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Mohamed H, Gurrola T, Berman R, Collins M, Sariyer IK, Nonnemacher MR, Wigdahl B. Targeting CCR5 as a Component of an HIV-1 Therapeutic Strategy. Front Immunol 2022; 12:816515. [PMID: 35126374 PMCID: PMC8811197 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.816515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Globally, human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is a major health burden for which successful therapeutic options are still being investigated. Challenges facing current drugs that are part of the established life-long antiretroviral therapy (ART) include toxicity, development of drug resistant HIV-1 strains, the cost of treatment, and the inability to eradicate the provirus from infected cells. For these reasons, novel anti-HIV-1 therapeutics that can prevent or eliminate disease progression including the onset of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are needed. While development of HIV-1 vaccination has also been challenging, recent advancements demonstrate that infection of HIV-1-susceptible cells can be prevented in individuals living with HIV-1, by targeting C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5). CCR5 serves many functions in the human immune response and is a co-receptor utilized by HIV-1 for entry into immune cells. Therapeutics targeting CCR5 generally involve gene editing techniques including CRISPR, CCR5 blockade using antibodies or antagonists, or combinations of both. Here we review the efficacy of these approaches and discuss the potential of their use in the clinic as novel ART-independent therapies for HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hager Mohamed
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Theodore Gurrola
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Rachel Berman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Mackenzie Collins
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Ilker K. Sariyer
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Inflammation, Center for Neurovirology and Gene Editing, School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Michael R. Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- *Correspondence: Brian Wigdahl,
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2
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Yandrapally S, Mohareer K, Arekuti G, Vadankula GR, Banerjee S. HIV co-receptor-tropism: cellular and molecular events behind the enigmatic co-receptor switching. Crit Rev Microbiol 2021; 47:499-516. [PMID: 33900141 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2021.1902941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Recognition of cell-surface receptors and co-receptors is a crucial molecular event towards the establishment of HIV infection. HIV exists as several variants that differentially recognize the principal co-receptors, CCR5 and CXCR4, in different cell types, known as HIV co-receptor-tropism. The relative levels of these variants dynamically adjust to the changing host selection pressures to infect a vast repertoire of cells in a stage-specific manner. HIV infection sets in through immune cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and T-lymphocytes in the acute stage, while a wide range of other cells, including astrocytes, glial cells, B-lymphocytes, and epithelial cells, are infected during chronic stages. A change in tropism occurs during the transition from acute to a chronic phase, termed as co-receptor switching marked by a change in disease severity. The cellular and molecular events leading to co-receptor switching are poorly understood. This review aims to collate our present understanding of the dynamics of HIV co-receptor-tropism vis-à-vis host and viral factors, highlighting the cellular and molecular events involved therein. We present the possible correlations between virus entry, cell tropism, and co-receptor switching, speculating its consequences on disease progression, and proposing new scientific pursuits to help in an in-depth understanding of HIV biology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Geethika Arekuti
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
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3
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Sullivan NT, Dampier W, Chung CH, Allen AG, Atkins A, Pirrone V, Homan G, Passic S, Williams J, Zhong W, Kercher K, Desimone M, Li L, C Antell G, Mell JC, Ehrlich GD, Szep Z, Jacobson JM, Nonnemacher MR, Wigdahl B. Novel gRNA design pipeline to develop broad-spectrum CRISPR/Cas9 gRNAs for safe targeting of the HIV-1 quasispecies in patients. Sci Rep 2019; 9:17088. [PMID: 31745112 PMCID: PMC6864089 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52353-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The CRISPR/Cas9 system has been proposed as a cure strategy for HIV. However, few published guide RNAs (gRNAs) are predicted to cleave the majority of HIV-1 viral quasispecies (vQS) observed within and among patients. We report the design of a novel pipeline to identify gRNAs that target HIV across a large number of infected individuals. Next generation sequencing (NGS) of LTRs from 269 HIV-1-infected samples in the Drexel CARES Cohort was used to select gRNAs with predicted broad-spectrum activity. In silico, D-LTR-P4-227913 (package of the top 4 gRNAs) accounted for all detectable genetic variation within the vQS of the 269 samples and the Los Alamos National Laboratory HIV database. In silico secondary structure analyses from NGS indicated extensive TAR stem-loop malformations predicted to inactivate proviral transcription, which was confirmed by reduced viral gene expression in TZM-bl or P4R5 cells. Similarly, a high sensitivity in vitro CRISPR/Cas9 cleavage assay showed that the top-ranked gRNA was the most effective at cleaving patient-derived HIV-1 LTRs from five patients. Furthermore, the D-LTR-P4-227913 was predicted to cleave a median of 96.1% of patient-derived sequences from other HIV subtypes. These results demonstrate that the gRNAs possess broad-spectrum cutting activity and could contribute to an HIV cure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil T Sullivan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Will Dampier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Cheng-Han Chung
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Alexander G Allen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Andrew Atkins
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Vanessa Pirrone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Greg Homan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Shendra Passic
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Jean Williams
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Wen Zhong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Katherine Kercher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Mathew Desimone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Luna Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Gregory C Antell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Joshua Chang Mell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Genomic Sciences, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, 19102, Pennsylvania, USA
- Center for Advanced Microbial Processing, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, 19102, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Garth D Ehrlich
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Genomic Sciences, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, 19102, Pennsylvania, USA
- Center for Advanced Microbial Processing, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, 19102, Pennsylvania, USA
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, 19102, PA, USA
| | - Zsofia Szep
- Center for Clinical and Translational Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Infectious Disease and HIV Medicine, Department of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Jacobson
- Department of Neuroscience and Comprehensive NeuroAIDS Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, 19140, PA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Disease, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, 19140, PA, USA
- Center for Translational AIDS Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, 19140, PA, USA
| | - Michael R Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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4
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Link RW, Mele AR, Antell GC, Pirrone V, Zhong W, Kercher K, Passic S, Szep Z, Malone K, Jacobson JM, Dampier W, Wigdahl B, Nonnemacher MR. Investigating the distribution of HIV-1 Tat lengths present in the Drexel Medicine CARES cohort. Virus Res 2019; 272:197727. [PMID: 31437485 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2019.197727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/18/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) encodes for Tat, a multi-functional regulatory protein involved in transcriptional enhancement and in causing neurotoxicity/central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction. This study examines Sanger sequencing of HIV-1 subtype B Tat from 2006 to 2014 within the Drexel University College of Medicine CNS AIDS Research and Eradication Study (CARES) Cohort to investigate Tat length in patients. The Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) database was used as a comparator. Miscoded stop codons were present in the CARES Cohort and LANL and protein variability was highly similar. Tat proteins in CARES and LANL were predominantly 101 residues. There was no observed correlation between Tat length and clinical parameters within the CARES Cohort. Unique Tat lengths found in the CARES Cohort and not in LANL were 31, 36, and 39 residues. When CARES patients were longitudinally examined, sequence lengths of 101 had a low probability of reducing to below 48, and sequences had a high probability of increasing to above 86 residues during their next visit, when below 48 residues in length. This suggests that Tat length is conserved to retain the majority of the proteins function highlighting its importance in viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Link
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Anthony R Mele
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Gregory C Antell
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Vanessa Pirrone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Wen Zhong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Katherine Kercher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Shendra Passic
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Zsofia Szep
- Center for Clinical and Translational Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Department of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kim Malone
- Center for Clinical and Translational Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Department of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Jacobson
- Department of Neuroscience and Comprehensive NeuroAIDS Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Translational AIDS Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Disease, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Will Dampier
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Clinical and Translational Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Michael R Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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5
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Spector C, Mele AR, Wigdahl B, Nonnemacher MR. Genetic variation and function of the HIV-1 Tat protein. Med Microbiol Immunol 2019; 208:131-169. [PMID: 30834965 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-019-00583-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) encodes a transactivator of transcription (Tat) protein, which has several functions that promote viral replication, pathogenesis, and disease. Amino acid variation within Tat has been observed to alter the functional properties of Tat and, depending on the HIV-1 subtype, may produce Tat phenotypes differing from viruses' representative of each subtype and commonly used in in vivo and in vitro experimentation. The molecular properties of Tat allow for distinctive functional activities to be determined such as the subcellular localization and other intracellular and extracellular functional aspects of this important viral protein influenced by variation within the Tat sequence. Once Tat has been transported into the nucleus and becomes engaged in transactivation of the long terminal repeat (LTR), various Tat variants may differ in their capacity to activate viral transcription. Post-translational modification patterns based on these amino acid variations may alter interactions between Tat and host factors, which may positively or negatively affect this process. In addition, the ability of HIV-1 to utilize or not utilize the transactivation response (TAR) element within the LTR, based on genetic variation and cellular phenotype, adds a layer of complexity to the processes that govern Tat-mediated proviral DNA-driven transcription and replication. In contrast, cytoplasmic or extracellular localization of Tat may cause pathogenic effects in the form of altered cell activation, apoptosis, or neurotoxicity. Tat variants have been shown to differentially induce these processes, which may have implications for long-term HIV-1-infected patient care in the antiretroviral therapy era. Future studies concerning genetic variation of Tat with respect to function should focus on variants derived from HIV-1-infected individuals to efficiently guide Tat-targeted therapies and elucidate mechanisms of pathogenesis within the global patient population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra Spector
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 N 15th St, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Anthony R Mele
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 N 15th St, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 N 15th St, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Michael R Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 N 15th St, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, USA.
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Dampier W, Sullivan NT, Mell JC, Pirrone V, Ehrlich GD, Chung CH, Allen AG, DeSimone M, Zhong W, Kercher K, Passic S, Williams JW, Szep Z, Khalili K, Jacobson JM, Nonnemacher MR, Wigdahl B. Broad-Spectrum and Personalized Guide RNAs for CRISPR/Cas9 HIV-1 Therapeutics. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2018; 34:950-960. [PMID: 29968495 PMCID: PMC6238604 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2017.0274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated Cas9 system has been used to excise the HIV-1 proviral genome from latently infected cells, potentially offering a cure for HIV-infected patients. Recent studies have shown that most published HIV-1 guide RNAs (gRNAs) do not account for the diverse viral quasispecies within or among patients, which continue to diversify with time even in long-term antiretroviral therapy (ART)-suppressed patients. Given this observation, proviral genomes were deep sequenced from 23 HIV-1-infected patients in the Drexel Medicine CNS AIDS Research and Eradication Study cohort at two different visits. Based on the spectrum of integrated proviral DNA polymorphisms observed, three gRNA design strategies were explored: based on the patient's own HIV-1 sequences (personalized), based on consensus sequences from a large sample of patients [broad-spectrum (BS)], or a combination of both approaches. Using a bioinformatic algorithm, the personalized gRNA design was predicted to cut 46 of 48 patient samples at 90% efficiency, whereas the top 4 BS gRNAs (BS4) were predicted to excise provirus from 44 of 48 patient samples with 90% efficiency. Using a mixed design with the top three BS gRNAs plus one personalized gRNA (BS3 + PS1) resulted in predicted excision of provirus from 45 of 48 patient samples with 90% efficiency. In summary, these studies used an algorithmic design strategy to identify potential BS gRNAs to target a spectrum of HIV-1 long teriminal repeat (LTR) quasispecies for use with a small HIV-1-infected population. This approach should advance CRISPR/Cas9 excision technology taking into account the extensive molecular heterogeneity of HIV-1 that persists in situ after prolonged ART.
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Affiliation(s)
- Will Dampier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Neil T. Sullivan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Joshua Chang Mell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Genomic Sciences, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Advanced Microbial Processing, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Vanessa Pirrone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Garth D. Ehrlich
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Genomic Sciences, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Advanced Microbial Processing, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Cheng-Han Chung
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Alexander G. Allen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Mathew DeSimone
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Wen Zhong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Katherine Kercher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Shendra Passic
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Jean W. Williams
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Zsofia Szep
- Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Department of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Clinical and Translational Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Kamel Khalili
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, and Comprehensive NeuroAIDS Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Translational AIDS Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Jeffrey M. Jacobson
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, and Comprehensive NeuroAIDS Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Translational AIDS Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Michael R. Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Center for Clinical and Translational Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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Dampier W, Sullivan NT, Chung CH, Mell JC, Nonnemacher MR, Wigdahl B. Designing broad-spectrum anti-HIV-1 gRNAs to target patient-derived variants. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14413. [PMID: 29089503 PMCID: PMC5663707 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-12612-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9), including specific guide RNAs (gRNAs), can excise integrated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) provirus from host chromosomes. To date, anti-HIV-1 gRNAs have been designed to account for off-target activity, however, they seldom account for genetic variation in the HIV-1 genome within and between patients, which will be crucial for therapeutic application of this technology. This analysis tests the ability of published anti-HIV-1 gRNAs to cleave publicly available patient-derived HIV-1 sequences to inform gRNA design and provides basic computational tools to researchers in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Will Dampier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Neil T Sullivan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Cheng-Han Chung
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Joshua Chang Mell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Center for Genomic Sciences, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Center for Advanced Microbial Processing, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Michael R Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Evidence of Divergent Amino Acid Usage in Comparative Analyses of R5- and X4-Associated HIV-1 Vpr Sequences. Int J Genomics 2017; 2017:4081585. [PMID: 28620613 PMCID: PMC5460428 DOI: 10.1155/2017/4081585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Vpr is an HIV-1 accessory protein that plays numerous roles during viral replication, and some of which are cell type dependent. To test the hypothesis that HIV-1 tropism extends beyond the envelope into the vpr gene, studies were performed to identify the associations between coreceptor usage and Vpr variation in HIV-1-infected patients. Colinear HIV-1 Env-V3 and Vpr amino acid sequences were obtained from the LANL HIV-1 sequence database and from well-suppressed patients in the Drexel/Temple Medicine CNS AIDS Research and Eradication Study (CARES) Cohort. Genotypic classification of Env-V3 sequences as X4 (CXCR4-utilizing) or R5 (CCR5-utilizing) was used to group colinear Vpr sequences. To reveal the sequences associated with a specific coreceptor usage genotype, Vpr amino acid sequences were assessed for amino acid diversity and Jensen-Shannon divergence between the two groups. Five amino acid alphabets were used to comprehensively examine the impact of amino acid substitutions involving side chains with similar physiochemical properties. Positions 36, 37, 41, 89, and 96 of Vpr were characterized by statistically significant divergence across multiple alphabets when X4 and R5 sequence groups were compared. In addition, consensus amino acid switches were found at positions 37 and 41 in comparisons of the R5 and X4 sequence populations. These results suggest an evolutionary link between Vpr and gp120 in HIV-1-infected patients.
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Dampier W, Nonnemacher MR, Mell J, Earl J, Ehrlich GD, Pirrone V, Aiamkitsumrit B, Zhong W, Kercher K, Passic S, Williams JW, Jacobson JM, Wigdahl B. HIV-1 Genetic Variation Resulting in the Development of New Quasispecies Continues to Be Encountered in the Peripheral Blood of Well-Suppressed Patients. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155382. [PMID: 27195985 PMCID: PMC4873138 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
As a result of antiretroviral therapeutic strategies, human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection has become a long-term clinically manageable chronic disease for many infected individuals. However, despite this progress in therapeutic control, including undetectable viral loads and CD4+ T-cell counts in the normal range, viral mutations continue to accumulate in the peripheral blood compartment over time, indicating either low level reactivation and/or replication. Using patients from the Drexel Medicine CNS AIDS Research and Eradication Study (CARES) Cohort, whom have been sampled longitudinally for more than 7 years, genetic change was modeled against to the dominant integrated proviral quasispecies with respect to selection pressures such as therapeutic interventions, AIDS defining illnesses, and other factors. Phylogenetic methods based on the sequences of the LTR and tat exon 1 of the HIV-1 proviral DNA quasispecies were used to obtain an estimate of an average mutation rate of 5.3 nucleotides (nt)/kilobasepair (kb)/year (yr) prior to initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Following ART the baseline mutation rate was reduced to an average of 1.02 nt/kb/yr. The post-ART baseline rate of genetic change, however, appears to be unique for each patient. These studies represent our initial steps in quantifying rates of genetic change among HIV-1 quasispecies using longitudinally sampled sequences from patients at different stages of disease both before and after initiation of combination ART. Notably, while long-term ART reduced the estimated mutation rates in the vast majority of patients studied, there was still measurable HIV-1 mutation even in patients with no detectable virus by standard quantitative assays. Determining the factors that affect HIV-1 mutation rates in the peripheral blood may lead to elucidation of the mechanisms associated with changes in HIV-1 disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Will Dampier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Michael R. Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Joshua Mell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Genomic Sciences, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Joshua Earl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Genomic Sciences, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Garth D. Ehrlich
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Genomic Sciences, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Advanced Microbial Processing, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Vanessa Pirrone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Benjamas Aiamkitsumrit
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Wen Zhong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Katherine Kercher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Shendra Passic
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jean W. Williams
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey M. Jacobson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Clinical and Translational Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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11
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Antell GC, Dampier W, Aiamkitsumrit B, Nonnemacher MR, Jacobson JM, Pirrone V, Zhong W, Kercher K, Passic S, Williams JW, Schwartz G, Hershberg U, Krebs FC, Wigdahl B. Utilization of HIV-1 envelope V3 to identify X4- and R5-specific Tat and LTR sequence signatures. Retrovirology 2016; 13:32. [PMID: 27143130 PMCID: PMC4855882 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-016-0266-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND HIV-1 entry is a receptor-mediated process directed by the interaction of the viral envelope with the host cell CD4 molecule and one of two co-receptors, CCR5 or CXCR4. The amino acid sequence of the third variable (V3) loop of the HIV-1 envelope is highly predictive of co-receptor utilization preference during entry, and machine learning predictive algorithms have been developed to characterize sequences as CCR5-utilizing (R5) or CXCR4-utilizing (X4). It was hypothesized that while the V3 loop is predominantly responsible for determining co-receptor binding, additional components of the HIV-1 genome may contribute to overall viral tropism and display sequence signatures associated with co-receptor utilization. RESULTS The accessory protein Tat and the HlV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) were analyzed with respect to genetic diversity and compared by Jensen-Shannon divergence which resulted in a correlation with both mean genetic diversity as well as the absolute difference in genetic diversity between R5- and X4-genome specific trends. As expected, the V3 domain of the gp120 protein was enriched with statistically divergent positions. Statistically divergent positions were also identified in Tat amino acid sequences within the transactivation and TAR-binding domains, and in nucleotide positions throughout the LTR. We further analyzed LTR sequences for putative transcription factor binding sites using the JASPAR transcription factor binding profile database and found several putative differences in transcription factor binding sites between R5 and X4 HIV-1 genomes, specifically identifying the C/EBP sites I and II, and Sp site III to differ with respect to sequence configuration for R5 and X4 LTRs. CONCLUSION These observations support the hypothesis that co-receptor utilization coincides with specific genetic signatures in HIV-1 Tat and the LTR, likely due to differing transcriptional regulatory mechanisms and selective pressures applied within specific cellular targets during the course of productive HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory C Antell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Will Dampier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Benjamas Aiamkitsumrit
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Michael R Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Jacobson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Department of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Clinical and Translational Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Vanessa Pirrone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Wen Zhong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Katherine Kercher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Shendra Passic
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jean W Williams
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Gregory Schwartz
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Uri Hershberg
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Fred C Krebs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA. .,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA. .,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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