Evodiamine induces G2/M arrest and apoptosis via mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum pathways in H446 and H1688 human small-cell lung cancer cells

Evodiamine inhibits ESCC by inducing M-phase cell-cycle arrest via CUL4A/p53/p21 axis and activating noxa-dependent intrinsic and DR4-dependent extrinsic apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a malignancy with high incidence in several regions of China, and the prognosis of patients with ESCC is unfavorable. Evodiamine (Evo), a small molecule derived from the traditional Chinese herb Evodia rutaecarpa, has shown anti-cancer efficacy in numerous human malignancies but not in ESCC.

PURPOSE

To determine whether Evo induces cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in ESCC in vitro and in vivo and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

ATPlite and colony formation assay were used to validate the inhibiting effect of Evo on three ESCC cells in vitro; Two subcutaneous tumor models of ESCC cells were used to evaluate the anti-ESCC effect of Evo and assess the biosafety of Evo in vivo; RNAseq and Database of KEGG pathway analysis provided a direction for the mechanistic study of Evo; FACS was used to detect Evo-induced cell cycle arrest and cell apoptosis in ESCC cells; Western blot and QPCR were respectively used to detect the level of related genes and proteins in Evo-treated ESCC cells; SiRNA and other experimental techniques were used to identify the molecular mechanism of Evo-induced ESCC cell cycle arrest and cell apoptosis.

RESULTS

Evo significantly suppressed the growth of ESCC both in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, Evo induced M-phase cell-cycle arrest by inactivation of CUL4A E3 ligase, which mediates degradation blockage of p53 and transcriptional activation of p21. With the prolonged treatment time, Evo triggered both Noxa-dependent intrinsic and DR4-dependent extrinsic cell apoptosis in two ESCC cell lines.

CONCLUSION

Our findings revealed the anti-tumor efficacy and mechanisms of Evo, providing a solid scientific basis for Evo as an attractive choice for ESCC treatment.

Holistic immunomodulation for small cell lung cancer

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is characterized by a high mortality rate, rapid growth, and early metastasis, which lead to a poor prognosis. Moreover, limited clinical treatment options further lower the survival rate of patients. Therefore, novel technology and agents are urgently required to enhance clinical efficacy. In this review, from a holistic perspective, we summarized the therapeutic targets, agents and strategies with the most potential for treating SCLC, including chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T therapy, immunomodulating antibodies, traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), and the microbiota, which have been found recently to improve the clinical outcomes and prognosis of SCLC. Multiomics technologies can be integrated to develop effective diagnostic methods and identify new targets for new drug discovery in SCLC. We discussed in depth the feasibility, potential, and challenges of these new strategies, as well as their combinational treatments, which may provide promising alternatives for enhancing the clinical efficacy of SCLC in the future.

Evodiamine as an anticancer agent: a comprehensive review on its therapeutic application, pharmacokinetic, toxicity, and metabolism in various cancers

Evodiamine is a major alkaloid component found in the fruit of Evodia rutaecarpa. It shows the anti-proliferative potential against a wide range of cancers by suppressing cell growth, invasion, and metastasis and inducing apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo. Evodiamine shows its anticancer potential by modulating aberrant signaling pathways. Additionally, the review focuses on several therapeutic implications of evodiamine, such as epigenetic modification, cancer stem cells, and epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Moreover, combinatory drug therapeutics along with evodiamine enhances the anticancer efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs in various cancers by overcoming the chemo resistance and radio resistance shown by cancer cells. It has been widely used in preclinical trials in animal models, exhibiting very negligible side effects against normal cells and effective against cancer cells. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics-based collaborations of evodiamine are also included. Due to its poor bioavailability, synthetic analogs of evodiamine and its nano capsule have been formulated to enhance its bioavailability and reduce toxicity. In addition, this review summarizes the ongoing research on the mechanisms behind the antitumor potential of evodiamine, which proposes an exciting future for such interests in cancer biology.

Evodiamine inhibits stemness and metastasis by altering the SOX9-β-catenin axis in non-small-cell lung cancer

Evodiamine (EVO), a natural dietary alkaloid extracted from the roots of the Evodia rutaecarpa, has shown anticancer activities. Here, we have investigated EVO's role in inhibiting cell proliferation and migration in A549 and NCI-H522 lung cancer cells. EVO decreased the cell viability in A549 and NCI-H522 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. It also induced apoptosis by downregulating the expression of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 and upregulating the expression of cleaved caspase-3 and PARP. In addition, the treatment of EVO elevated the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation inside the cells to induce the cell death pathways. In contrast, the pretreatment of ROS scavenger, N-acetyl cysteine, reverses the effect of EVO and attenuates cell death. Moreover, excess ROS generation in response to EVO resulted in the depletion of mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, it induced DNA damage and arrested the cell cycle at the G2/M phase in A549 and NCI-H522 cells. Our study also investigated that EVO significantly suppressed tumorigenicity by inhibiting colony formation and tumorsphere formation. However, the treatment of EVO downregulated the cancer stem cell markers CD44 and CD133 in non-small-cell lung cancer. The inhibitory effect of EVO on cell invasion was mediated by altering the expression of E-cadherin, ZO-1, N-cadherin, and Vimentin. Additionally, we have revealed that EVO treatment showed downregulation of SOX9, an upstream component of β-catenin. Lastly, we have demonstrated that EVO targets the SOX9-β-catenin axis by reducing SOX9 and β-catenin expression. These findings suggested that EVO could be a promising agent for treating human lung cancer.

Research Advances in Antitumor Mechanism of Evodiamine

Evodiamine is a natural alkaloid extracted from Fructus Evodia. This bioactive alkaloid has been reported to have a wide range of biological activities, including anti-injury, antiobesity, vasodilator, and anti-inflammatory effects. In recent years, it has been found that evodiamine has tumor-suppressive effects on a variety of tumors. There is growing evidence that evodiamine can inhibit the rapid proliferation of tumor cells, induce cell cycle arrest at a certain phase, increase the incidence of apoptosis, promote autophagy, inhibit microangiogenesis and migration, and regulate immunotherapy. Evodiamine can inhibit Wnt/β-catenin, mTOR, NF-κB, PI3K/AKT, JAK-STAT, and other signaling pathways in various cancer cells, and it can significantly downregulate the expression of many tumor markers, such as VEGF and COX-2. These facts partially explain the antitumor mechanism of evodiamine. In this article, the antitumor mechanism of evodiamine was reviewed to provide the basis for its clinical application and therapeutic development in the future.

Evodiamine suppresses the progression of non-small cell lung carcinoma via endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated apoptosis pathway in vivo and in vitro

BACKGROUND

Evodiamine (EVO) is one of the major components isolated from Evodia rutaecarpa (Juss.). Recent studies have shown that EVO has an anti-cancer effect. However, the pharmacological mechanism by which EVO impacts cancer is still poorly understood.

OBJECTIVES

This study focused on asking the anti-cancer effect of EVO in human non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC), and in particular to investigate whether EVO acts via modulating the endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-mediated apoptosis pathway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) tumor-bearing mouse model was treated with low-dose EVO (5 mg/kg) and high-dose EVO (10 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for 14 d. The effects of EVO on tumor growth, apoptosis, and ERS were assessed. In addition, NSCLC A549 and LLC cells were treated with EVO in vitro. The effects of EVO on cell proliferation, apoptosis, and ERS were investigated. Finally, 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA), an ERS inhibitor, was used to validate whether EVO induced apoptosis of NSCLC cells by modulating ERS.

RESULTS

EVO treatment significantly inhibited tumor growth in LLC tumor-bearing mice. H&E staining indicated that EVO treatment reduced the number of tumor cells and the nucleo-plasmic ratio. Immunostaining showed that EVO treatment significantly decreased the expression of Ki-67. TUNEL staining revealed that EVO induced apoptosis in the tumor. Likewise, EVO treatment up-regulated the expression of apoptosis-related genes and proteins and increased activation of the ERS pathway in the tumor. Additionally, EVO inhibited cell proliferation and increased cell apoptotic rates in A549 and LLC cells. EVO also increased the expression levels of genes and proteins associated with ERS-mediated apoptosis pathway in vitro. The effects of EVO on apoptosis were abolished by 4-PBA treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrated that EVO suppresses the progression of NSCLC by modulating the ERS-mediated apoptosis pathway.

Antitumor Effects of Evodiamine in Mice Model Experiments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Evodiamine (EVO), an alkaloid extracted from the traditional Chinese medicine Euodia rutaecarpa, plays an important role in the treatment of cancer. This study was performed to clarify the effects of evodiamine in mice tumor model studies.

Methods

Electronic databases and search engines involved China Knowledge Resource Integrated Database (CNKI), Wanfang Database, Chinese Scientific Journal Database (CSJD-VIP), China Biomedical Literature Database (CBM), PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and ClinicalTrials.gov databases, which were searched for literature related to the antitumor effects of evodiamine in animal tumor models (all until 1 October 2021). The evodiamine effects on the tumor volume and tumor weight were compared between the treatment and control groups using the standardized mean difference (SMD).

Results

Evodiamine significantly inhibited tumor growth in mice, as was assessed with tumor volume [13 studies, n=267; 138 for EVO and 129 for control; standard mean difference (SMD)= -5.99; 95% (CI): -8.89 to -3.10; I² = 97.69%, p ≤ 0.00], tumor weight [6 studies, n=89; 49 for EVO and 40 for control; standard mean difference (SMD)= -3.51; 95% (CI): -5.13 to -3.90; I² = 83.02%, p ≤ 0.00].

Conclusion

EVO significantly suppresses tumor growth in mice models, which would be beneficial for clinical transformation. However, due to the small number of studies included in this meta-analysis, the experimental design and experimental method limitations should be considered when interpreting the results. Significant clinical and animal studies are still required to evaluate whether EVO can be used in the adjuvant treatment of clinical tumor patients.

Roles of reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial membrane potential, and p53 in evodiamine-induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest of human anaplastic thyroid carcinoma cells

BACKGROUND

Our previous studies have shown that evodiamine (EVO) as paclitaxel and nocodazole could trigger apoptosis in various human cancer cells including human renal cell carcinoma cells, colorectal carcinoma cells, and glioblastoma cells. This study aims to investigate the anti-cancer effects of EVO on human anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) cells, and underlining mechanism.

METHODS

Two different endogenous p53 status human anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) cells including SW1736 (wtp53) and KAT4B (mutp53) were applied in the present study. The cytotoxicity of EVO on ATC cells was measured by MTT assay, and apoptosis and G2/M arrest were detected by propidium iodide (PI) staining followed by flow cytometry. Expression of indicated proteins was evaluated by Western blotting analysis, and pharmacological studies using chemical inhibitors and siRNA were performed for elucidating underlying mechanism. The roles of mitochondrial membrane potential and reactive oxygen species were investigated by flow cytometry using DiOC6 and DCFH-DA dye, respectively.

RESULTS

SW1736 (wtp53) cells showed a higher apoptotic percentage than KAT4B (mutp53) cells in response to EVO stimulation via a flow cytometric analysis. Mechanistic studies showed that increased p53 and its downstream proteins, and disrupted MMP with increased intracellular peroxide production participated in EVO-induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest of SW1736 cells. In EVO-treated KAT4B cells, significant increases in G2/M percentage but little apoptotic events by EVO was observed. Structure-activity analysis showed that an alkyl group at position 14 was critical for induction of apoptosis related to ROS production and MMP disruption in SW1736 cells.

CONCLUSION

Evidence indicated that the endogenous p53 status affected the sensitivity of ATC cells to EVO-induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest, revealing the potential role of p53 related to increased ROS production and disrupted MMP in the anticancer actions of EVO, and alkylation at position 14 of EVO is a critical substitution for apoptosis of ATC cells.

Effect of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione reductase supplementation on cryopreservation of Black Bengal buck semen

The present experiment was carried out with the objectives to study the effects of antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione reductase (GSH) on cryopreservation of Black Bengal buck semen. Semen ejaculates (n = 60) were collected from eight bucks by artificial vagina method and diluted with Tris citrate egg yolk glycerol extender. To study the effect of antioxidants, SOD was added @ 0, 100, and 150 IU/ml; CAT was added @ 0, 200, and 400 IU/ml while GSH was added @ 0, 1, and 2 mM of diluted semen. Semen samples were equilibrated and vapor frozen in liquid nitrogen. Semen samples were evaluated after 48 h of storage for post thaw in vitro characters such as motility, viability, functional membrane integrity, and acrosome integrity. Semen extenders supplemented with SOD @ 100 and 150 IU/ml and GSH @ 1 and 2 mM had a higher (p < 0.01) number of motile cells, viable cells, HOST reacted cells, and acrosome intact cells than their respective controls. Further, semen extenders added with catalase @ 200 and 400 IU/ml had more (p < 0.05) number of viable, HOST reacted cells and significantly higher (p < 0.01) acrosome intact sperm cells than its control group. It can be concluded that supplementation of antioxidants SOD, GSH, and CAT had a beneficial effect on cryopreservation of Black Bengal buck semen.

Research progress on evodiamine, a bioactive alkaloid of Evodiae fructus: Focus on its anti-cancer activity and bioavailability (Review)

Evodiae fructus (Wu-Zhu-Yu in Chinese) can be isolated from the dried, unripe fruits of Tetradium ruticarpum and is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine that is applied extensively in China, Japan and Korea. Evodiae fructus has been traditionally used to treat headaches, abdominal pain and menorrhalgia. In addition, it is widely used as a dietary supplement to provide carboxylic acids, essential oils and flavonoids. Evodiamine (EVO) is one of the major bioactive components contained within Evodiae fructus and is considered to be a potential candidate anti-cancer agent. EVO has been reported to exert anti-cancer effects by inhibiting cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis, whilst inducing apoptosis in numerous types of cancer cells. However, EVO is susceptible to metabolism and may inhibit the activities of metabolizing enzymes, such as cytochrome P450. Clinical application of EVO in the treatment of cancers may prove difficult due to poor bioavailability and potential toxicity due to metabolism. Currently, novel drug carriers involving the use of solid dispersion techniques, phospholipids and nanocomplexes to deliver EVO to improve its bioavailability and mitigate side effects have been tested. The present review aims to summarize the reported anti-cancer effects of EVO whilst discussing the pharmacokinetic behaviors, characteristics and effective delivery systems of EVO.

Ternary supramolecular nanocomplexes for superior anticancer efficacy of natural medicines

The discovery of effective anticancer drug delivery systems and elucidation of the mechanism are enormous challenges. Using two drug administration-approved biomaterials, we constructed a natural medicine (NM)-loaded ternary supramolecular nanocomplex (TSN) suitable for large-scale production. The TSN has a better effect against cancer cells/stem cells than NM with differentially upregulated (27 versus 59) and downregulated (165 versus 66) proteins, respectively. Treatment with the TSN induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest, inhibited cell proliferation, metastasis and invasion, reduced colony/sphere formation, and decreased the frequency of side population cells and CD133⁺CD44⁺ABCG2⁺ cells. These results were revealed by multiple analyses (proteomic analysis, transwell migration and colony/sphere formation assays, biomarker profiling, etc.). We first reported the proteomic analysis of small lung cancer cells responding to a drug or its nanovesicles. We first conducted a proteomic evaluation of tumor cells responding to a drug supramolecular nanosystem. The supramolecular conformation of the TSN and the interactions of the TSN with albumin were verified by molecular docking experiments. The dominant binding forces in the TSN complexation process were electrostatic interactions, van der Waalsinteractions and bond stretching. The TSN binds to albumin more readily than NM does. The TSN has good in situ absorptive and in vitro/vivo kinetic properties. The relative bioavailability of the TSN to EA was 458.39%. The NM-loaded TSN is a supramolecular vesicle that can be produced at an industrial scale for efficient cancer therapy.

Curcumin Reverses NNMT-Induced 5-Fluorouracil Resistance via Increasing ROS and Cell Cycle Arrest in Colorectal Cancer Cells

Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT) plays multiple roles in improving the aggressiveness of colorectal cancer (CRC) and enhancing resistance to 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU), making it an attractive therapeutic target. Curcumin (Cur) is a promising natural compound, exhibiting multiple antitumor effects and potentiating the effect of 5-FU. The aim of the present study is to explore the effect of Cur on attenuating NNMT-induced resistance to 5-FU in CRC. A panel of CRC cell lines with different NNMT expressions are used to characterize the effect of Cur. Herein, it is observed that Cur can depress the expression of NNMT and p-STAT3 in CRC cells. Furthermore, Cur can induce inhibition of cell proliferation, G2/M phase cell cycle arrest, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, especially in high-NNMT-expression CRC cell lines. Cur can also re-sensitize high-NNMT-expression CRC cells to 5-FU both in vitro and in vivo. In summary, it is proposed that Cur can reverse NNMT-induced cell proliferation and 5-FU resistance through ROS generation and cell cycle arrest. Given that Cur has long been used, we suppose that Cur is a promising anticancer drug candidate with minimal side effects for human CRC therapy and can attenuate NNMT-induced resistance to 5-FU.

A novel evodiamine amino derivative as a PI3K/AKT signaling pathway modulator that induces apoptosis in small cell lung cancer cells

Evodiamine (EVO) was derivatized to a C10-amino derivative (EVA) using a two-step method suitable for industrializing production. This method has advantages such as a short reaction time, high yield, few byproducts and simple purification. The AUC and C_max values of EVA were 7.02- and 4.62-fold, while the T_max and Cl values were one-half and one-eighth that of EVO, respectively. EVA markedly improved the bioavailability, which might be ascribed to the serum albumin deposit effect. EVA was bound to albumin in the same hydrophobic pocket as EVO, but one more hydrogen bond was formed between Asp323 and the amino group at the C10 position. The amino derivative of natural alkaloids showed a substantial increase in antitumor activity on small cell lung cancer (SCLC) cells. The role of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in alkaloid/derivative-induced apoptosis in tumor cells was thoroughly described. p-AKT, its downstream effectors Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3 and its upstream regulator PTEN were regulated by EVA. The interaction between EVO/EVA and the upstream protein PI3K p110 was first investigated with molecular docking. The apoptosis induced by EVA was abrogated after the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway was reactivated by IGF-1. The interaction between EVO/EVA and P-gp was also first studied using docking method. Their binding forces were weak. But EVA might reduce much expression of P-gp than EVO, and ultimately led to reduction of EVA efflux. Our study provides novel insights into a feasible and productive amino derivative of natural alkaloids for SCLC therapy.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of 3',4',5'-trimethoxy evodiamine derivatives as potential antitumor agents

A series of compounds bearing 3',4',5'-trimethoxy module into the core structure of evodiamine were designed and synthesized. The synthesized compounds were screened in vitro for their antitumor potential. MTT results showed that compounds 14a-14c and 14i-14j had significant effects, with compound 14h being the most prominent, with an IC₅₀ value of 3.3 ± 1.5 μM, which was lower than evodiamine and 5-Fu. Subsequent experiments further confirmed that compound 14h could inhibit cell proliferation and migration, and induce G2/M phase arrest to inhibit the proliferation of HGC-27 cells, which is consistent with the results of the cytotoxicity experiment. Besides, 14h could inhibit microtubule assembly and might kill tumor cells by inhibiting VEGF and glycolysis. All experimental results indicate that compound 14h might be a potential drug candidate for the treatment of gastric cancer and was worthy of further study.

Evodiamine: A review of its pharmacology, toxicity, pharmacokinetics and preparation researches

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Evodia rutaecarpa, a well-known herb medicine in China, is extensively applied in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The plant has the effects of dispersing cold and relieving pain, arresting vomiting, and helping Yang and stopping diarrhea. Modern research demonstrates that evodiamine, the main component of Evodia rutaecarpa, is the material basis for its efficacy.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This paper is primarily addressed to summarize the current studies on evodiamine. The progress in research on the pharmacology, toxicology, pharmacokinetics, preparation researches and clinical application are reviewed. Moreover, outlooks and directions for possible future studies concerning it are also discussed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information of this systematic review was conducted with resources of multiple literature databases including PubMed, Google scholar, Web of Science and Wiley Online Library and so on, with employing a combination of keywords including "pharmacology", "toxicology", "pharmacokinetics" and "clinical application", etc. RESULTS: As the main component of Evodia rutaecarpa, evodiamine shows considerable pharmacological activities, such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-microbial, heart protection and metabolic disease regulation. However, it is also found that it has significant hepatotoxicity and cardiotoxicity, thereby it should be monitored in clinical. In addition, available data demonstrate that the evodiamine has a needy solubility in aqueous medium. Scientific and reasonable pharmaceutical strategies should be introduced to improve the above defects. Meanwhile, more efforts should be made to develop novel efficient and low toxic derivatives.

CONCLUSIONS

This review summarizes the results from current studies of evodiamine, which is one of the valuable medicinal ingredients from Evodia rutaecarpa. With the assistance of relevant pharmacological investigation, some conventional application and problems in pharmaceutical field have been researched in recent years. In addition, unresolved issues include toxic mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, novel pharmaceutical researches and relationship between residues and intestinal environment, which are still being explored and excavate before achieving integration into clinical practice.

Natural Oral Anticancer Medication in Small Ethanol Nanosomes Coated with a Natural Alkaline Polysaccharide

Oral medication is the most acceptable therapy to treat chronic diseases. Natural drugs and excipients have unique advantages, such as low cost and high safety. We first investigated modified ethanol nanosomes for tumor treatment via oral administration. We loaded curcumin (CM) into small ethanol nanosomes coated with the natural alkaline polysaccharide chitosan (CCSET) for increased absorption and bioavailability and enhanced efficacy against small cell lung cancer (SCLC). Compared to CM and noncoated ethanol nanosomes, CCSETs exhibited superior physicochemical, in vitro-in vivo kinetic, and absorptive properties and treatment efficacy at the cellular and animal levels. The interaction of CM and serum albumin (the quantitative binding force) was analyzed. The bioavailability of CCSET increased by 11.84-fold and the tumor growth inhibition rate increased markedly compared to CM. We first confirmed the effect of CM on SCLC stem cells, and CCSET greatly enhanced this action. We first reported that CM had an antitumor effect on SCLC at the animal level and that CCSET enhanced this effect. Natural alkaline polysaccharide-coated small ethanol nanosomes delivering natural medicine may be a potential oral anticancer strategy.

Development of EGFR-targeted evodiamine nanoparticles for the treatment of colorectal cancer

Invasion and metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC) are leading causes of death of CRC patients. Previous findings demonstrate that evodiamine (Evo), an indolequinone alkaloid, is effective in combating CRC; however, its poor aqueous solubility and low oral bioavailability limit its application in the prevention of invasion and metastasis of CRC. It is known that selectively targeting cancer-specific receptors highly expressed on the surface of cancer cells by nanocarriers loaded with cytotoxic drugs is a viable strategy in nanobiotechnology to enhance cancer cell killing and minimize side effects. In this study, we report the development of a new class of nanotherapeutics: EGFR-targeting Evo-encapsulated poly(amino acid) nanoparticles (GE11-Evo-NPs). These nanoparticles exhibited good aqueous solubility, slow release, and active targeting capability. Their inhibitory effect on human colon cancer cells and therapeutic efficacy against invasion and metastasis of CRC in nude mice were systematically investigated. Mechanisms of the GE11-Evo-NPs against EGFR mediated invasion and metastasis of CRC were also explored. Compared with free Evo, the GE11-Evo-NPs showed significantly increased cytotoxicity to colon cancer cells and potently inhibited CRC LoVo cell adhesion, invasion, and migration. The expression of EGFR, VEGF, and MMP proteins was dramatically down-regulated, which may partially account for their inhibition of invasion and metastasis of CRC. Moreover, in vivo studies show that the GE11-Evo-NPs exhibited much greater potency than other control groups in inhibiting CRC invasion and metastasis, tumor volume, and growth in nude mice, leading to a significantly prolonged tumor-bearing survival duration (P < 0.01).

Analysis of Chromosomal DNA Fragmentation in Apoptosis by Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis

Double-strand DNA break (DSB) formation is a key feature of apoptosis called chromosomal DNA fragmentation. However, some apoptosis inducers introduce DNA damage-induced DSBs prior to induction of apoptotic chromosomal DNA fragmentation. To analyze these distinct breaks, we have developed a method using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) with a rotating gel electrophoresis system (RGE) that enables us to distinguish between apoptotic DSBs and DNA damaging agent-induced DSBs based on their mobility in the electrophoresis gel. Apoptotic DSBs appear as smeared low-molecular weight bands (less than 500 kb), while damage-induced DSBs result in a compact single band (more than 500 kb). Furthermore, using a caspase inhibitor, Z-VAD-FMK, we can confirm whether broken DNA fragments are produced as part of an apoptotic response. Overall, we succeeded in characterizing two individual apoptosis inducers and showed the different effects of those compounds on the induction of DNA breaks.

Apoptotic Pathway as the Therapeutic Target for Anticancer Traditional Chinese Medicines

Cancer is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death and it plays a vital role in human development and tissue homeostasis. Mounting evidence indicates that apoptosis is closely related to the survival of cancer and it has emerged as a key target for the discovery and development of novel anticancer drugs. Various studies indicate that targeting the apoptotic signaling pathway by anticancer drugs is an important mechanism in cancer therapy. Therefore, numerous novel anticancer agents have been discovered and developed from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) by targeting the cellular apoptotic pathway of cancer cells and shown clinically beneficial effects in cancer therapy. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion for the role, pharmacology, related biology, and possible mechanism(s) of a number of important anticancer TCMs and their derivatives mainly targeting the cellular apoptotic pathway. It may have important clinical implications in cancer therapy.

Evodiamine in combination with histone deacetylase inhibitors has synergistic cytotoxicity in thyroid carcinoma cells

PURPOSE

The impact of evodiamine in combination with histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors on survival of thyroid carcinoma cells was identified.

METHODS

TPC-1 and SW1736 human thyroid carcinoma cells were used.

RESULTS

After treatment with evodiamine and PXD101, cell viability, the percentage of viable cells and Bcl2 protein levels decreased, whereas cytotoxic activity, the percentage of apoptotic cells, the protein levels of γH2AX, acetyl. histone H3 and cleaved PARP, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production increased. In cells treated with both evodiamine and PXD101, compared with PXD101 alone, decrement of cell viability, the percentage of viable cells, and Bcl2 protein levels as well as increment of cytotoxic activity, the percentage of apoptotic cells, the protein levels of γH2AX and cleaved PARP, and ROS production were significant, causing decrement of Bcl2/Bax ratio. Furthermore, all of the combination index values were <1.0, suggesting synergistic cytotoxicity of two agents. Wortmannin decreased cell viability and the percentage of viable cells, whereas it increased cytotoxic activity and the percentage of apoptotic cells without alteration in ROS production. The changes in cells treated with both evodiamine and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid or trichostatin A were similar to those in cells treated with both evodiamine and PXD101.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that evodiamine synergizes with HDAC inhibitors in inducing cytotoxic activities by involving survival-related proteins and ROS in thyroid carcinoma cells. Moreover, repression of PI3K/Akt signaling synergistically reinforces cytotoxicity of evodiamine combined with HDAC inhibitors in thyroid carcinoma cells.

Evodiamine Induces Apoptosis in SMMC-7721 and HepG2 Cells by Suppressing NOD1 Signal Pathway

Hepatocellular cancer (HCC) is a lethal malignancy with poor prognosis and easy recurrence. There are few agents with minor toxic side effects that can be used for treatment of HCC. Evodiamine (Evo), one of the major bioactive components derived from fructus Evodiae, has long been shown to exert anti-hepatocellular carcinoma activity by suppressing activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). In addition, in the Nucleotide-Binding Oligomerization Domain 1 (NOD1) pathway, NOD1 could initiate NF-κB-dependent and MAPK-dependent gene transcription. Recent experimental studies reported that the NOD1 pathway was related to controlling development of various tumors. Here we hypothesize that Evo exerts anti-hepatocellular carcinoma activity by inhibiting NOD1 to suppress NF-κB and MAPK activation. Therefore, we proved the anti-hepatocellular carcinoma activity of Evo on HCC cells and detected the effect of Evo on the NOD1 pathway. We found that Evo significantly induced cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase, upregulated P53 and Bcl-2 associated X proteins (Bax) proteins, and downregulated B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), cyclinB1, and cdc2 proteins in HCC cells. In addition, Evo reduced levels of NOD1, p-P65, p-ERK, p-p38, and p-JNK, where the level of IκBα of HCC cells increased. Furthermore, NOD1 agonist γ-D-Glu-mDAP (IE-DAP) treatment weakened the effect of Evo on suppression of NF-κB and MAPK activation and cellular proliferation of HCC. In an in vivo subcutaneous xenograft model, Evo also exhibited excellent tumor inhibitory effects via the NOD1 signal pathway. Our results demonstrate that Evo could induce apoptosis remarkably and the inhibitory effect of Evo on HCC cells may be through suppressing the NOD1 signal pathway in vitro and in vivo.

Antiproliferative Effects of Alkaloid Evodiamine and Its Derivatives

Alkaloids, a category of natural products with ring structures and nitrogen atoms, include most U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved plant derived anti-cancer agents. Evodiamine is an alkaloid with attractive multitargeting antiproliferative activity. Its high content in the natural source ensures its adequate supply on the market and guarantees further medicinal study. To the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic review about the antiproliferative effects of evodiamine derivatives. Therefore, in this article the review of the antiproliferative activities of evodiamine will be updated. More importantly, the antiproliferative activities of structurally modified new analogues of evodiamine will be summarized for the first time.

Improved delivery of natural alkaloids into lung cancer through woody oil-based emulsive nanosystems

Most antitumor ingredients found in nature have poor solubility. These ingredients are expected to have much better absorption and higher bioavailability than synthetic antitumor agents. Woody oil emulsive nanosystems carrying poorly soluble natural alkaloids were fabricated (evodiamine (EA) carried by fructus bruceae oil-based emulsive nanosystems, or EFEN). Fructus bruceae oil has two excipient-like properties (oil phase and stabilizer) that contribute to the formulation and one drug-like property (antitumor effects) that synergizes with the antitumor effect of EA. The properties of EFEN were compared with free EA, a blank nanoemulsion, an EA-loaded emulsive nanosystem, and a fructus bruceae oil-loaded emulsive nanosystem. For the first time, this suggests that increases in the sensitivity of lung cancer cells to poorly soluble natural alkaloids can be achieved by delivering drugs using woody oil-based emulsive nanosystems. In this study, woody oil-based emulsive nanosystems efficiently deliver poorly soluble natural alkaloids.

Homoisoflavanone-1 isolated from Polygonatum odoratum arrests the cell cycle and induces apoptosis in A549 cells

Homoisoflavanone-1 is a natural compound that may be extracted from the Chinese medicinal herb Polygonatum odoratum, which has pronounced antioxidant activities. The present study reports that homoisoflavanone-1 significantly inhibited tumor cell growth and induced apoptosis in A549 non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells in a dose-dependent manner. Homoisoflavanone-1 arrested the cell cycle at the G2/M stage, which was associated with an increase in the accumulation of phosphorylated (p-)p38, p38, p53, and p-cyclin dependent kinase (Cdc)2 proteins, as well as a decrease in Cdc2 expression. In addition, treatment with homoisoflavanone-1 increased the levels of active caspase-3 and decreased Poly ADP-ribose polymerase, which was accompanied by a reduction in the B-cell lymphoma-2/Bak ratio and consequently, apoptosis. Furthermore, homoisoflavanone-1 increased the expression of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-related proteins, including PERK, ATF4 and GADD34 in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, homoisoflavanone-1 induced apoptosis in A549 cells by regulating the mitochondria-caspase-dependent and ER stress pathways and resulted in G2/M arrest by activating the p38/p53 signaling pathway. These findings suggest that homoisoflavanone-1 extracted from Polygonatum odoratum may function as a cancer-suppressing agent and has potential as a novel therapeutic method against NSCLC.

MicroRNA-137-regulated AKT serine/threonine kinase 2 inhibits tumor growth and sensitizes cisplatin in patients with non-small cell lung cancer

The present study investigated the role of microRNA-137-regulated AKT serine/threonine kinase 2 (AKT2) on tumor growth and cisplatin sensitivity in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The results demonstrated that the expression of microRNA-137 in cisplatin-treated NSCLC patient tissue samples was markedly lower than that in healthy tissue samples. The disease-free survival and overall survival rates of patients with NSCLC exhibiting a high microRNA-137 expression were higher than the survival rates of patients with NSCLC exhibiting a low expression of microRNA-137. Overexpression of microRNA-137 inhibited the proliferation of A549 and H520 cells treated with cisplatin. Overexpression of miR-137 suppressed the protein expression of AKT2, increased caspase-3 activity, increased Bax protein expression and suppressed Cyclin D1 protein expression in A549 and H520 cells treated with cisplatin. MK2206, an AKT2 inhibitor, inhibited AKT2 protein expression and suppressed the proliferation of A549 and H520 cells treated with cisplatin following overexpression of miR-137. The inhibition of AKT2 also increased caspase-3 activity and Bax protein expression, and suppressed Cyclin D1 protein expression in A549 and H520 cells treated with cisplatin following overexpression of miR-137. Taken together, the results of the present study suggested that microRNA-137-regulated AKT2 inhibits tumor growth and sensitizes cisplatin in patients with NSCLC.

Sinularin Selectively Kills Breast Cancer Cells Showing G2/M Arrest, Apoptosis, and Oxidative DNA Damage

The natural compound sinularin, isolated from marine soft corals, is antiproliferative against several cancers, but its possible selective killing effect has rarely been investigated. This study investigates the selective killing potential and mechanisms of sinularin-treated breast cancer cells. In 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H- tetrazolium, inner salt (MTS) assay, sinularin dose-responsively decreased the cell viability of two breast cancer (SKBR3 and MDA-MB-231) cells, but showed less effect on breast normal (M10) cells after a 24 h treatment. According to 7-aminoactinomycin D (7AAD) flow cytometry, sinularin dose-responsively induced the G2/M cycle arrest of SKBR3 cells. Sinularin dose-responsively induced apoptosis on SKBR3 cells in terms of a flow cytometry-based annexin V/7AAD assay and pancaspase activity, as well as Western blotting for cleaved forms of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), caspases 3, 8, and 9. These caspases and PARP activations were suppressed by N-acetylcysteine (NAC) pretreatment. Moreover, sinularin dose-responsively induced oxidative stress and DNA damage according to flow cytometry analyses of reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MitoMP), mitochondrial superoxide, and 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG)). In conclusion, sinularin induces selective killing, G2/M arrest, apoptosis, and oxidative DNA damage of breast cancer cells.

Anticancer Activity of Natural and Synthetic Capsaicin Analogs

The nutritional compound capsaicin is the major spicy ingredient of chili peppers. Although traditionally associated with analgesic activity, recent studies have shown that capsaicin has profound antineoplastic effects in several types of human cancers. However, the applications of capsaicin as a clinically viable drug are limited by its unpleasant side effects, such as gastric irritation, stomach cramps, and burning sensation. This has led to extensive research focused on the identification and rational design of second-generation capsaicin analogs, which possess greater bioactivity than capsaicin. A majority of these natural capsaicinoids and synthetic capsaicin analogs have been studied for their pain-relieving activity. Only a few of these capsaicin analogs have been investigated for their anticancer activity in cell culture and animal models. The present review summarizes the current knowledge of the growth-inhibitory activity of natural capsaicinoids and synthetic capsaicin analogs. Future studies that examine the anticancer activity of a greater number of capsaicin analogs represent novel strategies in the treatment of human cancers.

Sinularin induces oxidative stress-mediated G2/M arrest and apoptosis in oral cancer cells

Soft corals-derived natural product, sinularin, was antiproliferative against some cancers but its effect and detailed mechanism on oral cancer cells remain unclear. The subject of this study is to examine the antioral cancer effects and underlying detailed mechanisms in terms of cell viability, oxidative stress, cell cycle analysis, and apoptosis analyses. In MTS assay, sinularin dose-responsively decreased cell viability of three oral cancer cells (Ca9-22, HSC-3, and CAL 27) but only little damage to oral normal cells (HGF-1). This cell killing effect was rescued by the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) pretreatment. Abnormal cell morphology and induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were found in sinularin-treated oral cancer Ca9-22 cells, however, NAC pretreatment also recovered these changes. Sinularin arrested the Ca9-22 cells at G2/M phase and dysregulated the G2/M regulatory proteins such as cdc2 and cyclin B1. Sinularin dose-responsively induced apoptosis on Ca9-22 cells in terms of flow cytometry (annexin V and pancaspase analyses) and western blotting (caspases 3, 8, 9) and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). These apoptotic changes of sinularin-treated Ca9-22 cells were rescued by NAC pretreatment. Taken together, sinularin induces oxidative stress-mediated antiproliferation, G2/M arrest, and apoptosis against oral cancer cells and may be a potential marine drug for antioral cancer therapy.

Lipopolysaccharide-Binding Protein Downregulates Fractalkine through Activation of p38 MAPK and NF-κB

Background

LBP and fractalkine are known to be involved in the pathogenesis of ARDS. This study investigated the relationship between LBP and fractalkine in LPS-induced A549 cells and rat lung tissue in an ARDS rat model.

Methods

A549 cells were transfected with LBP or LBP shRNA plasmid DNA or pretreated with SB203580 or SC-514 following LPS treatment. An ARDS rat model was established using LPS with or without LBPK95A, SB203580, or SC-514 treatment. RT-PCR, western blotting, ELISA, immunofluorescence, coimmunoprecipitation, and immunohistochemical staining were used to study the expression of fractalkine and LBP and p38 MAPK and p65 NF-κB activities.

Results

LPS increased LBP and reduced fractalkine. LBP overexpression further decreased LPS-induced downregulation of fractalkine and p38 MAPK and p65 NF-κB activation; LBP gene silencing, SB203580, and SC-514 suppressed LPS-induced downregulation of fractalkine and p38 MAPK and p65 NF-κB activation in A549 cells. LBP and fractalkine in lung tissue were increased and decreased, respectively, following LPS injection. LBPK95A, SB203580, and SC-514 ameliorated LPS-induced rat lung injury and suppressed LPS-induced downregulation of fractalkine by decreasing phospho-p38 MAPK and p65 NF-κB.

Conclusions

The results indicate that LBP downregulates fractalkine expression in LPS-induced A549 cells and in an ARDS rat model through activation of p38 MAPK and NF-κB.

Efficient intracellular delivery makes cancer cells sensitive to nanoemulsive chemodrugs

Evodiamine has been documented to possess activities in numerous cancer cells. Our preliminary study showed that A549 cells were insensitive to evodiamine. In this paper, A549 cells are sensitive to nanoemulsive evodiamine (EVONE) through an efficient intracellular and systematic delivery. EVONE entered tumor cells by energy-dependent and mainly through clathrin-mediated endocytosis. EVONE exerted a higher cytotoxicity in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The enhanced induction of cell cycle arrest was ascribed to the down-regulation of cyclin B and cyclin dependent kinase 1, while the enhanced induction of apoptosis was due to the activation of caspase −3, −8 and −9 and the decreased B-cell lymphoma 2/ assaciated X protein ratio. Furthermore, the in vivo kinetic, bioavailability and in situ absorption characteristics of EVONE were much better than those of free evodiamine. The cancer cells insensitive to free chemodrugs became sensitive to nanoemulsive chemodrugs.

Tributyltin induces G2/M cell cycle arrest via NAD(+)-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase in human embryonic carcinoma cells

Organotin compounds, such as tributyltin (TBT), are well-known endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). We have recently reported that TBT induces growth arrest in the human embryonic carcinoma cell line NT2/D1 at nanomolar levels by inhibiting NAD(+)-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase (NAD-IDH), which catalyzes the irreversible conversion of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate. However, the molecular mechanisms by which NAD-IDH mediates TBT toxicity remain unclear. In the present study, we examined whether TBT at nanomolar levels affects cell cycle progression in NT2/D1 cells. Propidium iodide staining revealed that TBT reduced the ratio of cells in the G1 phase and increased the ratio of cells in the G2/M phase. TBT also reduced cell division cycle 25C (cdc25C) and cyclin B1, which are key regulators of G2/M progression. Furthermore, apigenin, an inhibitor of NAD-IDH, mimicked the effects of TBT. The G2/M arrest induced by TBT was abolished by NAD-IDHα knockdown. Treatment with a cell-permeable α-ketoglutarate analogue recovered the effect of TBT, suggesting the involvement of NAD-IDH. Taken together, our data suggest that TBT at nanomolar levels induced G2/M cell cycle arrest via NAD-IDH in NT2/D1 cells. Thus, cell cycle analysis in embryonic cells could be used to assess cytotoxicity associated with nanomolar level exposure of EDCs.

Lentivirus-mediated knockdown of NLK inhibits small-cell lung cancer growth and metastasis

Nemo-like kinase (NLK), an evolutionarily conserved serine/threonine kinase, has been recognized as a critical regulator of various cancers. In this study, we investigated the role of NLK in human small-cell lung cancer (SCLC), which is the most aggressive form of lung cancer. NLK expression was evaluated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in 20 paired fresh SCLC tissue samples and found to be noticeably elevated in tumor tissues. Lentivirus-mediated RNAi efficiently suppressed NLK expression in NCI-H446 cells, resulting in a significant reduction in cell viability and proliferation in vitro. Moreover, knockdown of NLK led to cell cycle arrest at the S-phase via suppression of Cyclin A, CDK2, and CDC25A, which could contribute to cell growth inhibition. Furthermore, knockdown of NLK decreased the migration of NCI-H446 cells and downregulated matrix metalloproteinase 9. Treatment with NLK short hairpin RNA significantly reduced SCLC tumor growth in vivo. In conclusion, this study suggests that NLK plays an important role in the growth and metastasis of SCLC and may serve as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of SCLC.

Evodiamine inhibits PDGF‑BB‑induced proliferation of rat vascular smooth muscle cells through the suppression of cell cycle progression and oxidative stress

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation is a key event in the development of in-stent restenosis. Evodiamine is an indole alkaloid extracted from the Chinese medicine, evodia, and has been shown to inhibit tumor cell proliferation and protect the cardiovascular system. However, whether evodiamine affects VSMC proliferation remains to be elucidated. Therefore, the present study examined the effects and the mechanisms of action of evodiamine on the proliferation of rat VSMCs. The cells were treated with evodiamine alone or in combination with platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) stimulation. It was found that evodiamine inhibited PDGF-BB-induced VSMC proliferation in a dose-dependent manner, without inducing cell death. Evodiamine also retarded cell cycle progression, evidenced by the suppression of the expression of cell cycle-promoting cyclin proteins and cyclin-dependent kinases. In addition, evodiamine attenuated the PDGF-BB-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2, however, it had no effect on the phosphorylation of Akt. Evodiamine also inhibited the increase of reactive oxygen species generation and upregulated the mRNA expression levels of genes encoding antioxidant enzymes. These findings provide important insights into the mechanisms underlying the vasoprotective actions of evodiamine and suggest that it may be a useful therapeutic agent for the treatment of vascular occlusive disease.

Evodiamine from Evodia rutaecarpa induces apoptosis via activation of JNK and PERK in human ovarian cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Evodiamine (EVO; 8,13,13b,14-tetrahydro-14-methylindolo[2'3'-3,4]pyrido[2,1-b]quinazolin-5-[7H]-one derived from the traditional herbal medicine Evodia rutaecarpa was reported to possess anticancer activity; however, the anticancer mechanism of EVO against the viability of human ovarian cancer cells is still unclear.

PURPOSE

A number of studies showed that chemotherapeutic benefits may result from targeting the endoplasmic reticular (ER) stress signaling pathway. The objective of the study is to investigate the mechanism by which ER stress protein PERK plays in EVO-induced apoptosis of human ovarian cancer cells.

METHODS

Cell death analysis was performed by MTT assay, DNA fragmentation assay, and Giemsa staining. DiOC6 staining was used for mitochondrial membrane potential measurement. Protein levels were analyzed by Western blotting. Pharmacological studies using MAPK inhibitors and PERK inhibitor GSK2606414 were involved.

RESULTS

The viability of human ovarian cancer cells A2780, A2780CP, ES-2, and SKOV-3 was inhibited by EVO at various concentrations in accordance with increases in the percentage of apoptotic cells, DNA ladders, and cleavage of caspase 3 and poly(ADP ribose) polymerase (PARP) proteins. Decreased viability of cells was reversed by adding caspase inhibitors VAD and DEVD in SKOV-3 and A2780CP cells, and incubation of cells with JNK inhibitor SP600125 (SP) and JNKI, but not other MAPK and AKT inhibitors including PD98059, SB203580, significantly prevented the apoptosis elicited by EVO in human ovarian cancer cells. Furthermore, increased expression of phospho-eIF2α (peIF2α) and phospho-PERK (pPERK) proteins was detected in EVO-treated human ovarian cancer cells, and that was inhibited by adding JNK inhibitors SP600125 and JNKI. Application of a PERK inhibitor GSK2606414 showed a significant protection of human ovarian cancer cells A2780 and A2780CP from EVO-induced apoptosis. EVO disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was also inhibited by adding JNK or PERK inhibitors. The structure-activity relationship study indicated that the alkyl group at position 14 in EVO is important for apoptosis induction via activation of JNK and PERK in human ovarian cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

Evidence supporting EVO induction of apoptosis via activation of JNK and PERK to disrupt MMP in human ovarian cancer cells is provided, and the alkyl at position 14 is a critical substitution for the apoptotic actions of EVO.

Evodiamine and Its Role in Chronic Diseases

Evodiamine (EVO) is a major alkaloid compound extracted from the dry unripened fruit Evodiae fructus (Evodia rutaecarpa Benth., Rutaceae). EVO has a variety of pharmacological activities, such as anti-obesity, anti-allergenic, analgesic, anti-tumor, anti-ulcerogenic, and neuroprotective activities. EVO has varying efficacies in animal models and humans. Here, the physicochemical properties of EVO are presented, and the EVO's functions and mechanisms of action in various chronic diseases are reviewed. EVO is worth exploring in more depth in the future for its potential use in various chronic diseases.

Anti-proliferative activity and cell cycle arrest induced by evodiamine on paclitaxel-sensitive and -resistant human ovarian cancer cells

Chemo-resistance is the main factor for poor prognosis in human ovarian epithelial cancer. Active constituents derived from Chinese medicine with anti-cancer potential might circumvent this obstacle. In our present study, evodiamine (EVO) derived from Evodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth suppressed the proliferation of human epithelial ovarian cancer, A2780 and the related paclitaxel-resistant cell lines and did not cause cytotoxicity, as confirmed by the significant decline of clone formation and the representative alterations of CFDA-SE fluorescence. Meanwhile, EVO induced cell cycle arrest in a dose- and time-dependent manner. This disturbance might be mediated by the cooperation of Cyclin B1 and Cdc2, including the up-regulation of Cyclin B1, p27, and p21, and activation failure of Cdc2 and pRb. MAPK signaling pathway regulation also assisted in this process. Furthermore, chemo-sensitivity potential was enhanced as indicated in A2780/PTX^R cells by the down-regulation of MDR-1 expression, accompanied by MDR-1 function suppression. Taken together, we confirmed initially that EVO exerted an anti-proliferative effect on human epithelial ovarian cancer cells, A2780/WT and A2780/PTX^R, induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest, and improved chemo-resistance. Overall, we found that EVO significantly suppressed malignant proliferation in human epithelial ovarian cancer, thus proving to be a potential anti-cancer agent in the future.

Synthesis of heterocycle-modified betulinic acid derivatives as antitumor agents

A series of novel heterocycle-modified betulinic acid (BA) derivatives were synthesized and investigated for their activity against the growth of eight non-drug resistant and one multidrug-resistant tumor cell line using a sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay. The most active compound 17 showed an average IC50 1.19 μM, which was about 20 times more potent than the lead compound BA. It is amazing that for most synthetic saturated N-heterocycle derivatives, MCF-7/ADR was the most sensitive tumor cells, especially 17 showed the most potent antitumor activity (IC50 = 0.33 μM) on this multidrug-resistant tumor cell line, that was 117 times more potent than BA. Most of the tested compounds displayed less toxic on human fibroblasts (HAF) in comparison with the tumor cell lines. The cytometry and transwell migration assays were used to test the ability of 17 to induce apoptosis and inhibit metastasis on tumor cell lines respectively.