anticipated. Our work points toward formerly unknown contributions of NALCN to neuronal excitability and opens avenues for pharmacological targeting.

Functional expression of CLIFAHDD and IHPRF pathogenic variants of the NALCN channel in neuronal cells reveals both gain- and loss-of-function properties

The excitability of neurons is tightly dependent on their ion channel repertoire. Among these channels, the leak sodium channel NALCN plays a crucial role in the maintenance of the resting membrane potential. Importantly, NALCN mutations lead to complex neurodevelopmental syndromes, including infantile hypotonia with psychomotor retardation and characteristic facies (IHPRF) and congenital contractures of limbs and face, hypotonia and developmental delay (CLIFAHDD), which are recessively and dominantly inherited, respectively. Unfortunately, the biophysical properties of NALCN are still largely unknown to date, as well as the functional consequences of both IHPRF and CLIFAHDD mutations on NALCN current. Here we have set-up the heterologous expression of NALCN in the neuronal cell line NG108-15 to investigate the electrophysiological properties of NALCN carrying representative IHPRF and CLIFAHDD mutations. Several original properties of the wild-type (wt) NALCN current were retrieved: mainly carried by external Na⁺, blocked by Gd³⁺, insensitive to TTX and potentiated by low external Ca²⁺ concentration. However, we found that this current displays a time-dependent inactivation in the −80/−40 mV range of membrane potential, and a non linear current-voltage relationship indicative of voltage sensitivity. Importantly, no detectable current was recorded with the IHPRF missense mutation p.Trp1287Leu (W1287L), while the CLIFAHDD mutants, p.Leu509Ser (L509S) and p.Tyr578Ser (Y578S), showed higher current densities and slower inactivation, compared to wt NALCN current. This study reveals that heterologous expression of NALCN channel can be achieved in the neuronal cell line NG108-15 to study the electrophysiological properties of wt and mutants. From our results, we conclude that IHPRF and CLIFAHDD missense mutations are loss- and gain-of-function variants, respectively.

Eukaryotic Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels: On Their Origins, Asymmetries, Losses, Diversification and Adaptations

The appearance of voltage-gated, sodium-selective channels with rapid gating kinetics was a limiting factor in the evolution of nervous systems. Two rounds of domain duplications generated a common 24 transmembrane segment (4 × 6 TM) template that is shared amongst voltage-gated sodium (Na_v1 and Na_v2) and calcium channels (Ca_v1, Ca_v2, and Ca_v3) and leak channel (NALCN) plus homologs from yeast, different single-cell protists (heterokont and unikont) and algae (green and brown). A shared architecture in 4 × 6 TM channels include an asymmetrical arrangement of extended extracellular L5/L6 turrets containing a 4-0-2-2 pattern of cysteines, glycosylated residues, a universally short III-IV cytoplasmic linker and often a recognizable, C-terminal PDZ binding motif. Six intron splice junctions are conserved in the first domain, including a rare U12-type of the minor spliceosome provides support for a shared heritage for sodium and calcium channels, and a separate lineage for NALCN. The asymmetrically arranged pores of 4x6 TM channels allows for a changeable ion selectivity by means of a single lysine residue change in the high field strength site of the ion selectivity filter in Domains II or III. Multicellularity and the appearance of systems was an impetus for Na_v1 channels to adapt to sodium ion selectivity and fast ion gating. A non-selective, and slowly gating Na_v2 channel homolog in single cell eukaryotes, predate the diversification of Na_v1 channels from a basal homolog in a common ancestor to extant cnidarians to the nine vertebrate Na_v1.x channel genes plus Nax. A close kinship between Na_v2 and Na_v1 homologs is evident in the sharing of most (twenty) intron splice junctions. Different metazoan groups have lost their Na_v1 channel genes altogether, while vertebrates rapidly expanded their gene numbers. The expansion in vertebrate Na_v1 channel genes fills unique functional niches and generates overlapping properties contributing to redundancies. Specific nervous system adaptations include cytoplasmic linkers with phosphorylation sites and tethered elements to protein assemblies in First Initial Segments and nodes of Ranvier. Analogous accessory beta subunit appeared alongside Na_v1 channels within different animal sub-phyla. Na_v1 channels contribute to pace-making as persistent or resurgent currents, the former which is widespread across animals, while the latter is a likely vertebrate adaptation.

Gap Junctions and NCA Cation Channels Are Critical for Developmentally Timed Sleep and Arousal in Caenorhabditis elegans

An essential characteristic of sleep is heightened arousal threshold, with decreased behavioral response to external stimuli. The molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying arousal threshold changes during sleep are not fully understood. We report that loss of UNC-7 or UNC-9 innexin function dramatically reduced sleep and decreased arousal threshold during developmentally timed sleep in Caenorhabditis elegans UNC-7 function was required in premotor interneurons and UNC-9 function was required in motor neurons in this paradigm. Simultaneous transient overexpression of UNC-7 and UNC-9 was sufficient to induce anachronistic sleep in adult animals. Moreover, loss of UNC-7 or UNC-9 suppressed the increased sleep of EGL-4 gain-of-function animals, which have increased cyclic-GMP-dependent protein kinase activity. These results suggest C. elegans gap junctions may act downstream of previously identified sleep regulators. In other paradigms, the NCA cation channels act upstream of gap junctions. Consistent with this, diminished NCA channel activity in C. elegans robustly increased arousal thresholds during sleep bouts in L4-to-adult developmentally timed sleep. Total time in sleep bouts was only modestly increased in animals lacking NCA channel auxiliary subunit UNC-79, whereas increased channel activity dramatically decreased sleep. Loss of EGL-4 or innexin proteins suppressed UNC-79 loss-of-function sleep and arousal defects. In Drosophila, the ion channel narrow abdomen, an ortholog of the C. elegans NCA channels, drive the pigment dispersing factor (PDF) neuropeptide release, regulating circadian behavior. However, in C. elegans, we found that loss of the PDF receptor PDFR-1 did not suppress gain-of-function sleep defects, suggesting an alternative downstream pathway. This study emphasizes the conservation and importance of neuronal activity modulation during sleep, and unequivocally demonstrates that gap junction function is critical for normal sleep.

Ionic Mechanism Underlying Rebound Depolarization in Medial Prefrontal Cortex Pyramidal Neurons

Rebound depolarization (RD) occurs after membrane hyperpolarization and converts an arriving inhibitory signal into cell excitation. The purpose of our study was to clarify the ionic mechanism of RD in synaptically isolated layer V medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) pyramidal neurons in slices obtained from 58- to 62-day-old male rats. The RD was evoked after a step hyperpolarization below -80 mV, longer than 150 ms in 192 of 211 (91%) tested neurons. The amplitude of RD was 30.6 ± 1.2 mV above the resting membrane potential (-67.9 ± 0.95 mV), and it lasted a few 100 ms (n = 192). RD could be observed only after preventing BK channel activation, which was attained either by using paxilline, by removal of Ca⁺⁺ from the extra- or intracellular solution, by blockade of Ca⁺⁺ channels or during protein kinase C (PKC) activation. RD was resistant to tetrodotoxin (TTX) and was abolished after the removal of Na⁺ from the extracellular solution or application of an anti-Nav1.9 antibody to the cell interior. We conclude that two membrane currents are concomitantly activated after the step hyperpolarization in the tested neurons: a. a low-threshold, TTX-resistant, Na⁺ current that evokes RD; and b. an outward K⁺ current through BK channels that opposes Na⁺-dependent depolarization. The obtained results also suggest that a. low-level Ca⁺⁺ in the external medium attained upon intense neuronal activity may facilitate the formation of RD and seizures; and b. RD can be evoked during the activation of PKC, which is an effector of a number of transduction pathways.

Lack of current observed in HEK293 cells expressing NALCN channels

The sodium leak channel NALCN is poorly understood, but is reported as a Na⁺-permeable, nonselective cation leak channel which regulates resting membrane potential and electrical excitability. Previous work has indicated that NALCN currents can be stimulated by activation of several G protein coupled receptors, including the M3 muscarinic receptor. We undertook a study using voltage clamp electrophysiology to investigate NALCN currents. We compared currents elicited from untransfected control HEK239 cells in response to M3R agonists muscarine or Oxotremorine M to currents elicited from cells transfected with M3R only or the M3R plus NALCN and cDNA encoding accessory proteins UNC-80 and Src. Currents with similar properties were observed in all three groups of cells in response to muscarine agonists, in similar proportions of cells tested, from all three groups of cells. Our findings do not support previous electrophysiological studies suggesting that heterologously expressed NALCN functions as a Na⁺ leak channel in HEK293 cells. More research will be required to determine the molecular requirements for successful expression of the NALCN channel.

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NALCN (sodium leak channel, non-selective) is a poorly understood ion channel.

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Several reports indicate that NALCN current can be recorded from transfected cells.

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Conflicting reports indicate NALCN currents are simply leaky patch clamp seals.

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We were unable to record currents attributable to NALCN in transfected HEK293 cells.

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Our experiments suggest that NALCN does not form channels in HEK293 cells.

Dopamine negatively modulates the NCA ion channels in C. elegans

The NALCN/NCA ion channel is a cation channel related to voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels. NALCN has been reported to be a sodium leak channel with a conserved role in establishing neuronal resting membrane potential, but its precise cellular role and regulation are unclear. The Caenorhabditis elegans orthologs of NALCN, NCA-1 and NCA-2, act in premotor interneurons to regulate motor circuit activity that sustains locomotion. Recently we found that NCA-1 and NCA-2 are activated by a signal transduction pathway acting downstream of the heterotrimeric G protein Gq and the small GTPase Rho. Through a forward genetic screen, here we identify the GPCR kinase GRK-2 as a new player affecting signaling through the Gq-Rho-NCA pathway. Using structure-function analysis, we find that the GPCR phosphorylation and membrane association domains of GRK-2 are required for its function. Genetic epistasis experiments suggest that GRK-2 acts on the D2-like dopamine receptor DOP-3 to inhibit Go signaling and positively modulate NCA-1 and NCA-2 activity. Through cell-specific rescuing experiments, we find that GRK-2 and DOP-3 act in premotor interneurons to modulate NCA channel function. Finally, we demonstrate that dopamine, through DOP-3, negatively regulates NCA activity. Thus, this study identifies a pathway by which dopamine modulates the activity of the NCA channels.

The NCA-1 and NCA-2 Ion Channels Function Downstream of Gq and Rho To Regulate Locomotion in Caenorhabditis elegans

The heterotrimeric G protein G_q positively regulates neuronal activity and synaptic transmission. Previously, the Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor Trio was identified as a direct effector of G_q that acts in parallel to the canonical G_q effector phospholipase C. Here, we examine how Trio and Rho act to stimulate neuronal activity downstream of G_q in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans Through two forward genetic screens, we identify the cation channels NCA-1 and NCA-2, orthologs of mammalian NALCN, as downstream targets of the G_q-Rho pathway. By performing genetic epistasis analysis using dominant activating mutations and recessive loss-of-function mutations in the members of this pathway, we show that NCA-1 and NCA-2 act downstream of G_q in a linear pathway. Through cell-specific rescue experiments, we show that function of these channels in head acetylcholine neurons is sufficient for normal locomotion in C. elegans Our results suggest that NCA-1 and NCA-2 are physiologically relevant targets of neuronal G_q-Rho signaling in C. elegans.

Sodium leak channel, non-selective contributes to the leak current in human myometrial smooth muscle cells from pregnant women

Uterine contractions are tightly regulated by the electrical activity of myometrial smooth muscle cells (MSMCs). These cells require a depolarizing current to initiate Ca(2+) influx and induce contraction. Cationic leak channels, which permit a steady flow of cations into a cell, are known to cause membrane depolarization in many tissue types. Previously, a Gd(3+)-sensitive, Na(+)-dependent leak current was identified in the rat myometrium, but the presence of such a current in human MSMCs and the specific ion channel conducting this current was unknown. Here, we report the presence of a Na(+)-dependent leak current in human myometrium and demonstrate that the Na(+)-leak channel, NALCN, contributes to this current. We performed whole-cell voltage-clamp on fresh and cultured MSMCs from uterine biopsies of term, non-laboring women and isolated the leak currents by using Ca(2+) and K(+) channel blockers in the bath solution. Ohmic leak currents were identified in freshly isolated and cultured MSMCs with normalized conductances of 14.6 pS/pF and 10.0 pS/pF, respectively. The myometrial leak current was significantly reduced (P < 0.01) by treating cells with 10 μM Gd(3+) or by superfusing the cells with a Na(+)-free extracellular solution. Reverse transcriptase PCR and immunoblot analysis of uterine biopsies from term, non-laboring women revealed NALCN messenger RNA and protein expression in the myometrium. Notably, ∼90% knockdown of NALCN protein expression with lentivirus-delivered shRNA reduced the Gd(3+)-sensitive leak current density by 42% (P < 0.05). Our results reveal that NALCN, in part, generates the leak current in MSMCs and provide the basis for future research assessing NALCN as a potential molecular target for modulating uterine excitability.

Selectivity filters and cysteine-rich extracellular loops in voltage-gated sodium, calcium, and NALCN channels

How nature discriminates sodium from calcium ions in eukaryotic channels has been difficult to resolve because they contain four homologous, but markedly different repeat domains. We glean clues from analyzing the changing pore region in sodium, calcium and NALCN channels, from single-cell eukaryotes to mammals. Alternative splicing in invertebrate homologs provides insights into different structural features underlying calcium and sodium selectivity. NALCN generates alternative ion selectivity with splicing that changes the high field strength (HFS) site at the narrowest level of the hourglass shaped pore where the selectivity filter is located. Alternative splicing creates NALCN isoforms, in which the HFS site has a ring of glutamates contributed by all four repeat domains (EEEE), or three glutamates and a lysine residue in the third (EEKE) or second (EKEE) position. Alternative splicing provides sodium and/or calcium selectivity in T-type channels with extracellular loops between S5 and P-helices (S5P) of different lengths that contain three or five cysteines. All eukaryotic channels have a set of eight core cysteines in extracellular regions, but the T-type channels have an infusion of 4–12 extra cysteines in extracellular regions. The pattern of conservation suggests a possible pairing of long loops in Domains I and III, which are bridged with core cysteines in NALCN, Cav, and Nav channels, and pairing of shorter loops in Domains II and IV in T-type channel through disulfide bonds involving T-type specific cysteines. Extracellular turrets of increasing lengths in potassium channels (Kir2.2, hERG, and K2P1) contribute to a changing landscape above the pore selectivity filter that can limit drug access and serve as an ion pre-filter before ions reach the pore selectivity filter below. Pairing of extended loops likely contributes to the large extracellular appendage as seen in single particle electron cryo-microscopy images of the eel Na_v1 channel.