Septin6 and Septin7 GTP binding proteins regulate AP-3- and ESCRT-dependent multivesicular body biogenesis

Septin-coated microtubules promote maturation of multivesicular bodies by inhibiting their motility

The microtubule cytoskeleton consists of microtubule subsets with distinct compositions of microtubule-associated proteins, which instruct the position and traffic of subcellular organelles. In the endocytic pathway, these microtubule-associated cues are poorly understood. Here, we report that in MDCK cells, endosomes with multivesicular body (MVB) and late endosome (LE) markers localize preferentially to microtubules coated with septin GTPases. Compared with early endosomes, CD63-containing MVBs/LEs are largely immotile on septin-coated microtubules. In vitro reconstitution assays revealed that the motility of isolated GFP-CD63 endosomes is directly inhibited by microtubule-associated septins. Quantification of CD63-positive endosomes containing the early endosome antigen (EEA1), the Rab7 effector and dynein adaptor RILP or Rab27a, showed that intermediary EEA1- and RILP-positive GFP-CD63 preferentially associate with septin-coated microtubules. Septin knockdown enhanced GFP-CD63 motility and decreased the percentage of CD63-positive MVBs/LEs with lysobiphosphatidic acid without impacting the fraction of EEA1-positive CD63. These results suggest that MVB maturation involves immobilization on septin-coated microtubules, which may facilitate multivesiculation and/or organelle-organelle contacts.

Hippo signaling and histone methylation control cardiomyocyte cell cycle re-entry through distinct transcriptional pathways

AIMS

Accumulating data demonstrates that new adult cardiomyocytes (CMs) are generated throughout life from pre-existing CMs, although the absolute magnitude of CM self-renewal is very low. Modifying epigenetic histone modifications or activating the Hippo-Yap pathway have been shown to promote adult CM cycling and proliferation. Whether these interventions work through common pathways or act independently is unknown. For the first time we have determined whether lysine demethylase 4D (KDM4D)-mediated CM-specific H3K9 demethylation and Hippo pathways inhibition have additive or redundant roles in promoting CM cell cycle re-entry.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We found that activating Yap1 in cultured neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVM) through overexpressing Hippo pathway inhibitor, miR-199, preferentially increased S-phase CMs, while H3K9me3 demethylase KDM4D preferentially increased G2/M markers in CMs. Together KDM4D and miR-199 further increased total cell number of NRVMs in culture. Inhibition of Hippo signaling via knock-down of Salvador Family WW Domain Containing Protein 1 (Sav1) also led to S-phase reactivation and additional cell cycle re-entry was seen when combined with KDM4D overexpression. Inducible activating KDM4D (iKDM4D) in adult transgenic mice together with shRNA mediated knock-down of Sav1 (iKDM4D+Sav1-sh) resulted in a significant increase in cycling CMs compared to either intervention alone. KDM4D preferentially induced expression of genes regulating late (G2/M) phases of the cell cycle, while miR-199 and si-Sav1 preferentially up-regulated genes involved in G1/S phase. KDM4D upregulated E2F1 and FoxM1 expression, whereas miR-199 and si-Sav1 induced Myc. Using transgenic mice over-expressing KDM4D together with Myc, we demonstrated that KDM4D/Myc significantly increased CM cell cycling but did not affect cardiac function.

CONCLUSIONS

KDM4D effects on CM cell cycle activity are additive with the Hippo-Yap1 pathway and appear to preferentially regulate different cell cycle regulators. This may have important implications for strategies that target cardiac regeneration in treating heart disease.

Neuronal-specific septin-3 binds Atg8/LC3B, accumulates and localizes to autophagosomes during induced autophagy

In synapses that show signs of local apoptosis and mitochondrial stress and undergo neuro-immunological synapse pruning, an increase in the levels of the presynaptic protein, neuronal-specific septin-3 can be observed. Septin-3 is a member of the septin GTPase family with the ability to form multimers and contribute to the cytoskeleton. However, the function of septin-3 remains elusive. Here, we provide evidence that septin-3 is capable of binding the most-studied autophagy protein Atg8 homolog microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3B (LC3B), besides another homolog, GABA receptor-associated protein-like 2 (GABARAPL2). Moreover, we demonstrate that colocalization of septin-3 and LC3B increases upon chemical autophagy induction in primary neuronal cells. Septin-3 is accumulated in primary neurons upon autophagy enhancement or blockade, similar to autophagy proteins. Using electron microscopy, we also show that septin-3 localizes to LC3B positive membranes and can be found at mitochondria. However, colocalization results of septin-3 and the early mitophagy marker PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) do not support that binding of septin-3 to mitochondria is mitophagy related. We conclude that septin-3 correlates with synaptic/neuronal autophagy, binds Atg8 and localizes to autophagic membranes that can be enhanced with chemical autophagy induction. Based on our results, elevated septin-3 levels might indicate enhanced or impeded autophagy in neurons.

UBC Mediated by SEPT6 Inhibited the Progression of Prostate Cancer

Background

Prostate cancer is one of the most common malignancies in men. Protein ubiquitination is an important mechanism for regulating protein activity and level in vivo. We aimed to study the mechanism of SEPT6 and UBC action in prostate cancer to identify new targets.

Methods

The ubiquitin-protein and the ubiquitin coding gene UBA52, UBA80, UBB, and UBC expressions were detected in clinical tissues and cells. Overexpression and knockdown of UBC were performed in prostate cancer DU145 cells. Cell Counting Kit 8 (CCK-8) assay was performed to detect cell proliferation. Cell cycle at 24 h was detected by flow cytometry. Clonal formation assay was used to measure cell clone number. Immunofluorescence (IF) was performed to detect the colocalization of SEPT6 and UBC in prostate cancer cells. Next, we overexpressed or knocked down SEPT6 expression in DU145 cells. Pearson correlation coefficient was applied to analyze the relationship between SEPT6 and UBC in prostate cancer tissue. oe-SEPT6+oe-UBC coexpressing cells were constructed to detect the upstream and downstream relationship between SEPT6 and UBC on prostate cancer cells. The tumor formation experiment was performed to explore SEPT6/UBC effect on prostate cancer.

Results

UBC was upregulated in prostate cancer tissues and cells. Overexpression of UBC promoted cell survival and proliferation. IF revealed the colocalization of SEPT6 and UBC in prostate cancer cells. UBC expression decreased after oe-SEPT6, while increased after sh-SEPT6, indicating that UBC was downstream of SEPT6. Pearson correlation coefficient analysis showed that SEPT6 was negatively correlated with UBC in prostate cancer tissues. SEPT6 as an upstream gene of UBC regulated prostate cancer cell behavior through UBC. The tumor formation experiment showed that SEPT6 could inhibit tumor growth.

Conclusion

In general, SEPT6 inhibited UBC expression, thereby reducing the overall ubiquitination level, affecting the expression level of downstream cell proliferation-related genes, and then affecting the progression of prostate cancer.

Correlative cryo-imaging of the cellular universe with soft X-rays and laser light used to track F-actin structures in mammalian cells

Imaging of actin filaments is crucial due to the integral role that they play in many cellular functions such as intracellular transport, membrane remodelling and cell motility. Visualizing actin filaments has so far relied on fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy/tomography. The former lacks the capacity to capture the overall local ultrastructure, while the latter requires rigorous sample preparation that can lead to potential artefacts, and only delivers relatively small volumes of imaging data at the thinnest areas of a cell. In this work, a correlative approach utilizing in situ super-resolution fluorescence imaging and cryo X-ray tomography was used to image bundles of actin filaments deep inside cells under near-native conditions. In this case, fluorescence 3D imaging localized the actin bundles within the intracellular space, while X-ray tomograms of the same areas provided detailed views of the local ultrastructure. Using this new approach, actin trails connecting vesicles in the perinuclear area and hotspots of actin presence within and around multivesicular bodies were observed. The characteristic prevalence of filamentous actin in cytoplasmic extensions was also documented.

A septin GTPase scaffold of dynein-dynactin motors triggers retrograde lysosome transport

The metabolic and signaling functions of lysosomes depend on their intracellular positioning and trafficking, but the underlying mechanisms are little understood. Here, we have discovered a novel septin GTPase-based mechanism for retrograde lysosome transport. We found that septin 9 (SEPT9) associates with lysosomes, promoting the perinuclear localization of lysosomes in a Rab7-independent manner. SEPT9 targeting to mitochondria and peroxisomes is sufficient to recruit dynein and cause perinuclear clustering. We show that SEPT9 interacts with both dynein and dynactin through its GTPase domain and N-terminal extension, respectively. Strikingly, SEPT9 associates preferentially with the dynein intermediate chain (DIC) in its GDP-bound state, which favors dimerization and assembly into septin multimers. In response to oxidative cell stress induced by arsenite, SEPT9 localization to lysosomes is enhanced, promoting the perinuclear clustering of lysosomes. We posit that septins function as GDP-activated scaffolds for the cooperative assembly of dynein-dynactin, providing an alternative mechanism of retrograde lysosome transport at steady state and during cellular adaptation to stress.

Novel Functions of the Septin Cytoskeleton: Shaping Up Tissue Inflammation and Fibrosis

Chronic inflammatory diseases cause profound alterations in tissue homeostasis, including unchecked activation of immune and nonimmune cells leading to disease complications such as aberrant tissue repair and fibrosis. Current anti-inflammatory therapies are often insufficient in preventing or reversing these complications. Remodeling of the intracellular cytoskeleton is critical for cell activation in inflamed and fibrotic tissues; however, the cytoskeleton has not been adequately explored as a therapeutic target in inflammation. Septins are GTP-binding proteins that self-assemble into higher order cytoskeletal structures. The septin cytoskeleton exhibits a number of critical cellular functions, including regulation of cell shape and polarity, cytokinesis, cell migration, vesicle trafficking, and receptor signaling. Surprisingly, little is known about the role of the septin cytoskeleton in inflammation. This article reviews emerging evidence implicating different septins in the regulation of host-pathogen interactions, immune cell functions, and tissue fibrosis. Targeting of the septin cytoskeleton as a potential future therapeutic intervention in human inflammatory and fibrotic diseases is also discussed.

The Interplay between Retinal Pathways of Cholesterol Output and Its Effects on Mouse Retina

In mammalian retina, cholesterol excess is mainly metabolized to oxysterols by cytochromes P450 27A1 (CYP27A1) and 46A1 (CYP46A1) or removed on lipoprotein particles containing apolipoprotein E (APOE). In contrast, esterification by sterol-O-acyltransferase 1 (SOAT) plays only a minor role in this process. Accordingly, retinal cholesterol levels are unchanged in Soat1^-/- mice but are increased in Cyp27a1^-/-Cyp46a1^-/- and Apoe^-/- mice. Herein, we characterized Cyp27a1^-/-Cyp46a1^-/-Soat1^-/- and Cyp27a1^-/-Cyp46a1^-/-Apoe^-/- mice. In the former, retinal cholesterol levels, anatomical gross structure, and vasculature were normal, yet the electroretinographic responses were impaired. Conversely, in Cyp27a1^-/-Cyp46a1^-/-Apoe^-/- mice, retinal cholesterol levels were increased while anatomical structure and vasculature were unaffected with only male mice showing a decrease in electroretinographic responses. Sterol profiling, qRT-PCR, proteomics, and transmission electron microscopy mapped potential compensatory mechanisms in the Cyp27a1^-/-Cyp46a1^-/-Soat1^-/- and Cyp27a1^-/-Cyp46a1^-/-Apoe^-/- retina. These included decreased cholesterol biosynthesis along with enhanced formation of intra- and extracellular vesicles, possibly a reserve mechanism for lowering retinal cholesterol. In addition, there was altered abundance of proteins in Cyp27a1^-/-Cyp46a1^-/-Soat1^-/- mice that can affect photoreceptor function, survival, and retinal energy homeostasis (glucose and fatty acid metabolism). Therefore, the levels of retinal cholesterol do not seem to predict retinal abnormalities, and it is rather the network of compensatory mechanisms that appears to determine retinal phenotype.

A Septin Double Ring Controls the Spatiotemporal Organization of the ESCRT Machinery in Cytokinetic Abscission

Abscission is the terminal step of mitosis that physically separates two daughter cells [1, 2]. Abscission requires the endocytic sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT), a molecular machinery of multiple subcomplexes (ESCRT-I/II/III) that promotes membrane remodeling and scission [3-5]. Recruitment of ESCRT-I/II complexes to the midbody of telophase cells initiates ESCRT-III assembly into two rings, which subsequently expand into helices and spirals that narrow down to the incipient site of abscission [6-8]. ESCRT-III assembly is highly dynamic and spatiotemporally ordered, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we report that, after cleavage furrow closure, septins form a membrane-bound double ring that controls the organization and function of ESCRT-III. The septin double ring demarcates the sites of ESCRT-III assembly into rings and disassembles before ESCRT-III rings expand into helices and spirals. We show that septin 9 (SEPT9) depletion, which abrogates abscission, impairs recruitment of VPS25 (ESCRT-II) and CHMP6 (ESCRT-III). Strikingly, ESCRT-III subunits (CHMP4B and CHMP2A/B) accumulate to the midbody, but they are highly disorganized, failing to form symmetric rings and to expand laterally into the cone-shaped helices and spirals of abscission. We found that SEPT9 interacts directly with the ubiquitin E2 variant (UEV) domain of ESCRT-I protein TSG101 through two N-terminal PTAP motifs, which are required for the recruitment of VPS25 and CHMP6, and the spatial organization of ESCRT-III (CHMP4B and CHMP2B) into functional rings. These results reveal that septins function in the ESCRT-I-ESCRT-II-CHMP6 pathway of ESCRT-III assembly and provide a framework for the spatiotemporal control of the ESCRT machinery of cytokinetic abscission.

Deregulation of LRSAM1 expression impairs the levels of TSG101, UBE2N, VPS28, MDM2 and EGFR

CMT is the most common hereditary neuromuscular disorder of the peripheral nervous system with a prevalence of 1/2500 individuals and it is caused by mutations in more than 80 genes. LRSAM1, a RING finger ubiquitin ligase also known as TSG101-associated ligase (TAL), has been associated with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2P (CMT2P) and to date eight causative mutations have been identified. Little is currently known on the pathogenetic mechanisms that lead to the disease. We investigated the effect of LRSAM1 deregulation on possible LRSAM1 interacting molecules in cell based models. Possible LRSAM1 interacting molecules were identified using protein-protein interaction databases and literature data. Expression analysis of these molecules was performed in both CMT2P patient and control lymphoblastoid cell lines as well as in LRSAM1 and TSG101 downregulated SH-SY5Y cells.TSG101, UBE2N, VPS28, EGFR and MDM2 levels were significantly decreased in the CMT2P patient lymphoblastoid cell line as well as in LRSAM1 downregulated cells. TSG101 downregulation had a significant effect only on the expression of VPS28 and MDM2 and it did not affect the levels of LRSAM1. This study confirms that LRSAM1 is a regulator of TSG101 expression. Furthermore, deregulation of LRSAM1 significantly affects the levels of UBE2N, VPS28, EGFR and MDM2.

Sorting nexin-21 is a scaffold for the endosomal recruitment of huntingtin

The endo-lysosomal network serves an essential role in determining the fate of endocytosed transmembrane proteins and their associated proteins and lipids. Sorting nexins (SNXs) play a central role in the functional organisation of this network. Comprising over 30 proteins in humans, SNXs are classified into sub-groups based on the presence of additional functional domains. Sorting nexin-20 (SNX20) and sorting nexin-21 (SNX21) comprise the SNX-PXB proteins. The presence of a predicted protein-protein interaction domain, termed the PX-associated B (PXB) domain, has led to the proposal that they function as endosome-associated scaffolds. Here, we used unbiased quantitative proteomics to define the SNX21 interactome. We reveal that the N-terminal extension of SNX21 interacts with huntingtin (Htt) whereas the PXB domain appears to associate with septins, a family of cytoskeletal- and membrane-associated proteins. In establishing that these interactions are sufficient for SNX21 to recruit Htt and septins on to an endosomal population, we reveal a scaffolding function for this sorting nexin. Our work paves the way for a more-detailed mechanistic analysis of the role(s) of the SNX-PXB proteins in endosomal biology.

Summary: A potential scaffolding function for SNX21 paves the way for a more-detailed mechanistic analysis of the role(s) of this protein in endosomal biology.

ARAP1 Bridges Actin Dynamics and AP-3-Dependent Membrane Traffic in Bone-Digesting Osteoclasts

Bone-resorbing osteoclasts play a central role in bone remodeling and its pathology. To digest bone, osteoclasts re-organize both F-actin, to assemble podosomes/sealing zones, and membrane traffic, to form bone-facing ruffled borders enriched in lysosomal membrane proteins. It remains elusive how these processes are coordinated. Here, we show that ARAP1 (ArfGAP with RhoGAP domain, ankyrin repeat and PH domain-containing protein 1) fulfills this function. At podosomes/sealing zones, ARAP1 is part of a protein complex where its RhoGAP domain regulates actin dynamics. At endosomes, ARAP1 interacts with AP-3 adaptor complexes where its Arf-GAP domain regulates the Arf1-dependent AP-3 binding to membranes and, consequently lysosomal membrane protein transport to ruffled borders. Accordingly, ARAP1 or AP-3 depletion in osteoclasts alters their capacity to digest bone in vitro. and AP-3δ-deficient mocha mice, a model of the Hermansky-Pudlak storage pool syndrome, develop osteoporosis. Thus, ARAP1 bridges F-actin and membrane dynamics in osteoclasts for proper bone homeostasis.

•

ARAP1 is a bridging factor controlling actin and membrane dynamics in osteoclasts

•

ARAP1 controls podosome dynamics and AP-3 coat recruitment to membranes

•

AP-3 controls targeting of lysosomal membrane proteins to the ruffled border

•

AP-3-deficient mocha mice develop osteoporosis

The Mammalian Septin Interactome

Septins are GTP-binding and membrane-interacting proteins with a highly conserved domain structure involved in various cellular processes, including cytoskeleton organization, cytokinesis, and membrane dynamics. To date, 13 different septin genes have been identified in mammals (SEPT1 to SEPT12 and SEPT14), which can be classified into four distinct subgroups based on the sequence homology of their domain structure (SEPT2, SEPT3, SEPT6, and SEPT7 subgroup). The family members of these subgroups have a strong affinity for other septins and form apolar tri-, hexa-, or octameric complexes consisting of multiple septin polypeptides. The first characterized core complex is the hetero-trimer SEPT2-6-7. Within these complexes single septins can be exchanged in a subgroup-specific manner. Hexamers contain SEPT2 and SEPT6 subgroup members and SEPT7 in two copies each whereas the octamers additionally comprise two SEPT9 subgroup septins. The various isoforms seem to determine the function and regulation of the septin complex. Septins self-assemble into higher-order structures, including filaments and rings in orders, which are typical for different cell types. Misregulation of septins leads to human diseases such as neurodegenerative and bleeding disorders. In non-dividing cells such as neuronal tissue and platelets septins have been associated with exocytosis. However, many mechanistic details and roles attributed to septins are poorly understood. We describe here some important mammalian septin interactions with a special focus on the clinically relevant septin interactions.

Septin Mutations in Human Cancers

Septins are GTP-binding proteins that are evolutionarily and structurally related to the RAS oncogenes. Septin expression levels are altered in many cancers and new advances point to how abnormal septin expression may contribute to the progression of cancer. In contrast to the RAS GTPases, which are frequently mutated and actively promote tumorigenesis, little is known about the occurrence and role of septin mutations in human cancers. Here, we review septin missense mutations that are currently in the Catalog of Somatic Mutations in Cancer (COSMIC) database. The majority of septin mutations occur in tumors of the large intestine, skin, endometrium and stomach. Over 25% of the annotated mutations in SEPT2, SEPT4, and SEPT9 belong to large intestine tumors. From all septins, SEPT9 and SEPT14 exhibit the highest mutation frequencies in skin, stomach and large intestine cancers. While septin mutations occur with frequencies lower than 3%, recurring mutations in several invariant and highly conserved amino acids are found across different septin paralogs and tumor types. Interestingly, a significant number of these mutations occur in the GTP-binding pocket and septin dimerization interfaces. Future studies may determine how these somatic mutations affect septin structure and function, whether they contribute to the progression of specific cancers and if they could serve as tumor-specific biomarkers.

Septins As Modulators of Endo-Lysosomal Membrane Traffic

Septins constitute a family of GTP-binding proteins, which assemble into non-polar filaments in a nucleotide-dependent manner. These filaments can be recruited to negatively charged membrane surfaces. When associated with membranes septin filaments can act as diffusion barriers, which confine subdomains of distinct biological functions. In addition, they serve scaffolding roles by recruiting cytosolic proteins and other cytoskeletal elements. Septins have been implicated in a large variety of membrane-dependent processes, including cytokinesis, signaling, cell migration, and membrane traffic, and several family members have been implicated in disease. However, surprisingly little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying their biological functions. This review summarizes evidence in support of regulatory roles of septins during endo-lysosomal sorting, with a particular focus on phosphoinositides, which serve as spatial landmarks guiding septin recruitment to distinct subcellular localizations.

Septins promote macropinosome maturation and traffic to the lysosome by facilitating membrane fusion

How macropinosomes traffic to lysosomes is poorly understood. Dolat and Spiliotis show that septins associate preferentially with mature macropinosomes in a PI(3,5)P2-dependent manner and regulate fluid-phase cargo traffic to lysosomes by promoting macropinosome/endosome fusion.

Macropinocytosis, the internalization of extracellular fluid and material by plasma membrane ruffles, is critical for antigen presentation, cell metabolism, and signaling. Macropinosomes mature through homotypic and heterotypic fusion with endosomes and ultimately merge with lysosomes. The molecular underpinnings of this clathrin-independent endocytic pathway are largely unknown. Here, we show that the filamentous septin GTPases associate preferentially with maturing macropinosomes in a phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate–dependent manner and localize to their contact/fusion sites with macropinosomes/endosomes. Septin knockdown results in large clusters of docked macropinosomes, which persist longer and exhibit fewer fusion events. Septin depletion and overexpression down-regulates and enhances, respectively, the delivery of fluid-phase cargo to lysosomes, without affecting Rab5 and Rab7 recruitment to macropinosomes/endosomes. In vitro reconstitution assays show that fusion of macropinosomes/endosomes is abrogated by septin immunodepletion and function-blocking antibodies and is induced by recombinant septins in the absence of cytosol and polymerized actin. Thus, septins regulate fluid-phase cargo traffic to lysosomes by promoting macropinosome maturation and fusion with endosomes/lysosomes.

Septin oligomerization regulates persistent expression of ErbB2/HER2 in gastric cancer cells

Septins are a family of cytoskeletal GTP-binding proteins that assemble into membrane-associated hetero-oligomers and organize scaffolds for recruitment of cytosolic proteins or stabilization of membrane proteins. Septins have been implicated in a diverse range of cancers, including gastric cancer, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The hypothesis tested here is that septins contribute to cancer by stabilizing the receptor tyrosine kinase ErbB2, an important target for cancer treatment. Septins and ErbB2 were highly over-expressed in gastric cancer cells. Immunoprecipitation followed by MS analysis identified ErbB2 as a septin-interacting protein. Knockdown of septin-2 or cell exposure to forchlorfenuron (FCF), a well-established inhibitor of septin oligomerization, decreased surface and total levels of ErbB2. These treatments had no effect on epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), emphasizing the specificity and functionality of the septin-ErbB2 interaction. The level of ubiquitylated ErbB2 at the plasma membrane was elevated in cells treated with FCF, which was accompanied by a decrease in co-localization of ErbB2 with septins at the membrane. Cathepsin B inhibitor, but not bafilomycin or lactacystin, prevented FCF-induced decrease in total ErbB2 by increasing accumulation of ubiquitylated ErbB2 in lysosomes. Therefore, septins protect ErbB2 from ubiquitylation, endocytosis and lysosomal degradation. The FCF-induced degradation pathway is distinct from and additive with the degradation induced by inhibiting ErbB2 chaperone Hsp90. These results identify septins as novel regulators of ErbB2 expression that contribute to the remarkable stabilization of the receptor at the plasma membrane of cancer cells and may provide a basis for the development of new ErbB2-targeting anti-cancer therapies.

From transcriptomic to protein level changes in TDP-43 and FUS loss-of-function cell models

The full definition of the physiological RNA targets regulated by TDP-43 and FUS RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) represents an important issue in understanding the pathogenic mechanisms associated to these two proteins in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia. In the last few years several high-throughput screenings have generated a plethora of data, which are difficult to compare due to the different experimental designs and models explored. In this study by using the Affymetrix Exon Arrays, we were able to assess and compare the effects of both TDP-43 and FUS loss-of-function on the whole transcriptome using the same human neuronal SK-N-BE cell model. We showed that TDP-43 and FUS depletion induces splicing and gene expression changes mainly distinct for the two RBPs, although they may regulate common pathways, including neuron differentiation and cytoskeleton organization as evidenced by functional annotation analysis. In particular, TDP-43 and FUS were found to regulate splicing and expression of genes related to neuronal (SEPT6, SULT4A1, TNIK) and RNA metabolism (DICER, ELAVL3/HuC, POLDIP3). Our extended analysis at protein level revealed that these changes have also impact on the protein isoform ratio and content, not always in a direct correlation with transcriptomic data. Contrarily to a loss-of-function mechanism, we showed that mutant TDP-43 proteins maintained their splicing activity in human ALS fibroblasts and experimental cell lines. Our findings further contribute to define the biological functions of these two RBPs in physiological and disease state, strongly encouraging the evaluation of the identified transcriptomic changes at protein level in neuronal experimental models.

Adaptor Protein-1 Complex Affects the Endocytic Trafficking and Function of Peptidylglycine α-Amidating Monooxygenase, a Luminal Cuproenzyme

The adaptor protein-1 complex (AP-1), which transports cargo between the trans-Golgi network and endosomes, plays a role in the trafficking of Atp7a, a copper-transporting P-type ATPase, and peptidylglycine α-amidating monooxygenase (PAM), a copper-dependent membrane enzyme. Lack of any of the four AP-1 subunits impairs function, and patients with MEDNIK syndrome, a rare genetic disorder caused by lack of expression of the σ1A subunit, exhibit clinical and biochemical signs of impaired copper homeostasis. To explore the role of AP-1 in copper homeostasis in neuroendocrine cells, we used corticotrope tumor cells in which AP-1 function was diminished by reducing expression of its μ1A subunit. Copper levels were unchanged when AP-1 function was impaired, but cellular levels of Atp7a declined slightly. The ability of PAM to function was assessed by monitoring 18-kDa fragment-NH2 production from proopiomelanocortin. Reduced AP-1 function made 18-kDa fragment amidation more sensitive to inhibition by bathocuproine disulfonate, a cell-impermeant Cu(I) chelator. The endocytic trafficking of PAM was altered, and PAM-1 accumulated on the cell surface when AP-1 levels were reduced. Reduced AP-1 function increased the Atp7a presence in early/recycling endosomes but did not alter the ability of copper to stimulate its appearance on the plasma membrane. Co-immunoprecipitation of a small fraction of PAM and Atp7a supports the suggestion that copper can be transferred directly from Atp7a to PAM, a process that can occur only when both proteins are present in the same subcellular compartment. Altered luminal cuproenzyme function may contribute to deficits observed when the AP-1 function is compromised.