Chemoautotrophic carbon fixation rates and active bacterial communities in intertidal marine sediments

Wood-Ljungdahl pathway encoding anaerobes facilitate low-cost primary production in hypersaline sediments at Great Salt Lake, Utah

Little is known of primary production in dark hypersaline ecosystems despite the prevalence of such environments on Earth today and throughout its geologic history. Here, we generated and analyzed metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) organized as operational taxonomic units (OTUs) from three depth intervals along a 30-cm sediment core from the north arm of Great Salt Lake, Utah. The sediments and associated porewaters were saturated with NaCl, exhibited redox gradients with depth, and harbored nitrogen-depleted organic carbon. Metabolic predictions of MAGs representing 36 total OTUs recovered from the core indicated that communities transitioned from aerobic and heterotrophic at the surface to anaerobic and autotrophic at depth. Dark CO2 fixation was detected in sediments and the primary mode of autotrophy was predicted to be via the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. This included novel hydrogenotrophic acetogens affiliated with the bacterial class Candidatus Bipolaricaulia. Minor populations were dependent on the Calvin cycle and the reverse tricarboxylic acid cycle, including in a novel Thermoplasmatota MAG. These results are interpreted to reflect the favorability of and selectability for populations that operate the lowest energy requiring CO2-fixation pathway known, the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway, in anoxic and hypersaline conditions that together impart a higher energy demand on cells.

Development of a digital droplet PCR approach for the quantification of soil micro-organisms involved in atmospheric CO2 fixation

Carbon-fixing micro-organisms (CFMs) play a pivotal role in soil carbon cycling, contributing to carbon uptake and sequestration through various metabolic pathways. Despite their importance, accurately quantifying the absolute abundance of these micro-organisms in soils has been challenging. This study used a digital droplet polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) approach to measure the abundance of key and emerging CFMs pathways in fen and bog soils at different depths, ranging from 0 to 15 cm. We targeted total prokaryotes, oxygenic phototrophs, aerobic anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria and chemoautotrophs, optimizing the conditions to achieve absolute quantification of these genes. Our results revealed that oxygenic phototrophs were the most abundant CFMs, making up 15% of the total prokaryotic abundance. They were followed by chemoautotrophs at 10% and aerobic anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria at 9%. We observed higher gene concentrations in fen than in bog. There were also variations in depth, which differed between fen and bog for all genes. Our findings underscore the abundance of oxygenic phototrophs and chemoautotrophs in peatlands, challenging previous estimates that relied solely on oxygenic phototrophs for microbial carbon dioxide fixation assessments. Incorporating absolute gene quantification is essential for a comprehensive understanding of microbial contributions to soil processes. This approach sheds light on the complex mechanisms of soil functioning in peatlands.

Active dark carbon fixation evidenced by 14C isotope assimilation and metagenomic data across the estuarine-coastal continuum

Estuaries, as important land-ocean transitional zones across the Earth's surface, are hotspots of microbially driven dark carbon fixation (DCF), yet understanding of DCF process remains limited across the estuarine-coastal continuum. This study explored DCF activities and associated chemoautotrophs along the estuarine and coastal environmental gradients, using radiocarbon labelling and molecular techniques. Significantly higher DCF rates were observed at middle- and high-salinity regions (0.65-2.31 and 0.66-2.82 mmol C m-2 d-1, respectively), compared to low-salinity zone (0.07-0.19 mmol C m-2 d-1). Metagenomic analysis revealed relatively stable DCF pathways along the estuarine-coastal continuum, primarily dominated by Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle and Wood-Ljungdahl (WL) pathway. Nevertheless, chemoautotrophic communities driving DCF exhibited significant spatial variations. It is worth noting that although CBB cycle played an important role in DCF in estuarine sediments, WL pathway might play a more significant role, which has not been previously recognized. Overall, this study highlights that DCF activities coincide with the genetic potential of chemoautotrophy and the availability of reductive substrates across the estuarine-coastal continuum, and provides an important scientific basis for accurate quantitative assessment of global estuarine carbon sink.

Sulfur bacteria-reinforced microbial electrochemical denitrification

Two limiting factors of microbial electrochemical denitrification (MED) are the abundance and efficiency of the functional microorganisms. To supply these microorganisms, MED systems are inoculated with denitrifying sludge, but such method has much room for improvement. This study compared MED inoculated with autotrophic denitrifying inoculum (ADI) versus with heterotrophic denitrifying inoculum (HDI). ADI exhibited electroactivity for 50% less of timethan HDI. The denitrification efficiency of the ADI biocathode was42% higherthan that of the HDI biocathode. The HDI biocathode had high levels of polysaccharides while the ADI biocathode was rich in proteins, suggesting that two biocathodes may achieveMED but via differentpathways. Microbial communities of two biocathodes indicated MED of HDI biocathode may rely on interspecies electron transfer, whereas sulfur bacteria of ADI biocathode take electrons directly from the cathode to achieve MED. Utilizing autotrophic sulfur-oxidizing denitrifiers, this study offers a strategy for enhancing MED.

The Microbial Ecology of Estuarine Ecosystems

Human civilization relies on estuaries, and many estuarine ecosystem services are provided by microbial communities. These services include high rates of primary production that nourish harvests of commercially valuable species through fisheries and aquaculture, the transformation of terrestrial and anthropogenic materials to help ensure the water quality necessary to support recreation and tourism, and mutualisms that maintain blue carbon accumulation and storage. Research on the ecology that underlies microbial ecosystem services in estuaries has expanded greatly across a range of estuarine environments, including water, sediment, biofilms, biological reefs, and stands of seagrasses, marshes, and mangroves. Moreover, the application of new molecular tools has improved our understanding of the diversity and genomic functions of estuarine microbes. This review synthesizes recent research on microbial habitats in estuaries and the contributions of microbes to estuarine food webs, elemental cycling, and interactions with plants and animals, and highlights novel insights provided by recent advances in genomics.

Metabolic versatility enables sulfur-oxidizers to dominate primary production in groundwater

High rates of CO2 fixation and the genetic potential of various groundwater microbes for autotrophic activity have shown that primary production is an important source of organic C in groundwater ecosystems. However, the contribution of specific chemolithoautotrophic groups such as S-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) to groundwater primary production and their adaptation strategies remain largely unknown. Here, we stimulated anoxic groundwater microcosms with reduced S and sampled the microbial community after 1, 3 and 6 weeks. Genome-resolved metaproteomics was combined with 50at-% 13CO2 stable isotope probing to follow the C flux through the microbial food web and infer traits expressed by active SOB in the groundwater microcosms. Already after 7 days, 90% of the total microbial biomass C in the microcosms was replaced by CO2-derived C, increasing to 97% at the end of incubation. Stable Isotope Cluster Analysis revealed active autotrophs, characterized by a uniform 13C-incorporation of 45% in their peptides, to dominate the microbial community throughout incubation. Mixo- and heterotrophs, characterized by 10 to 40% 13C-incorporation, utilized the primarily produced organic C. Interestingly, obligate autotrophs affiliated with Sulfuricella and Sulfuritalea contained traits enabling the storage of elemental S in globules to maintain primary production under energy limitation. Others related to Sulfurimonas seemed to rapidly utilize substrates for fast proliferation, and most autotrophs further maximized their energy yield via efficient denitrification and the potential for H2 oxidation. Mixotrophic SOB, belonging to Curvibacter or Polaromonas, enhanced metabolic flexibility by using organic compounds to satisfy their C requirements. Time series data spanning eight years further revealed that key taxa of our microcosms composed up to 15% of the microbial groundwater community, demonstrating their in-situ importance. This showed that SOB, by using different metabolic strategies, are able to account for high rates of primary production in groundwater, especially at sites limited to geogenic nutrient sources. The widespread presence of SOB with traits such as S storage, H2 oxidation, and organic C utilization in many aquatic habitats further suggested that metabolic versatility governs S-fueled primary production in the environment.

Substrate Specificity of Biofilms Proximate to Historic Shipwrecks

The number of built structures on the seabed, such as shipwrecks, energy platforms, and pipelines, is increasing in coastal and offshore regions. These structures, typically composed of steel or wood, are substrates for microbial attachment and biofilm formation. The success of biofilm growth depends on substrate characteristics and local environmental conditions, though it is unclear which feature is dominant in shaping biofilm microbiomes. The goal of this study was to understand the substrate- and site-specific impacts of built structures on short-term biofilm composition and functional potential. Seafloor experiments were conducted wherein steel and wood surfaces were deployed for four months at distances extending up to 115 m away from three historic (>50 years old) shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico. DNA from biofilms on the steel and wood was extracted, and metagenomes were sequenced on an Illumina NextSeq. A bioinformatics analysis revealed that the taxonomic composition was significantly different between substrates and sites, with substrate being the primary determining factor. Regardless of site, the steel biofilms had a higher abundance of genes related to biofilm formation, and sulfur, iron, and nitrogen cycling, while the wood biofilms showed a higher abundance of manganese cycling and methanol oxidation genes. This study demonstrates how substrate composition shapes biofilm microbiomes and suggests that marine biofilms may contribute to nutrient cycling at depth. Analyzing the marine biofilm microbiome provides insight into the ecological impact of anthropogenic structures on the seabed.

Metagenomics Unveils Microbial Diversity and Their Biogeochemical Roles in Water and Sediment of Thermokarst Lakes in the Yellow River Source Area

Thermokarst lakes have long been recognized as biogeochemical hotspots, especially as sources of greenhouse gases. On the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, thermokarst lakes are experiencing extensive changes due to faster warming. For a deep understanding of internal lake biogeochemical processes, we applied metagenomic analyses to investigate the microbial diversity and their biogeochemical roles in sediment and water of thermokarst lakes in the Yellow River Source Area (YRSA). Sediment microbial communities (SMCs) had lower species and gene richness than water microbial communities (WMCs). Bacteria were the most abundant component in both SMCs and WMCs with significantly different abundant genera. The functional analyses showed that both SMCs and WMCs had low potential in methanogenesis but strong in aerobic respiration, nitrogen assimilation, exopolyphosphatase, glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterases, and polyphosphate kinase. Moreover, SMCs were enriched in genes involved in anaerobic carbon fixation, aerobic carbon fixation, fermentation, most nitrogen metabolism pathways, dissimilatory sulfate reduction, sulfide oxidation, polysulfide reduction, 2-phosphonopropionate transporter, and phosphate regulation. WMCs were enriched in genes involved in assimilatory sulfate reduction, sulfur mineralization, phosphonoacetate hydrolase, and phosphonate transport. Functional potentials suggest the differences of greenhouse gas emission, nutrient cycling, and living strategies between SMCs and WMCs. This study provides insight into the main biogeochemical processes and their properties in thermokarst lakes in YRSA, improving our understanding of the roles and fates of these lakes in a warming world.

Microbial chemolithoautotrophs are abundant in salt marsh sediment following long-term experimental nitrate enrichment

Long-term anthropogenic nitrate (NO3-) enrichment is a serious threat to many coastal systems. Nitrate reduction coupled with the oxidation of reduced forms of sulfur is conducted by chemolithoautotrophic microbial populations in a process that decreases nitrogen (N) pollution. However, little is known about the diversity and distribution of microbes capable of carbon fixation within salt marsh sediment and how they respond to long-term NO3- loading. We used genome-resolved metagenomics to characterize the distribution, phylogenetic relationships, and adaptations important to microbial communities within NO3--enriched sediment. We found NO3- reducing sulfur oxidizers became dominant members of the microbial community throughout the top 25 cm of the sediment following long-term NO3- enrichment. We also found that most of the chemolithoautotrophic genomes recovered contained striking metabolic versatility, including the potential for complete denitrification and evidence of mixotrophy. Phylogenetic reconstruction indicated that similar carbon fixation strategies and metabolic versatility can be found in several phylogenetic groups, but the genomes recovered here represent novel organisms. Our results suggest that the role of chemolithoautotrophy within NO3--enriched salt marsh sediments may be quantitatively more important for retaining carbon and filtering NO3- than previously indicated and further inquiry is needed to explicitly measure their contribution to carbon turnover and removal of N pollution.

Dark carbon fixation in intertidal sediments: Controlling factors and driving microorganisms

Dark carbon fixation (DCF) contributes approximately 0.77 Pg C y^-1 to oceanic primary production and the global carbon budget. It is estimated that nearly half of the DCF in marine sediments occurs in estuarine and coastal regions, but the environmental factors controlling DCF and the microorganisms responsible for its production remain under exploration. In this study, we investigated DCF rates and the active chemoautotrophic microorganisms in intertidal sediments of the Yangtze Estuary, using ¹⁴C-labeling and DNA-stable isotope probing (DNA-SIP) techniques. The measured DCF rates ranged from 0.27 to 3.37 mmol C m^-2 day^-1 in intertidal surface sediments. The rates of DCF were closely related to sediment sulfide content, demonstrating that the availability of reductive substrates may be the dominant factor controlling DCF in the intertidal sediments. A significant positive correlation was also observed between the DCF rates and abundance of the cbbM gene. DNA-stable isotope probing (DNA-SIP) results further confirmed that cbbM-harboring bacteria, rather than cbbL-harboring bacteria, played a dominant role in DCF in intertidal sediments. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the predominant cbbM-harboring bacteria were affiliated with Burkholderia, including Sulfuricella denitrificans, Sulfuriferula, Acidihalobacter, Thiobacillus, and Sulfurivermis fontis. Moreover, metagenome analyses indicated that most of the potential dark-carbon-fixing bacteria detected in intertidal sediments also harbor genes for sulfur oxidation, denitrification, or dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), indicating that these chemoautotrophic microorganisms may play important roles in coupled carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles. These results shed light on the ecological importance and the underlying mechanisms of the DCF process driven by chemoautotrophic microorganisms in intertidal wetlands.

Contrasting Effects of Local Environmental and Biogeographic Factors on the Composition and Structure of Bacterial Communities in Arid Monospecific Mangrove Soils

Mangrove forests are important biotic sinks of atmospheric CO2 and play an integral role in nutrient-cycling and decontamination of coastal waters, thereby mitigating climatic and anthropogenic stressors. These services are primarily regulated by the activity of the soil microbiome. To understand how environmental changes may affect this vital part of the ecosystem, it is key to understand the patterns that drive microbial community assembly in mangrove forest soils. High-throughput amplicon sequencing (16S rRNA) was applied on samples from arid Avicennia marina forests across different spatial scales from local to regional. Alongside conventional analyses of community ecology, microbial co-occurrence networks were assessed to investigate differences in composition and structure of the bacterial community. The bacterial community composition varied more strongly along an intertidal gradient within each mangrove forest, than between forests in different geographic regions (Australia/Saudi Arabia). In contrast, co-occurrence networks differed primarily between geographic regions, illustrating that the structure of the bacterial community is not necessarily linked to its composition. The local diversity in mangrove forest soils may have important implications for the quantification of biogeochemical processes and is important to consider when planning restoration activities. IMPORTANCE Mangrove ecosystems are increasingly being recognized for their potential to sequester atmospheric carbon, thereby mitigating the effects of anthropogenically driven greenhouse gas emissions. The bacterial community in the soils plays an important role in the breakdown and recycling of carbon and other nutrients. To assess and predict changes in carbon storage, it is important to understand how the bacterial community is shaped by its environment. Here, we compared the bacterial communities of mangrove forests on different spatial scales, from local within-forest to biogeographic comparisons. The bacterial community composition differed more between distinct intertidal zones of the same forest than between forests in distant geographic regions. The calculated network structure of theoretically interacting bacteria, however, differed most between the geographic regions. Our findings highlight the importance of local environmental factors in shaping the microbial soil community in mangroves and highlight a disconnect between community composition and structure in microbial soil assemblages.

Metapangenomics reveals depth-dependent shifts in metabolic potential for the ubiquitous marine bacterial SAR324 lineage

BACKGROUND

Oceanic microbiomes play a pivotal role in the global carbon cycle and are central to the transformation and recycling of carbon and energy in the ocean's interior. SAR324 is a ubiquitous but poorly understood uncultivated clade of Deltaproteobacteria that inhabits the entire water column, from ocean surface waters to its deep interior. Although some progress has been made in elucidating potential metabolic traits of SAR324 in the dark ocean, very little is known about the ecology and the metabolic capabilities of this group in the euphotic and twilight zones. To investigate the comparative genomics, ecology, and physiological potential of the SAR324 clade, we examined the distribution and variability of key genomic features and metabolic pathways in this group from surface waters to the abyss in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre, one of the largest biomes on Earth.

RESULTS

We leveraged a pangenomic ecological approach, combining spatio-temporally resolved single-amplified genome, metagenomic, and metatranscriptomic datasets. The data revealed substantial genomic diversity throughout the SAR324 clade, with distinct depth and temporal distributions that clearly differentiated ecotypes. Phylogenomic subclade delineation, environmental distributions, genomic feature similarities, and metabolic capacities revealed strong congruence. The four SAR324 ecotypes delineated in this study revealed striking divergence from one another with respect to their habitat-specific metabolic potentials. The ecotypes living in the dark or twilight oceans shared genomic features and metabolic capabilities consistent with a sulfur-based chemolithoautotrophic lifestyle. In contrast, those inhabiting the sunlit ocean displayed higher plasticity energy-related metabolic pathways, supporting a presumptive photoheterotrophic lifestyle. In epipelagic SAR324 ecotypes, we observed the presence of two types of proton-pumping rhodopsins, as well as genomic, transcriptomic, and ecological evidence for active photoheterotrophy, based on xanthorhodopsin-like light-harvesting proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

Combining pangenomic and both metagenomic and metatranscriptomic profiling revealed a striking divergence in the vertical distribution, genomic composition, metabolic potential, and predicted lifestyle strategies of geographically co-located members of the SAR324 bacterial clade. The results highlight the utility of metapangenomic approaches employed across environmental gradients, to decipher the properties and variation in function and ecological traits of specific phylogenetic clades within complex microbiomes. Video abstract.

Bicarbonate uptake rates and diversity of RuBisCO genes in saline lake sediments

There is limited knowledge of microbial carbon fixation rate, and carbon-fixing microbial abundance and diversity in saline lakes. In this study, the inorganic carbon uptake rates and carbon-fixing microbial populations were investigated in the surface sediments of lakes with a full range of salinity from freshwater to salt saturation. The results showed that in the studied lakes light-dependent bicarbonate uptake contributed substantially (>70%) to total bicarbonate uptake, while the contribution of dark bicarbonate uptake (1.35-25.17%) cannot be ignored. The light-dependent bicarbonate uptake rates were significantly correlated with pH and turbidity, while dark bicarbonate uptake rates were significantly influenced by dissolved inorganic carbon, pH, temperature and salinity. Carbon-fixing microbial populations using the Calvin-Benson-Bassham pathway were widespread in the studied lakes, and they were dominated by the cbbL and cbbM gene types affiliated with Cyanobacteria and Proteobacteria, respectively. The cbbL and cbbM gene abundance and population structures were significantly affected by different environmental variables, with the cbbL and cbbM genes being negatively correlated with salinity and organic carbon concentration, respectively. In summary, this study improves our knowledge of the abundance, diversity and function of carbon-fixing microbial populations in the lakes with a full range of salinity.

Microaerophilic Oxidation of Fe(II) Coupled with Simultaneous Carbon Fixation and As(III) Oxidation and Sequestration in Karstic Paddy Soil

Microaerophilic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria are often chemolithoautotrophs, and the Fe(III) (oxyhydr)oxides they form could immobilize arsenic (As). If such microbes are active in karstic paddy soils, their activity would help increase soil organic carbon and mitigate As contamination. We therefore used gel-stabilized gradient systems to cultivate microaerophilic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria from karstic paddy soil to investigate their capacity for Fe(II) oxidation, carbon fixation, and As sequestration. Stable isotope probing demonstrated the assimilation of inorganic carbon at a maximum rate of 8.02 mmol C m^-2 d^-1. Sequencing revealed that Bradyrhizobium, Cupriavidus, Hyphomicrobium, Kaistobacter, Mesorhizobium, Rhizobium, unclassified Phycisphaerales, and unclassified Opitutaceas were fixing carbon. Fe(II) oxidation produced Fe(III) (oxyhydr)oxides, which can absorb and/or coprecipitate As. Adding As(III) decreased the diversity of functional bacteria involved in carbon fixation, the relative abundance of predicted carbon fixation genes, and the amount of carbon fixed. Although the rate of Fe(II) oxidation was also lower in the presence of As(III), over 90% of the As(III) was sequestered after oxidation. The potential for microbially mediated As(III) oxidation was revealed by the presence of arsenite oxidase gene (aioA), denoting the potential of the Fe(II)-oxidizing and autotrophic microbial community to also oxidize As(III). Thisstudy demonstrates that carbon fixation coupled to Fe(II) oxidation can increase the carbon content in soils by microaerophilic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria, as well as accelerate As(III) oxidation and sequester it in association with Fe(III) (oxyhydr)oxides.

Versatile cyanobacteria control the timing and extent of sulfide production in a Proterozoic analog microbial mat

Cyanobacterial mats were hotspots of biogeochemical cycling during the Precambrian. However, mechanisms that controlled O2 release by these ecosystems are poorly understood. In an analog to Proterozoic coastal ecosystems, the Frasassi sulfidic springs mats, we studied the regulation of oxygenic and sulfide-driven anoxygenic photosynthesis (OP and AP) in versatile cyanobacteria, and interactions with sulfur reducing bacteria (SRB). Using microsensors and stable isotope probing we found that dissolved organic carbon (DOC) released by OP fuels sulfide production, likely by a specialized SRB population. Increased sulfide fluxes were only stimulated after the cyanobacteria switched from AP to OP. O2 production triggered migration of large sulfur-oxidizing bacteria from the surface to underneath the cyanobacterial layer. The resultant sulfide shield tempered AP and allowed OP to occur for a longer duration over a diel cycle. The lack of cyanobacterial DOC supply to SRB during AP therefore maximized O2 export. This mechanism is unique to benthic ecosystems because transitions between metabolisms occur on the same time scale as solute transport to functionally distinct layers, with the rearrangement of the system by migration of microorganisms exaggerating the effect. Overall, cyanobacterial versatility disrupts the synergistic relationship between sulfide production and AP, and thus enhances diel O2 production.

Extracellular electron uptake by autotrophic microbes: physiological, ecological, and evolutionary implications

Microbes exchange electrons with their extracellular environment via direct or indirect means. This exchange is bidirectional and supports essential microbial oxidation–reduction processes, such as respiration and photosynthesis. The microbial capacity to use electrons from insoluble electron donors, such as redox-active minerals, poised electrodes, or even other microbial cells is called extracellular electron uptake (EEU). Autotrophs with this capability can thrive in nutrient and soluble electron donor-deficient environments. As primary producers, autotrophic microbes capable of EEU greatly impact microbial ecology and play important roles in matter and energy flow in the biosphere. In this review, we discuss EEU-driven autotrophic metabolisms, their mechanism and physiology, and highlight their ecological, evolutionary, and biotechnological implications.

Metagenomic Profiling and Microbial Metabolic Potential of Perdido Fold Belt (NW) and Campeche Knolls (SE) in the Gulf of Mexico

The Gulf of Mexico (GoM) is a particular environment that is continuously exposed to hydrocarbon compounds that may influence the microbial community composition. We carried out a metagenomic assessment of the bacterial community to get an overall view of this geographical zone. We analyzed both taxonomic and metabolic markers profiles to explain how the indigenous GoM microorganims participate in the biogeochemical cycling. Two geographically distant regions in the GoM, one in the north-west (NW) and one in the south-east (SE) of the GoM were analyzed and showed differences in their microbial composition and metabolic potential. These differences provide evidence the delicate equilibrium that sustains microbial communities and biogeochemical cycles. Based on the taxonomy and gene groups, the NW are more oxic sediments than SE ones, which have anaerobic conditions. Both water and sediments show the expected sulfur, nitrogen, and hydrocarbon metabolism genes, with particularly high diversity of the hydrocarbon-degrading ones. Accordingly, many of the assigned genera were associated with hydrocarbon degradation processes, Nitrospira and Sva0081 were the most abundant in sediments, while Vibrio, Alteromonas, and Alcanivorax were mostly detected in water samples. This basal-state analysis presents the GoM as a potential source of aerobic and anaerobic hydrocarbon degradation genes important for the ecological dynamics of hydrocarbons and the potential use for water and sediment bioremediation processes.

A Cross-System Comparison of Dark Carbon Fixation in Coastal Sediments

Dark carbon fixation (DCF) by chemoautotrophic microorganisms can sustain food webs in the seafloor by local production of organic matter independent of photosynthesis. The process has received considerable attention in deep sea systems, such as hydrothermal vents, but the regulation, depth distribution, and global importance of coastal sedimentary DCF have not been systematically investigated. Here we surveyed eight coastal sediments by means of stable isotope probing (13C-DIC) combined with bacterial biomarkers (phospholipid-derived fatty acids) and compiled additional rates from literature into a global database. DCF rates in coastal sediments range from 0.07 to 36.30 mmol C m-2 day-1, and there is a linear relation between DCF and water depth. The CO2 fixation ratio (DCF/CO2 respired) also shows a trend with water depth, decreasing from 0.09 in nearshore environments to 0.04 in continental shelf sediments. Five types of depth distributions of chemoautotrophic activity are identified based on the mode of pore water transport (advective, bioturbated, and diffusive) and the dominant pathway of microbial sulfur oxidation. Extrapolated to the global coastal ocean, we estimate a DCF rate of 0.04 to 0.06 Pg C year-1, which is less than previous estimates based on indirect measurements (0.15 Pg C year-1), but remains substantially higher than the global DCF rate at deep sea hydrothermal vents (0.001-0.002 Pg C year-1).

Microbial community dynamics and coexistence in a sulfide-driven phototrophic bloom

BACKGROUND

Lagoons are common along coastlines worldwide and are important for biogeochemical element cycling, coastal biodiversity, coastal erosion protection and blue carbon sequestration. These ecosystems are frequently disturbed by weather, tides, and human activities. Here, we investigated a shallow lagoon in New England. The brackish ecosystem releases hydrogen sulfide particularly upon physical disturbance, causing blooms of anoxygenic sulfur-oxidizing phototrophs. To study the habitat, microbial community structure, assembly and function we carried out in situ experiments investigating the bloom dynamics over time.

RESULTS

Phototrophic microbial mats and permanently or seasonally stratified water columns commonly contain multiple phototrophic lineages that coexist based on their light, oxygen and nutrient preferences. We describe similar coexistence patterns and ecological niches in estuarine planktonic blooms of phototrophs. The water column showed steep gradients of oxygen, pH, sulfate, sulfide, and salinity. The upper part of the bloom was dominated by aerobic phototrophic Cyanobacteria, the middle and lower parts by anoxygenic purple sulfur bacteria (Chromatiales) and green sulfur bacteria (Chlorobiales), respectively. We show stable coexistence of phototrophic lineages from five bacterial phyla and present metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) of two uncultured Chlorobaculum and Prosthecochloris species. In addition to genes involved in sulfur oxidation and photopigment biosynthesis the MAGs contained complete operons encoding for terminal oxidases. The metagenomes also contained numerous contigs affiliating with Microviridae viruses, potentially affecting Chlorobi. Our data suggest a short sulfur cycle within the bloom in which elemental sulfur produced by sulfide-oxidizing phototrophs is most likely reduced back to sulfide by Desulfuromonas sp.

CONCLUSIONS

The release of sulfide creates a habitat selecting for anoxygenic sulfur-oxidizing phototrophs, which in turn create a niche for sulfur reducers. Strong syntrophism between these guilds apparently drives a short sulfur cycle that may explain the rapid development of the bloom. The fast growth and high biomass yield of Chlorobi-affiliated organisms implies that the studied lineages of green sulfur bacteria can thrive in hypoxic habitats. This oxygen tolerance is corroborated by oxidases found in MAGs of uncultured Chlorobi. The findings improve our understanding of the ecology and ecophysiology of anoxygenic phototrophs and their impact on the coupled biogeochemical cycles of sulfur and carbon.

Dark carbon fixation and chemolithotrophic microbial community in surface sediments of the cascade reservoirs, Southwest China

Dark carbon fixation (DCF) by chemolithotrophic microbes can make considerable contribution to inorganic carbon fixation in aquatic ecosystems. However, little is known about the importance and diversity of chemolithotrophic microbes in cascade reservoir sediments. In this study, we determined the potential DCF rates of sediments of three cascade reservoirs in Wujiang River basin by carbon isotopic labeling. The results showed that the DCF rates of the surface sediments ranged from 1.5 to 14.7 mmol C m^-2 d^-1. The ratio of DCF to mineralization rate of sediment organic matter of surface sediment was between 11.6%~60.9%. High-throughput sequencing analysis of cbbL and cbbM genes involved in Calvin Benson Cycle indicated that cbbL-carrying CO₂-assimilating bacteria included diverse functional groups, while cbbM type was mostly involved in sulfur oxidation. The sediments of Hongfeng (HF) reservoir, which has much longer hydraulic residence time (HRT) and locates in most upstream of a major tributary of Wujiang River, have substantially higher DCF rates. The cbbL and cbbM communities in HF were dominated by sulfur oxidizing bacteria, and were largely different from that in the other two reservoirs. Our results suggested that chemolithotrophy plays an important role in carbon cycling of sediments in cascade reservoir. Meanwhile, HRT and relative location of cascade reservoirs are the key control factors of both DCF and composition of autotrophic microbial communities in cascade reservoir sediments.

Substrate characteristic bacterial fatty acid production based on amino acid assimilation and transformation in marine sediments

Polar lipid-derived fatty acids (PLFAs) and their stable carbon isotopes are frequently combined to characterize microbial populations involved in the degradation of organic matter, offering a link to biogeochemical processes and carbon sources used. However, PLFA patterns derive from multiple species and may be influenced by substrate types. Here, we investigated such dependencies by monitoring the transformation of position-specifically 13C-labeled amino acids (AAs) in coastal marine sediments dominated by heterotrophic bacteria. Alanine was assimilated into straight-chain FAs, while valine and leucine incorporation led to the characteristic production of even- and odd-numbered iso-series FAs. This suggests that identical microbial communities adjust lipid biosynthesis according to substrate availability. Transformation into precursor molecules for FA biosynthesis was manifested in increased 13C recoveries of the corresponding volatiles acetate, isobutyrate and isovalerate of up to 39.1%, much higher than for PLFAs (<0.9%). A significant fraction of 13C was found in dissolved inorganic carbon (up to 37.9%), while less was recovered in total organic carbon (up to 17.3%). We observed a clear discrimination against the carboxyl C, whereby C2 and C3 positions were preferentially incorporated into PLFAs. Therefore, position-specific labeling is an appropriate tool for reconstructing the metabolic fate of protein-derived AAs in marine environments.

Large sulfur isotope fractionation by bacterial sulfide oxidation

A sulfide-oxidizing microorganism, Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus (DA), generates a consistent enrichment of sulfur-34 (34 S) in the produced sulfate of +12.5 per mil or greater. This observation challenges the general consensus that the microbial oxidation of sulfide does not result in large 34 S enrichments and suggests that sedimentary sulfides and sulfates may be influenced by metabolic activity associated with sulfide oxidation. Since the DA-type sulfide oxidation pathway is ubiquitous in sediments, in the modern environment, and throughout Earth history, the enrichments and depletions in 34 S in sediments may be the combined result of three microbial metabolisms: microbial sulfate reduction, the disproportionation of external sulfur intermediates, and microbial sulfide oxidation.

The Biogeochemical Sulfur Cycle of Marine Sediments

Microbial dissimilatory sulfate reduction to sulfide is a predominant terminal pathway of organic matter mineralization in the anoxic seabed. Chemical or microbial oxidation of the produced sulfide establishes a complex network of pathways in the sulfur cycle, leading to intermediate sulfur species and partly back to sulfate. The intermediates include elemental sulfur, polysulfides, thiosulfate, and sulfite, which are all substrates for further microbial oxidation, reduction or disproportionation. New microbiological discoveries, such as long-distance electron transfer through sulfide oxidizing cable bacteria, add to the complexity. Isotope exchange reactions play an important role for the stable isotope geochemistry and for the experimental study of sulfur transformations using radiotracers. Microbially catalyzed processes are partly reversible whereby the back-reaction affects our interpretation of radiotracer experiments and provides a mechanism for isotope fractionation. We here review the progress and current status in our understanding of the sulfur cycle in the seabed with respect to its microbial ecology, biogeochemistry, and isotope geochemistry.

Sequestration and utilization of carbon dioxide by chemical and biological methods for biofuels and biomaterials by chemoautotrophs: Opportunities and challenges

To meet the CO₂ emission reduction targets, carbon dioxide capture and utilization (CCU) comes as an evolve technology. CCU concept is turning into a feedstock and technologies have been developed for transformation of CO₂ into useful organic products. At industrial scale, utilization of CO₂ as raw material is not much significant as compare to its abundance. Mechanisms in nature have evolved for carbon concentration, fixation and utilization. Assimilation and subsequent conversion of CO₂ into complex molecules are performed by the photosynthetic and chemolithotrophic organisms. In the last three decades, substantial research is carry out to discover chemical and biological conversion of CO₂ in various synthetic and biological materials, such as carboxylic acids, esters, lactones, polymer biodiesel, bio-plastics, bio-alcohols, exopolysaccharides. This review presents an over view of catalytic transformation of CO₂ into biofuels and biomaterials by chemical and biological methods.

The life sulfuric: microbial ecology of sulfur cycling in marine sediments

Almost the entire seafloor is covered with sediments that can be more than 10 000 m thick and represent a vast microbial ecosystem that is a major component of Earth's element and energy cycles. Notably, a significant proportion of microbial life in marine sediments can exploit energy conserved during transformations of sulfur compounds among different redox states. Sulfur cycling, which is primarily driven by sulfate reduction, is tightly interwoven with other important element cycles (carbon, nitrogen, iron, manganese) and therefore has profound implications for both cellular- and ecosystem-level processes. Sulfur-transforming microorganisms have evolved diverse genetic, metabolic, and in some cases, peculiar phenotypic features to fill an array of ecological niches in marine sediments. Here, we review recent and selected findings on the microbial guilds that are involved in the transformation of different sulfur compounds in marine sediments and emphasise how these are interlinked and have a major influence on ecology and biogeochemistry in the seafloor. Extraordinary discoveries have increased our knowledge on microbial sulfur cycling, mainly in sulfate-rich surface sediments, yet many questions remain regarding how sulfur redox processes may sustain the deep-subsurface biosphere and the impact of organic sulfur compounds on the marine sulfur cycle.

Impact of Seasonal Hypoxia on Activity and Community Structure of Chemolithoautotrophic Bacteria in a Coastal Sediment

Seasonal hypoxia in coastal systems drastically changes the availability of electron acceptors in bottom water, which alters the sedimentary reoxidation of reduced compounds. However, the effect of seasonal hypoxia on the chemolithoautotrophic community that catalyzes these reoxidation reactions is rarely studied. Here, we examine the changes in activity and structure of the sedimentary chemolithoautotrophic bacterial community of a seasonally hypoxic saline basin under oxic (spring) and hypoxic (summer) conditions. Combined 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and analysis of phospholipid-derived fatty acids indicated a major temporal shift in community structure. Aerobic sulfur-oxidizing Gammaproteobacteria (Thiotrichales) and Epsilonproteobacteria (Campylobacterales) were prevalent during spring, whereas Deltaproteobacteria (Desulfobacterales) related to sulfate-reducing bacteria prevailed during summer hypoxia. Chemolithoautotrophy rates in the surface sediment were three times higher in spring than in summer. The depth distribution of chemolithoautotrophy was linked to the distinct sulfur oxidation mechanisms identified through microsensor profiling, i.e., canonical sulfur oxidation, electrogenic sulfur oxidation by cable bacteria, and sulfide oxidation coupled to nitrate reduction by Beggiatoaceae The metabolic diversity of the sulfur-oxidizing bacterial community suggests a complex niche partitioning within the sediment, probably driven by the availability of reduced sulfur compounds (H₂S, S⁰, and S₂O₃^2-) and electron acceptors (O₂ and NO₃^-) regulated by seasonal hypoxia.IMPORTANCE Chemolithoautotrophic microbes in the seafloor are dependent on electron acceptors, like oxygen and nitrate, that diffuse from the overlying water. Seasonal hypoxia, however, drastically changes the availability of these electron acceptors in the bottom water; hence, one expects a strong impact of seasonal hypoxia on sedimentary chemolithoautotrophy. A multidisciplinary investigation of the sediments in a seasonally hypoxic coastal basin confirms this hypothesis. Our data show that bacterial community structure and chemolithoautotrophic activity varied with the seasonal depletion of oxygen. Unexpectedly, the dark carbon fixation was also dependent on the dominant microbial pathway of sulfur oxidation occurring in the sediment (i.e., canonical sulfur oxidation, electrogenic sulfur oxidation by cable bacteria, and sulfide oxidation coupled to nitrate reduction by Beggiatoaceae). These results suggest that a complex niche partitioning within the sulfur-oxidizing bacterial community additionally affects the chemolithoautotrophic community of seasonally hypoxic sediments.

Relative Importance of Chemoautotrophy for Primary Production in a Light Exposed Marine Shallow Hydrothermal System

The unique geochemistry of marine shallow-water hydrothermal systems promotes the establishment of diverse microbial communities with a range of metabolic pathways. In contrast to deep-sea vents, shallow-water vents not only support chemosynthesis, but also phototrophic primary production due to the availability of light. However, comprehensive studies targeting the predominant biogeochemical processes are rare, and consequently a holistic understanding of the functioning of these ecosystems is currently lacking. To this end, we combined stable isotope probing of lipid biomarkers with an analysis of the bacterial communities to investigate if chemoautotrophy, in parallel to photoautotrophy, plays an important role in autotrophic carbon fixation and to identify the key players. The study was carried out at a marine shallow-water hydrothermal system located at 5 m water depth off Dominica Island (Lesser Antilles), characterized by up to 55°C warm hydrothermal fluids that contain high amounts of dissolved Fe²⁺. Analysis of the bacterial diversity revealed Anaerolineae of the Chloroflexi as the most abundant bacterial class. Furthermore, the presence of key players involved in iron cycling generally known from deep-sea hydrothermal vents (e.g., Zetaproteobacteria and Geothermobacter), supported the importance of iron-driven redox processes in this hydrothermal system. Uptake of ¹³C-bicarbonate into bacterial fatty acids under light and dark conditions revealed active photo- and chemoautotrophic communities, with chemoautotrophy accounting for up to 65% of the observed autotrophic carbon fixation. Relatively increased ¹³C-incorporation in the dark allowed the classification of aiC_15:0, C_15:0, and iC_16:0 as potential lipid biomarkers for bacterial chemoautotrophy in this ecosystem. Highest total ¹³C-incorporation into fatty acids took place at the sediment surface, but chemosynthesis was found to be active down to 8 cm sediment depth. In conclusion, this study highlights the relative importance of chemoautotrophy compared to photoautotrophy in a shallow-water hydrothermal system, emphasizing chemosynthesis as a prominent process for biomass production in marine coastal environments influenced by hydrothermalism.

Evidence for the Existence of Autotrophic Nitrate-Reducing Fe(II)-Oxidizing Bacteria in Marine Coastal Sediment

Nitrate-reducing Fe(II)-oxidizing microorganisms were described for the first time ca. 20 years ago. Most pure cultures of nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidizers can oxidize Fe(II) only under mixotrophic conditions, i.e., when an organic cosubstrate is provided. A small number of nitrate-reducing Fe(II)-oxidizing cultures have been proposed to grow autotrophically, but unambiguous evidence for autotrophy has not always been provided. Thus, it is still unclear whether or to what extent Fe(II) oxidation coupled to nitrate reduction is an enzymatically catalyzed and energy-yielding autotrophic process or whether Fe(II) is abiotically oxidized by nitrite from heterotrophic nitrate reduction. The aim of the present study was to find evidence for the existence of autotrophic nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidizers in coastal marine sediments. Microcosm incubations showed that with increasing incubation times, the stoichiometric ratio of reduced nitrate/oxidized Fe(II) [NO₃⁻_reduced/Fe(II)_oxidized] decreased, indicating a decreasing contribution of heterotrophic denitrification and/or an increasing contribution of autotrophic nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidation over time. After incubations of sediment slurries for >10 weeks, nitrate-reducing activity ceased, although nitrate was still present. This suggests that heterotrophic nitrate reduction had ceased due to the depletion of readily available organic carbon. However, after the addition of Fe(II) to these batch incubation mixtures, the nitrate-reducing activity resumed, and Fe(II) was oxidized, indicating the activity of autotrophic nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidizers. The concurrent reduction of ¹⁴C-labeled bicarbonate concentrations unambiguously proved that autotrophic C fixation occurred during Fe(II) oxidation and nitrate reduction. Our results clearly demonstrated that autotrophic nitrate-reducing Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria were present in the investigated coastal marine sediments.

IMPORTANCE Twenty years after the discovery of nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidizers, it is still controversially discussed whether autotrophic nitrate-reducing Fe(II)-oxidizing microorganisms exist and to what extent Fe(II) oxidation in this reduction/oxidation process is enzymatically catalyzed or which role abiotic side reactions of Fe(II) with reactive N species play. Most pure cultures of nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidizers are mixotrophic; i.e., they need an organic cosubstrate to maintain their activity over several cultural transfers. For the few existing autotrophic isolates and enrichment cultures, either the mechanism of nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidation is not known or evidence for their autotrophic lifestyle is controversial. In the present study, we provide evidence for the existence of autotrophic nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidizers in coastal marine sediments. The evidence is based on stoichiometries of nitrate reduction and Fe(II) oxidation determined in microcosm incubations and the incorporation of carbon from CO₂ under conditions that favor the activity of nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidizers.

Tracking activity and function of microorganisms by stable isotope probing of membrane lipids

Microorganisms in soils and sediments are highly abundant and phylogenetically diverse, but their specific metabolic activity and function in the environment is often not well constrained. To address this critical aspect in environmental biogeochemistry, different methods involving stable isotope probing (SIP) and detection of the isotope label in a variety of molecular compounds have been developed. Here we review recent progress in lipid-SIP, a technique that combines the assimilation of specific ¹³C-labeled metabolic substrates such as inorganic carbon, methane, glucose and amino acids into diagnostic membrane lipid compounds. Using the structural characteristics of certain lipid types in combination with genetic molecular techniques, the SIP approach reveals the activity and function of distinct microbial groups in the environment. More recently, deuterium labeling in the form of deuterated water (D₂O) extended the lipid-SIP portfolio. Since lipid biosynthetic pathways involve hydrogen (H⁺) uptake from water, lipid production can be inferred from the detection of D-assimilation into these compounds. Furthermore, by combining D₂O and ¹³C-inorganic carbon (IC) labeling in a dual-SIP approach, rates of auto- and heterotrophic carbon fixation can be estimated. We discuss the design, analytical prerequisites, data processing and interpretation of single and dual-SIP experiments and highlight a case study on anaerobic methanotrophic communities inhabiting hydrothermally heated marine sediments.

Ubiquitous Gammaproteobacteria dominate dark carbon fixation in coastal sediments

Marine sediments are the largest carbon sink on earth. Nearly half of dark carbon fixation in the oceans occurs in coastal sediments, but the microorganisms responsible are largely unknown. By integrating the 16S rRNA approach, single-cell genomics, metagenomics and transcriptomics with (14)C-carbon assimilation experiments, we show that uncultured Gammaproteobacteria account for 70-86% of dark carbon fixation in coastal sediments. First, we surveyed the bacterial 16S rRNA gene diversity of 13 tidal and sublittoral sediments across Europe and Australia to identify ubiquitous core groups of Gammaproteobacteria mainly affiliating with sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. These also accounted for a substantial fraction of the microbial community in anoxic, 490-cm-deep subsurface sediments. We then quantified dark carbon fixation by scintillography of specific microbial populations extracted and flow-sorted from sediments that were short-term incubated with (14)C-bicarbonate. We identified three distinct gammaproteobacterial clades covering diversity ranges on family to order level (the Acidiferrobacter, JTB255 and SSr clades) that made up >50% of dark carbon fixation in a tidal sediment. Consistent with these activity measurements, environmental transcripts of sulfur oxidation and carbon fixation genes mainly affiliated with those of sulfur-oxidizing Gammaproteobacteria. The co-localization of key genes of sulfur and hydrogen oxidation pathways and their expression in genomes of uncultured Gammaproteobacteria illustrates an unknown metabolic plasticity for sulfur oxidizers in marine sediments. Given their global distribution and high abundance, we propose that a stable assemblage of metabolically flexible Gammaproteobacteria drives important parts of marine carbon and sulfur cycles.

Bacterial diversity in the surface sediments of the hypoxic zone near the Changjiang Estuary and in the East China Sea

Changjiang (Yangtze River) Estuary has experienced severe hypoxia since the 1950s. In order to investigate potential ecological functions of key microorganisms in relation to hypoxia, we performed 16S rRNA‐based Illumina Miseq sequencing to explore the bacterial diversity in the surface sediments of the hypoxic zone near the Changjiang Estuary and in the East China Sea (ECS). The results showed that numerous Proteobacteria‐affiliated sequences in the sediments of the inner continental shelf were related to both sulfate‐reducing and sulfur‐oxidizing bacteria, suggesting an active sulfur cycle in this area. Many sequences retrieved from the hypoxic zone were also related to Planctomycetes from two marine upwelling systems, which may be involved in the initial breakdown of sulfated heteropolysaccharides. Bacteroidetes, which is expected to degrade high‐molecular‐weight organic matter, was abundant in all the studied stations except for station A8, which was the deepest and possessed the largest grain size. In addition, dissolved organic carbon, water depth, percentage ratio of clay to silt, salinity, and sedimentary grain size were environmental effectors that shaped the sedimentary microbial community structure. Our results showed that putative Gammaproteobacteria‐affiliated sulfur‐oxidizing bacteria may not only detoxify hydrogen sulfide produced by sulfate‐reducing prokaryotes, but also serve as the primary producers in the marine sediments. Specific groups of aerobic Bacteroidetes and Planctomycetes participated in degrading organic matter, which might contribute to the oxygen depletion in the hypoxic zones.

Sulfurifustis variabilis gen. nov., sp. nov., a sulfur oxidizer isolated from a lake, and proposal of Acidiferrobacteraceae fam. nov. and Acidiferrobacterales ord. nov

A novel autotrophic bacterium, strain skN76T, was isolated from sediment of a lake in Japan. As sole electron donor to support chemolithoautotrophic growth, the strain oxidized thiosulfate, tetrathionate and elemental sulfur. For growth, the optimum temperature was 42–45 °C and the optimum pH was 6.8–8.2. The cells were Gram-stain-negative, catalase-positive and oxidase-positive. The strain exhibited changes in morphology depending on growth temperature. Cells grown at the optimum temperature were rod-shaped (0.9–3.0 μm long and 0.3–0.5 μm wide), whereas a filamentous form was observed when the strain was cultured at the lowest permissive growth temperatures. The G+C content of genomic DNA was 69 mol%. The major components in the fatty acid profile were C16 : 0, summed feature 3 (C16 : 1ω7c and/or C16 : 1ω6c) and summed feature 9 (iso-C17 : 1ω9c and/or 10-methyl C16 : 0). Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that the closest cultivated relative of strain skN76T was Acidiferrobacter thiooxydans m-1T, with sequence similarity of 93 %. On the basis of its phylogenetic and phenotypic properties, strain skN76T ( = DSM 100313T =  NBRC 110942T) is proposed as the type strain of a novel species of a novel genus, Sulfurifustis variabilis gen. nov., sp. nov. Novel taxa, Acidiferrobacteraceae fam. nov. and Acidiferrobacterales ord. nov., are also proposed to accommodate the genera Acidiferrobacter and Sulfurifustis gen. nov.

Microbial carbon metabolism associated with electrogenic sulphur oxidation in coastal sediments

Recently, a novel electrogenic type of sulphur oxidation was documented in marine sediments, whereby filamentous cable bacteria (Desulfobulbaceae) are mediating electron transport over cm-scale distances. These cable bacteria are capable of developing an extensive network within days, implying a highly efficient carbon acquisition strategy. Presently, the carbon metabolism of cable bacteria is unknown, and hence we adopted a multidisciplinary approach to study the carbon substrate utilization of both cable bacteria and associated microbial community in sediment incubations. Fluorescence in situ hybridization showed rapid downward growth of cable bacteria, concomitant with high rates of electrogenic sulphur oxidation, as quantified by microelectrode profiling. We studied heterotrophy and autotrophy by following ¹³C-propionate and -bicarbonate incorporation into bacterial fatty acids. This biomarker analysis showed that propionate uptake was limited to fatty acid signatures typical for the genus Desulfobulbus. The nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry analysis confirmed heterotrophic rather than autotrophic growth of cable bacteria. Still, high bicarbonate uptake was observed in concert with the development of cable bacteria. Clone libraries of 16S complementary DNA showed numerous sequences associated to chemoautotrophic sulphur-oxidizing Epsilon- and Gammaproteobacteria, whereas ¹³C-bicarbonate biomarker labelling suggested that these sulphur-oxidizing bacteria were active far below the oxygen penetration. A targeted manipulation experiment demonstrated that chemoautotrophic carbon fixation was tightly linked to the heterotrophic activity of the cable bacteria down to cm depth. Overall, the results suggest that electrogenic sulphur oxidation is performed by a microbial consortium, consisting of chemoorganotrophic cable bacteria and chemolithoautotrophic Epsilon- and Gammaproteobacteria. The metabolic linkage between these two groups is presently unknown and needs further study.