CCL21/CCR7 enhances the proliferation, migration, and invasion of human bladder cancer T24 cells

Evaluation of the novel therapeutic anti-CCR7 antibody CAP-100 as an add-on therapy in chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients receiving venetoclax

The Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor ibrutinib and the B-cell lymphoma 2 anti-apoptotic protein inhibitor venetoclax provide high response rates in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). However, there is a growing number of patients that relapse after treatment or show refractory disease, thus new targets and agents are still needed. We have previously reported the chemokine receptor CCR7 as a relevant deregulated target in CLL and have developed CAP-100, a novel therapeutic anti-CCR7 antibody that is under evaluation for relapse/refractory CLL (NCT04704323). While CCR7 expression has been shown to be down-modulated in CLL patients treated with ibrutinib, whether venetoclax acts in a similar manner remains unaddressed. Here, we aimed to document the impact of venetoclax on CCR7 expression in CLL cells, as well as on the pre-clinical activity of CAP-100. To this end, we addressed CCR7 expression by flow cytometry and the antibody efficacy by means of in vitro chemotactic and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) assays. Our data indicate that venetoclax treatment did not significantly modify CCR7 expression pattern nor CAP-100 mechanisms of action. Together, these findings support CAP-100 as an adjuvant therapy to venetoclax that may introduce additional modes of action in CLL therapy.

EMT-related gene risk model establishment for prognosis and drug treatment efficiency prediction in hepatocellular carcinoma

This study was designed to evaluate the prognosis and pharmacological therapy sensitivity of epithelial mesenchymal transition-related genes (EMTRGs) that obtained from the EMTome database in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) using bioinformatical method. The expression status of EMTRGs were also investigated using the clinical information of HCC patients supported by TCGA database and the ICGC database to establish the TCGA cohort as the training set and the ICGC cohort as the validation set. Analyze the EMTRGs between HCC tissue and liver tissue in the TCGA cohort in the order of univariate COX regression, LASSO regression, and multivariate COX regression, and construct a risk model for EMTRGs. In addition, enrichment pathways, gene mutation status, immune infiltration, and response to drugs were also analyzed in the high-risk and low-risk groups of the TCGA cohort, and the protein expression status of EMTRGs was verified. The results showed a total of 286 differentially expressed EMTRGs in the TCGA cohort, and EZH2, S100A9, TNFRSF11B, SPINK5, and CCL21 were used for modeling. The TCGA cohort was found to have a worse outcome in the high-risk group of HCC patients, and the ICGC cohort confirmed this finding. In addition, EMTRGs risk score was shown to be an independent prognostic factor in both cohorts by univariate and multivariate COX regression. The results of GSEA analysis showed that most of the enriched pathways in the high-risk group were associated with tumor, and the pathways enriched in the low-risk group were mainly associated with metabolism. Patients in various risk groups had varying immunological conditions, and the high-risk group might benefit more from targeted treatments. To sum up, the EMTRGs risk model was developed to forecast the prognosis for HCC patients, and the model might be useful in assisting in the choice of treatment drugs for HCC patients.

Molecular markers predicting the progression and prognosis of human papillomavirus-induced cervical lesions to cervical cancer

INTRODUCTION

Persistent Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection is linked to 99% of cervical cancer (CC) cases. HPV types 16 and 18 alone result in 75% of CC cases and thus are considered to be high-risk types (HR-HPV). CC is the third most common cancer among women globally. Approximately, 7000 patients die from it yearly. It is worthy to note that not every patient with HPV precancerous lesions will progress to CC.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this review is to explore the utilization of molecular and viral biomarkers as a tool for early detection and prediction of HPV-induced cervical lesions that might progress to CC.

METHODS

The data bases PubMed, Google Scholar, EBSCO were searched using keywords CC screening, HPV, and recent molecular biomarkers. The search time frame was within the last 7 years. Studies on HPV-induced cancers other than CC were excluded; a total of 200 eligible articles were retrieved.

RESULTS

In this review we explored the current literature about HPV virology, virulence genes and early diagnostic/prognostic molecular biomarkers in CC. The oncogenic property of HPV is attributed to viral expression of various early proteins (E5, E6, E7). The interaction between viral oncoproteins and the cellular genetic apparatus alters the expression of many genes at different phases of the disease. There was an association between cervical lesions induced by HR-HPV and the overexpression of markers of oxidative DNA damage and other proteins. The markers p16INK4a, programmed cell death-1 (PD-1)/programmed cell death ligand 1, mismatch repair enzymes (MMR), miRNA-377, claudin family (CLDN) are dysregulated and are associated with high risk lesions. Furthermore, advanced older cervical lesions were associated with high methylation levels and higher risk to progress to CC.

CONCLUSION

Adding different the above markers to the CC screening program scheme might offer a triage for prioritizing patient management.

CCR7 Mediates Cell Invasion and Migration in Extrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma by Inducing Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) contributes to the metastatic cascade in various tumors. C-C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) interacts with its ligand, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 19 (CCL19), to promote EMT. However, the association between EMT and CCR7 in extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (EHCC) remains unknown. This study aimed to elucidate the prognostic impact of CCR7 expression and its association with clinicopathological features and EMT in EHCC. The association between CCR7 expression and clinicopathological features and EMT status was examined via the immunohistochemical staining of tumor sections from 181 patients with perihilar cholangiocarcinoma. This association was then investigated in TFK-1 and EGI-1 EHCC cell lines. High-grade CCR7 expression was significantly associated with a large number of tumor buds, low E-cadherin expression, and poor overall survival. TFK-1 showed CCR7 expression, and Western blotting revealed E-cadherin downregulation and vimentin upregulation in response to CCL19 treatment. The wound healing and Transwell invasion assays revealed that the activation of CCR7 by CCL19 enhanced the migration and invasion of TFK-1 cells, which were abrogated by a CCR7 antagonist. These results suggest that a high CCR7 expression is associated with an adverse postoperative prognosis via EMT induction and that CCR7 may be a potential target for adjuvant therapy in EHCC.

In silico analysis and in planta production of recombinant ccl21/IL1β protein and characterization of its in vitro anti-tumor and immunogenic activity

CCL21 has an essential role in anti-tumor immune activity. Epitopes of IL1β have adjuvant activity without causing inflammatory responses. CCR7 and its ligands play a vital role in the immune balance; specifically, in transport of T lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells to the lymph nodes. This study aimed to produce epitopes of CCL21 and IL1β as a recombinant protein and characterize its in vitro anti-tumor and immunogenic activity. A codon-optimized ccl21/IL1β gene was designed and synthesized from human genes. Stability and binding affinity of CCL21/IL1β protein and CCR7 receptor were examined through in silico analyses. The construct was introduced into N. tabacum to produce this recombinant protein and the structure and function of CCL21/IL1β were examined. Purified protein from transgenic leaves generated a strong signal in SDS PAGE and western blotting assays. FTIR measurement and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrography showed that ccl21/IL-1β was correctly expressed in tobacco plants. Potential activity of purified CCL21/IL1β in stimulating the proliferation and migration of MCF7 cancer cell line was investigated using the wound healing method. The results demonstrated a decrease in survival rate and metastasization of cancer cells in the presence of CCL21/IL1β, and IC₅₀ of CCL21 on MCF7 cells was less than that of non-recombinant protein. Agarose assay on PBMCsCCR7+ showed that CCL21/IL1β has biological activity and there is a distinguishable difference between chemokinetic (CCL21) and chemotactic (FBS) movements. Overall, the results suggest that CCL21/IL1β could be considered an effective adjuvant in future in vivo and clinical tests.

The Multi-Functional Roles of CCR7 in Human Immunology and as a Promising Therapeutic Target for Cancer Therapeutics

An important hallmark of the human immune system is to provide adaptive immunity against pathogens but tolerance toward self-antigens. The CC-chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) provides a significant contribution in guiding cells to and within lymphoid organs and is important for acquiring immunity and tolerance. The CCR7 holds great importance in establishing thymic architecture and function and naïve and regulatory T-cell homing in the lymph nodes. Similarly, the receptor is a key regulator in cancer cell migration and the movement of dendritic cells. This makes the CCR7 an important receptor as a drug and prognostic marker. In this review, we discussed several biological roles of the CCR7 and its importance as a drug and prognostic marker.

Nociception-Dependent CCL21 Induces Dorsal Root Ganglia Axonal Growth via CCR7-ERK Activation

While chemokines were originally described for their ability to induce cell migration, many studies show how these proteins also take part in many other cell functions, acting as adaptable messengers in the communication between a diversity of cell types. In the nervous system, chemokines participate both in physiological and pathological processes, and while their expression is often described on glial and immune cells, growing evidence describes the expression of chemokines and their receptors in neurons, highlighting their potential in auto- and paracrine signalling. In this study we analysed the role of nociception in the neuronal chemokinome, and in turn their role in axonal growth. We found that stimulating TRPV1⁺ nociceptors induces a transient increase in CCL21. Interestingly we also found that CCL21 enhances neurite growth of large diameter proprioceptors in vitro. Consistent with this, we show that proprioceptors express the CCL21 receptor CCR7, and a CCR7 neutralizing antibody dose-dependently attenuates CCL21-induced neurite outgrowth. Mechanistically, we found that CCL21 binds locally to its receptor CCR7 at the growth cone, activating the downstream MEK-ERK pathway, that in turn activates N-WASP, triggering actin filament ramification in the growth cone, resulting in increased axonal growth.

The absence of cellular glucose triggers oncogene AEG-1 that instigates VEGFC in HCC: A possible genetic root cause of angiogenesis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Astrocyte Elevated Gene-1 (AEG-1) is the master and multi-regulator of the various transcriptional factor primarily regulating chemoresistance, angiogenesis, metastasis, and invasion under the pathological condition, including liver cancer. This study was focused on investigating the process of tumor angiogenesis in liver carcinoma by studying the role of AEG-1 under GD/2DG conditions.

METHOD AND RESULTS

The PCR and western blot analysis revealed that glucose depletion (GD) induces the overexpression of AEG-1. Further, it leads to the constant expression of VEGFC through the activation of HIF-1α/CCR7 via the stimulations of PI3K/Akt signaling pathways. GLUT2 is the major transporter of a glucose molecule that is highly participating under GD through the expression of AEG-1 and constantly expresses glucokinase (GCK). The obtained data suggest that AEG-1 act as an angiogenesis and glycolysis regulator by modulating the expression of GCK through HIF-1α and GLUT2. 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) is a glycolysis inhibitor that induces impaired glycolysis and cellular apoptosis by cellular oxidative stress. The administration of 2DG has led to the chemoresistance of AEG-1.

CONCLUSION

The total findings of the study judged that disruption of cellular energy metabolism induced by the absence of glucose or the presence of mutant glucose moiety (2DG) promotes the overexpression of AEG-1. The GD/2DG activates the VEGFC by inducing the HIF-1α and CCR7. Moreover, AEG-1 induces the expression of OPN, which regulates metastasis, angiogenesis, and actively participates in protective autophagy by promoting LC3 a/b.

Effects of artesunate on the malignant biological behaviors of non-small cell lung cancer in human and its mechanism

We aimed to assess the effects of artesunate (ART) on the proliferation, migration, invasion and apoptosis of the non-small cell lung cancer cells A549 and H1299. The effects of ART and carboplatin (CBP) alone or in combination on the viability of A549 and H1299 cells were evaluated by MTT assay. The effects of 30 μg/ml ART on cell invasion, migration and apoptosis were evaluated by Transwell assay, scratch assay and flow cytometry, respectively. The protein expressions of human antigen R (HuR) and MMP-9 after treatment with 30 μg/ml ART for 48 h were detected by Western blotting. After 48 h of treatment, 9 μg/ml ART in combination with 7 μg/ml CBP exerted a mild synergistic effect on cell viability. The migration rates of cells treated with 30 μg/ml ART and number of invasive cells were significantly lower, and the apoptosis rates were higher than those of the DMSO-treated group. HuR and MMP-9 expressions in cells treated with 30 μg/ml ART for 48 h were significantly lower than those of the DMSO-treated group. ART suppresses the proliferation, migration and invasion of A549 and H1299 cells and induces their apoptosis, probably being associated with decreased expressions of HuR and MMP-9 proteins.

C-C Chemokine Receptor 7 in Cancer

C-C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) was one of the first two chemokine receptors that were found to be upregulated in breast cancers. Chemokine receptors promote chemotaxis of cells and tissue organization. Since under homeostatic conditions, CCR7 promotes migration of immune cells to lymph nodes, questions immediately arose regarding the ability of CCR7 to direct migration of cancer cells to lymph nodes. The literature since 2000 was examined to determine to what extent the expression of CCR7 in malignant tumors promoted migration to the lymph nodes. The data indicated that in different cancers, CCR7 plays distinct roles in directing cells to lymph nodes, the skin or to the central nervous system. In certain tumors, it may even serve a protective role. Future studies should focus on defining mechanisms that differentially regulate the unfavorable or beneficial role that CCR7 plays in cancer pathophysiology, to be able to improve outcomes in patients who harbor CCR7-positive cancers.

High ORAI3 expression correlates with good prognosis in human muscle-invasive bladder cancer

The involvement of store-operated calcium channels (SOCCs) in tumor initiation and metastatic dissemination has been extensively studied, but how its member ORAI3 influences tumor progression is still elusive. The present study aimed to evaluate the prognostic value of ORAI3 expression and examine the correlation between ORAI3 expression and immune cell infiltration within the tumor microenvironment (TME) in human muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC). We examined the expression profile of ORAI3 in MIBC using data from two databases; analyzed the correlation between ORAI3 expression and patient survival; explored cellular pathways related to ORAI3 expression by Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA); and predicted potential drugs using Connectivity Map (CMap). ORAI3 was significantly lower expressed in tumor mass compared to normal samples in MIBC, with a higher level of methylation at the promoter region in tumor than in normal tissue, indicating that ORAI3 is suppressed during cancer progression. Survival analysis showed that higher expression of ORAI3 correlated with good prognosis in MIBC. GSEA demonstrated that ORAI3 expression inversely correlated with cell differentiation, development and gene silencing, with differential expression of genes involved in epidermal and keratinocyte differentiation pathways and inflammatory responses. RNA sequencing of an ORAI3-silenced human bladder cancer cell line (T24 cells) corroborated enhancement of pro-neoplastic pathways in absence of ORAI3. Western blottingMoreover, ORAI3 facilitated the recruitment of Th17 cells and natural killer cells, whereas hampered Th2 and macrophage infiltration. Our results revealed 4 molecules with potential to be beneficial as adjuvant drugs in MIBC treatment. We concluded that high ORAI3 expression correlates with increased survival in human MIBC.

Expression of the Chemokine Receptor CCR7 in the Normal Adrenal Gland and Adrenal Tumors and Its Correlation with Clinical Outcome in Adrenocortical Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The chemokine receptor CCR7 is crucial for an intact immune function, but its expression is also associated with clinical outcome in several malignancies. No data exist on the expression of CCR7 in adrenocortical tumors.

METHODS

CCR7 expression was investigated by qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry in 4 normal adrenal glands, 59 adrenocortical adenomas, and 181 adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) samples.

RESULTS

CCR7 is highly expressed in the outer adrenocortical zones and medulla. Aldosterone-producing adenomas showed lower CCR7 protein levels (H-score 1.3 ± 1.0) compared to non-functioning (2.4 ± 0.5) and cortisol-producing adenomas (2.3 ± 0.6), whereas protein expression was variable in ACC (1.8 ± 0.8). In ACC, CCR7 protein expression was significantly higher in lymph node metastases (2.5 ± 0.5) compared to primary tumors (1.8±0.8) or distant metastases (2.0 ± 0.4; p < 0.01). mRNA levels of CCR7 were not significantly different between ACCs, normal adrenals, and adrenocortical adenomas. In contrast to other tumor entities, neither CCR7 protein nor mRNA expression significantly impacted patients' survival.

CONCLUSION

We show that CCR7 is expressed on mRNA and protein level across normal adrenals, benign adrenocortical tumors, as well as ACCs. Given that CCR7 did not influence survival in ACC, it is probably not involved in tumor progression, but it could play a role in adrenocortical homeostasis.

Colonic Stent as Bridge to Surgery for Malignant Obstruction Induces Gene Expressional Changes Associated with a More Aggressive Tumor Phenotype

BACKGROUND

Colonic stent is recommended as a bridge to elective surgery for malignant obstruction to improve short-term clinical outcomes for patients with colorectal cancer. However, since the oncological outcomes remain controversial, this study aimed to investigate the impact of self-expandable metallic stent (SEMS) on the tumor microenvironment.

METHODS

Patients treated with colonic stent as a bridge to surgery from 2010 to 2015 were identified from hospital records. Tumor biopsies and resected tumor samples of the eligible patients were retrieved retrospectively. Gene expression analysis was performed using the NanoString nCounter PanCancer IO 360 gene expression panel.

RESULTS

Of the 164 patients identified, this study included 21 who underwent colonic stent placement as a bridge to elective surgery. Gene expression analysis revealed 82 differentially expressed genes between pre- and post-intervention specimens, of which 72 were upregulated and 10 downregulated. Among the significantly upregulated genes, 46 are known to have protumor functions, of which 26 are specifically known to induce tumorigenic mechanisms such as proliferation, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and inflammation. In addition, ten differentially expressed genes were identified that are known to promote antitumor functions.

CONCLUSION

SEMS induces gene expressional changes in the tumor microenvironment that are associated with tumor progression in colorectal cancer and may potentiate a more aggressive phenotype. Future studies are warranted to establish optimal timing of surgery after SEMS insertion in patients with obstructive colorectal cancer.

Conditions Mimicking the Cancer Microenvironment Modulate the Functional Outcome of Human Chorionic Villus Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells in vitro

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells isolated from chorionic villi of human term placentae (CV-MSCs) possess unique biological characters. They exhibit self-renewal, directional migration, differentiation, and immunomodulatory effects on other cell lineages, by virtue of which they can be utilized as therapeutic carriers, for drug targeting, and therapy. Tumors display characteristic features of a damaged tissue microenvironment, which is saturated with conditions such as hypoxia, sustained inflammation, and increased oxidative stress. CV-MSCs function normally in a high oxidative stress environment induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and glucose and also protect endothelial cells from their damaging effects. For their therapeutic applications in a disease like cancer, it is necessary to ascertain the effects of tumor microenvironment on their functional outcome. In this study, we investigated the functional activities, of CV-MSCs in response to conditioned media (CM) obtained from the culture of breast cancer cell line MDA-231 (CM-MDA231). CV-MSCs were exposed to CM-MDA231 for different spatio-temporal conditions, and their biological functions as well as modulation in gene expression were evaluated. Effect of CM-MDA231 on factors responsible for changes in functional outcome were also investigated at the protein levels. CV-MSCs exhibited significant reduction in proliferation but increased adhesion and migration after CM-MDA231 treatment. Interestingly, there was no change in their invasion potential. CM-MDA231 treatment modulated expression of various genes involved in important cellular events including, integration, survival, message delivery and favorable outcome after transplantation. Analysis of pathways related to cell cycle regulation revealed significant changes in the expression of p53, and increased phosphorylation of Retinoblastoma (Rb) and Checkpoint Kinase 2 in CV-MSCs treated with CM-MDA231. To summarize, these data reveal that CV-MSCs retain the ability to survive, adhere, and migrate after sustained treatment with CM-MDA231, a medium that mimics the cancer microenvironment. These properties of CV-MSCs to withstand the inflammatory tumor like microenvironment prove that they may make useful candidate in a stem cell based therapy against cancer. However, further pre-clinical studies are needed to validate their therapeutic usage.

Bioinformatics identification of CCL8/21 as potential prognostic biomarkers in breast cancer microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignancy among females worldwide. The tumor microenvironment usually prevents effective lymphocyte activation and infiltration, and suppresses infiltrating effector cells, leading to a failure of the host to reject the tumor. CC chemokines play a significant role in inflammation and infection.

METHODS

In our study, we analyzed the expression and survival data of CC chemokines in patients with BC using several bioinformatics analyses tools.

RESULTS

The mRNA expression of CCL2/3/4/5/7/8/11/17/19/20/22 was remarkably increased while CCL14/21/23/28 was significantly down-regulated in BC tissues compared with normal tissues. Methylation could down-regulate expression of CCL2/5/15/17/19/20/22/23/24/25/26/27 in BC. Low expression of CCL3/4/23 was found to be associated with drug resistance in BC. Results from Kaplan-Meier plotter and BC Gene-Expression Miner v4.2 (bcGenExMiner) v4.2 demonstrated that BC patients with high CCL8 and low CCL19/21/22 expression were more likely to have a worse prognosis. CCL8 expression was significantly up-regulated in BC tissues compared with normal tissues. High CCL8 expression was significantly correlated with negative PR, negative ER, positive nodal status, triple-negative BC subtype, basal-like BC subtype, triple-negative and basal-like BC subtype and high grades. CCL21 was down-regulated in BC, while high levels of CCL21 was associated with negative PR, triple-negative subtype, basal-like subtype and low tumor grade. Functional analysis demonstrated that CCL8 and CCL21 were involved in carcinogenesis, tumor immune escape and chemoresistance in BC.

CONCLUSION

Integrative bioinformatics analysis demonstrated CCL8/21 as potential prognostic biomarkers in BC microenvironment.

Of Lymph Nodes and CLL Cells: Deciphering the Role of CCR7 in the Pathogenesis of CLL and Understanding Its Potential as Therapeutic Target

The lymph node (LN) is an essential tissue for achieving effective immune responses but it is also critical in the pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Within the multitude of signaling pathways aberrantly regulated in CLL the homeostatic axis composed by the chemokine receptor CCR7 and its ligands is the main driver for directing immune cells to home into the LN. In this literature review, we address the roles of CCR7 in the pathophysiology of CLL, and how this chemokine receptor is of critical importance to develop more rational and effective therapies for this malignancy.

Identification of Differentially Expressed Genes in Cervical Cancer Patients by Comparative Transcriptome Analysis

Cervical cancer is one of the most malignant reproductive diseases seen in women worldwide. The identification of dysregulated genes in clinical samples of cervical cancer may pave the way for development of better prognostic markers and therapeutic targets. To identify the dysregulated genes (DEGs), we have retrospectively collected 10 biopsies, seven from cervical cancer patients and three from normal subjects who underwent a hysterectomy. Total RNA isolated from biopsies was subjected to microarray analysis using the human Clariom D Affymetrix platform. Based on the results of principal component analysis (PCA), only eight samples are qualified for further studies; GO and KEGG were used to identify the key genes and were compared with TCGA and GEO datasets. Identified genes were further validated by quantitative real-time PCR and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, and the highest Youden index was calculated in order to evaluate cutoff points (COPs) that allowed distinguishing of tissue samples of cervical squamous carcinoma patients from those of healthy individuals. By comparative microarray analysis, a total of 108 genes common across the six patients' samples were chosen; among these, 78 genes were upregulated and 26 genes were downregulated. The key genes identified were SPP1, LYN, ARRB2, COL6A3, FOXM1, CCL21, TTK, and MELK. Based on their relative expression, the genes were ordered as follows: TTK > ARRB2 > SPP1 > FOXM1 > LYN > MELK > CCL21 > COL6A3; this generated data is in sync with the TCGA datasets, except for ARRB2. Protein-protein interaction network analysis revealed that TTK and MELK are closely associated with SMC4, AURKA, PLK4, and KIF18A. The candidate genes SPP1, FOXM1, LYN, COL6A3, CCL21, TTK and MELK at mRNA level, emerge as promising candidate markers for cervical cancer prognosis and also emerge as potential therapeutic drug targets.

Chemokines as the critical factors during bladder cancer progression: an overview

Bladder cancer (BCa) is one of the most frequent urogenital malignancies which is mainly observed among men. There are various genetic and environmental risk factors associated with BCa progression. Transurethral endoscopic resection and open ablative surgery are the main treatment options for muscle invasive BCa. BCG therapy is also employed following the endoscopic resection to prevent tumor relapse. The tumor microenvironment is the main interaction site of tumor cells and immune system in which the immune cells are recruited via chemokines and chemokine receptors. In present review we summarized the main chemokines and chemokine receptors which have been associated with histopathological features of BCa patients in the world. This review highlights the chemokines and chemokine receptors as critical markers in early detection and therapeutic purposes among BCa patients and clarifies their molecular functions during BCa progression and metastasis.

Pre-clinical investigation of STAT3 pathway in bladder cancer: Paving the way for clinical translation

Effective cancer therapy requires identification of signaling networks and investigating their potential role in proliferation and invasion of cancer cells. Among molecular pathways, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) has been of importance due to its involvement in promoting proliferation, and invasion of cancer cells, and mediating chemoresistance. In the present review, our aim is to reveal role of STAT3 pathway in bladder cancer (BC), as one of the leading causes of death worldwide. In respect to its tumor-promoting role, STAT3 is able to enhance the growth of BC cells via inhibiting apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. STAT3 also contributes to metastasis of BC cells via upregulating of MMP-2 and MMP-9 as well as genes in the EMT pathway. BC cells obtain chemoresistance via STAT3 overexpression and its inhibition paves the way for increasing efficacy of chemotherapy. Different molecular pathways such as KMT1A, EZH2, DAB2IP and non-coding RNAs including microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs can function as upstream mediators of STAT3 that are discussed in this review article.

CC Chemokines in a Tumor: A Review of Pro-Cancer and Anti-Cancer Properties of Receptors CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCR8, CCR9, and CCR10 Ligands

CC chemokines (or β-chemokines) are 28 chemotactic cytokines with an N-terminal CC domain that play an important role in immune system cells, such as CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ lymphocytes, dendritic cells, eosinophils, macrophages, monocytes, and NK cells, as well in neoplasia. In this review, we discuss human CC motif chemokine ligands: CCL1, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL18, CCL19, CCL20, CCL21, CCL25, CCL27, and CCL28 (CC motif chemokine receptor CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCR8, CCR9, and CCR10 ligands). We present their functioning in human physiology and in neoplasia, including their role in the proliferation, apoptosis resistance, drug resistance, migration, and invasion of cancer cells. We discuss the significance of chemokine receptors in organ-specific metastasis, as well as the influence of each chemokine on the recruitment of various cells to the tumor niche, such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF), Kupffer cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), osteoclasts, tumor-associated macrophages (TAM), tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL), and regulatory T cells (T_reg). Finally, we show how the effect of the chemokines on vascular endothelial cells and lymphatic endothelial cells leads to angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis.

RRBP1 is highly expressed in bladder cancer and is associated with migration and invasion

Ribosome-binding protein 1 (RRBP1) is a marker for colorectal, lung, esophageal and prostate cancer. However, the association between RRBP1 and bladder cancer is not completely understood. The present study aimed to evaluate the expression and function of RRBP1 in bladder cancer. The association between RRBP1 expression and clinicopathological characteristics, as well as the prognosis of bladder cancer was analyzed. RRBP1 expression was further analyzed in bladder cancer cell lines via reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting. RRBP1 knockdown was established using short hairpin RNAs to investigate the function of RRBP1 in T24 cells. Compared with healthy bladder tissue, RRBP1 expression levels were significantly upregulated in bladder cancer tissue. High RRBP1 expression was associated with tumor stage, lymph node metastasis and shorter overall survival time. RRBP1 protein was highly expressed in bladder cancer cell lines compared with normal SV-HUC-1 cells. Compared with the control group, RRBP1 knockdown inhibited T24 migration and invasion by downregulating the expression of C-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CCR7) protein. In conclusion, the present study indicated that RRBP1 was associated with bladder cancer migration, invasion and prognosis, and CCR7 might serve a role in the process.

An updated review of the H19 lncRNA in human cancer: molecular mechanism and diagnostic and therapeutic importance

Accumulating evidence has reported that H19 long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) expression level is deregulated in human cancer. It has been also demonstrated that de-regulated levels of H19 could affect cancer biology by various mechanisms including microRNA (miRNA) production (like miR-675), miRNA sponging and epigenetic modifications. Furthermore, lncRNA could act as a potential diagnosis and prognosis biomarkers and also a candidate therapeutic approach for different human cancers. In this narrative review, we shed light on the molecular mechanism of H19 in cancer development and pathogenesis. Moreover, we discussed the expression pattern and diagnostic and therapeutic importance of H19 as a potential biomarker in a range of human malignancies from breast to osteosarcoma cancer.

miR-4500 suppresses cell proliferation and migration in bladder cancer via inhibition of STAT3/CCR7 pathway

Bladder cancer (BC) is a prevalent type of cancer that occurs in human urinary system threatening the human health. microRNA-4500 (miRNA-4500) is a novel miRNA that serves as a potential biomarker in several types of cancers. However, the in-depth molecular mechanism of miR-4500 in BC has not yet been fully elucidated. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactionq and Western blot analysis were applied to analyze the expressions of miR-4500, STAT3, and C-C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7). Gain-of-function assays involving Cell Counting Kit-8, 5'-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine incorporation assay, and Transwell were employed to evaluate miR-4500 function in cell proliferation and migration. Moreover, chromatin immunoprecipitation, RNA immunoprecipitation, and luciferase reporter assay were performed to explore the molecular mechanism underlying function of miR-4500. We found the downregulation of miR-4500 in BC cells, and ectopic expression of miR-4500 hampered cell proliferation, migration, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Importantly, miR-4500 directly targeted STAT3 3'-untranslated region, leading to repression on STAT3 expression. Intriguingly, STAT3 transcriptionally regulated CCR7. Rescue experiments validated the presence of miR-4500/STAT3/CCR7 axis in control of BC growth and progression. Our data highlighted miR-4500 as a potent cancericidal gene in BC, and might provide a theoretical grounding for development of target-oriented therapies of patients afflicted with BC.

The Immune Checkpoint Kick Start: Optimization of Neoadjuvant Combination Therapy Using Game Theory

PURPOSE

In an upcoming clinical trial at the Moffitt Cancer Center for women with stage 2/3 estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, treatment with an aromatase inhibitor and a PD-L1 checkpoint inhibitor combination will be investigated to lower a preoperative endocrine prognostic index (PEPI) that correlates with relapse-free survival. PEPI is fundamentally a static index, measured at the end of neoadjuvant therapy before surgery. We have developed a mathematical model of the essential components of the PEPI score to identify successful combination therapy regimens that minimize tumor burden and metastatic potential, on the basis of time-dependent trade-offs in the system.

METHODS

We considered two molecular traits, CCR7 and PD-L1, which correlate with treatment response and increased metastatic risk. We used a matrix game model with the four phenotypic strategies to examine the frequency-dependent interactions of cancer cells. This game was embedded in an ecological model of tumor population-growth dynamics. The resulting model predicts evolutionary and ecological dynamics that track with changes in the PEPI score.

RESULTS

We considered various treatment regimens on the basis of combinations of the two therapies with drug holidays. By considering the trade off between tumor burden and metastatic potential, the optimal therapy plan was a 1-month kick start of the immune checkpoint inhibitor followed by 5 months of continuous combination therapy. Relative to a protocol giving both therapeutics together from the start, this delayed regimen resulted in transient suboptimal tumor regression while maintaining a phenotypic constitution that is more amenable to fast tumor regression for the final 5 months of therapy.

CONCLUSION

The mathematical model provides a useful abstraction of clinical intuition, enabling hypothesis generation and testing of clinical assumptions.

The Role of CCL21/CCR7 Chemokine Axis in Breast Cancer Progression

Breast cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, predominantly caused by metastasis. It is generally accepted that the pattern of breast cancer metastasis is largely determined by the interaction between the chemokine receptors on cancer cells and the chemokines expressed at the sites of metastatic disease. Chemokine receptors belong to the G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) family that appear to be implicated in inflammatory diseases, tumor growth and metastasis. One of its members, C-C Chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7), binds chemokines CCL19 and CCL21, which are important for tissue homeostasis, immune surveillance and tumorigenesis. These receptors have been shown to induce the pathobiology of breast cancer due to their ability to induce cellular proliferation and migration upon the binding of the cognate chemokine receptors. The underlying signaling pathways and exact cellular interactions within this biological system are not fully understood and need further insights. Thus, in this review, we summarize the essential roles of CCR7 and its receptors in breast cancer progression. Furthermore, we discuss the mechanisms of regulation that may lead to novel opportunities for therapeutic intervention. Despite the enormous advances in our knowledge of the nature of the chemokines in breast cancer metastasis, research about the involvement of CCR7 in cancer progression is still limited. Therefore, further studies are essential to illustrate the distinct roles of CCR7 in cancer progression and validate its potential as a preventive bio-factor for human breast cancer metastasis by targeting chemokine receptor genes.

Chemokines and their Receptors: Multifaceted Roles in Cancer Progression and Potential Value as Cancer Prognostic Markers

Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that mediate immune cell chemotaxis and lymphoid tissue development. Recent advances have indicated that chemokines and their cognate receptors play critical roles in cancer-related inflammation and cancer progression. On the basis of these findings, the chemokine system has become a new potential drug target for cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the essential roles of the complex network of chemokines and their receptors in cancer progression. Furthermore, we discuss the potential value of the chemokine system as a cancer prognostic marker. The chemokine system regulates the infiltration of immune cells into the tumor microenvironment, which induces both pro- and anti-immunity and promotes or suppresses tumor growth and proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Increasing evidence indicates the promising prognostic value of the chemokine system in cancer patients. While CCL2, CXCL10, and CX3CL1/CX3CR1 can serve as favorable or unfavorable prognostic factors depending on the cancer types, CCL14 and XCL1 possess good prognostic value. Other chemokines such as CXCL1, CXCL8, and CXCL12 are poor prognostic markers. Despite vast advances in our understanding of the complex nature of the chemokine system in tumor biology, knowledge about the multifaceted roles of the chemokine system in different types of cancers is still limited. Further studies are necessary to decipher distinct roles within the chemokine system in terms of cancer progression and to validate their potential value in cancer prognosis.

The Fibroblast TIAM2 Promotes Lung Cancer Cell Invasion and Metastasis

Purpose: TIAM2 (T-cell lymphoma invasion and metastasis 2), a RAC1 guanine nucleotide exchange factor, plays crucial roles in human cancer cells. Its homolog, TIAM1, has been reported to promote the migration and invasion of cancer cells through regulating the functions of cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs). However, the functions of TIAM2 in CAFs have not been investigated. In this study, we explored how fibroblast TIAM2 influences the migration and invasion of lung cancer cells.

Methods: We cultured primary lung CAFs and adjacent normal lung fibroblasts (NFs) from 12 non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. RT-PCR and western blot were used to compare TIAM2 levels between CAFs and NFs. Two co-culture systems were designed, in which cancer cells were directly co-cultured with fibroblasts and indirectly co-cultured with conditional medium (CM) from fibroblasts. Subsequently, the wound healing and transwell tests were conducted to assess the migration and invasion ability of fibroblasts and co-cultured cancer cells. Finally, cytokine antibody arrays were used to screen differentially secreted cytokines in the CM.

Results: The expression levels of TIAM2 were significantly higher in CAFs than NFs, and TIAM2-silenced fibroblasts showed decreased migration and invasion ability. In the direct co-culture system, the migration and invasion of cancer cells were retarded when co-culturing with TIAM2-silenced fibroblasts, and the expression levels of EMT-related genes also changed in cancer cells. Decreased migration and invasion of cancer cells were also observed when culturing with the CM from TIAM2-silenced fibroblasts. In addition, the cytokine antibody arrays revealed that Osteoprotegerin (OPG) was significantly decreased in the CM of TIAM2-silenced fibroblasts. This result suggested that OPG might be one of the main cytokines contributing to the migration and invasion of cancer cells in co-culture systems.

Conclusion: Our results suggest that fibroblast TIAM2 promotes the invasion and migration of lung cancer cell, and OPG might be one of the main cytokines contributing to this pro-cancer process.

Knockdown of the long noncoding RNA HOTTIP inhibits cell proliferation and enhances cell sensitivity to cisplatin by suppressing the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a prevalent and deadly cancer worldwide. Considering the malignant progression and therapeutic resistance of PCa, further dissection of the underlying mechanisms and exploration of novel therapeutic targets for PCa are urgently needed. The long noncoding RNA HOTTIP has recently been revealed as an oncogenic regulator in different cancers; however, whether HOTTIP is involved in PCa remains poorly understood. Here, we examined the crucial roles of HOTTIP in the proliferation and chemoresistance of PCa.

METHODS

Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was performed to detect the HOTTIP messenger RNA (mRNA) levels in PCa samples from patients and PCa cells. Then, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), colony formation, and cell cycle and flow cytometry assays were performed to investigate the proliferation and cisplatin-resistance of PCa cells with silenced HOTTIP compared with a negative control. We applied Western blotting, qRT-PCR and a TOP/FOP assay to explore the relevant mechanisms.

RESULTS

In this study, we found that the HOTTIP mRNA levels were increased in the PCa patient samples and PCa cell lines compared with the controls. The knockdown of HOTTIP not only inhibited the proliferation of PCa cells but also facilitated cell cycle arrest and chemosensitivity to cisplatin. Furthermore, the qRT-PCR, Western blotting, TOP/FOP assays, MTT assay, and flow cytometry revealed that Wnt/β-catenin signaling was related to the regulation of HOTTIP in cell proliferation, cell cycle arrest, and chemoresistance to cisplatin in PCa.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our findings suggest that HOTTIP may be a potent therapeutic target for PCa, and HOTTIP inhibitors might be regarded as effective strategies for PCa therapy.

Meta-analysis of the prognostic value of C-C chemokine receptor type 7 in patients with solid tumors

Background

Expression of C-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CCR7) is associated with the prognosis of several cancers. The aim of this study was to conduct the meta-analysis to determine the prognostic value of CCR7 expression in solid tumors.

Materials and methods

We searched for relevant literature in the PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases (last updated on January 15, 2018). The associations of CCR7 expression with overall survival (OS), disease-free survival (DFS), recurrence-free survival (RFS), progress-free survival (PFS), and disease-specific survival (DSS) were estimated.

Results

In total, 30 qualified studies including 3,413 patients were enrolled. The results revealed that higher expression of CCR7 predicted poorer OS (pooled HR =1.79; 95% CI =1.49–2.16; P<0.001) and PFS (pooled HR =2.18; 95% CI =1.49–3.18; P<0.001), but was not associated with DFS (pooled HR =1.69; 95% CI =0.79–3.61; P=0.175), RFS (pooled HR =1.29; 95% CI =0.48–3.44; P=0.618), or DSS (pooled HR =3.06; 95% CI =0.38–24.83; P<0.294).

Conclusion

From this meta-analysis, we concluded that high expression of CCR7 in tumor tissue is associated with poor survival in patients with solid tumors, and may be a prognostic biomarker for tumor progression.

Loss of atypical chemokine receptor 4 facilitates C-C motif chemokine ligand 21-mediated tumor growth and invasion in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a common malignant disease that is prevalent in Asian countries. Atypical chemokine receptor 4 (ACKR4) binds to various chemokines, including C-C motif chemokine ligand (CCL)19, CCL21, CCL25 and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 13, without inducing downstream signaling transduction. However, the role of ACKR4 in modulating NPC development remains unclear. In the present study, the effects of ACKR4 on NPC growth, invasion and metastasis were investigated, as well as the endogenous mechanisms through which ACKR4 mediates NPC development. The results demonstrated that ACKR4 was downregulated in human NPC tumor tissues, as compared with that in adjacent normal tissue. In a subcutaneous tumor animal model, the knockdown of ACKR4 enhanced NPC invasion and metastasis. Furthermore, CCL21 was accumulated in ACKR4 knockdown tumors. In vitro, the loss of ACKR4 increased CCL21-mediated SUNE-1 cell proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and invasion. In conclusion, the loss of ACKR4 promoted CCL21-mediated NPC development; thus, neutralizing CCL21 in NPC with low ACKR4 expression may be a novel treatment strategy.

CCR7 regulates ANO6 to promote migration of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells via the ERK signaling pathway

The increase in migratory ability of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells is a key event in the development of metastasis to the lymph nodes and distant organs. Although the C-C motif chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) and its ligand, C-C motif chemokine ligand 21 (CCL21), have been revealed to serve an important role in tumor migration, their precise roles and potential underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. The present study revealed that overexpression of CCR7 significantly promoted BxPC-3 cell migration, accompanied by the induction of anoctamin 6 (ANO6) expression, indicating that ANO6 is a downstream target of CCR7 signaling. Furthermore, the level of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) was significantly increased in CCR7-overexpressing BxPC-3 cells, indicating that ERK may be a potential mediator of CCR7-regulated ANO6 expression in BxPC-3 cells. To characterize the receptor-mediated pathway, a specific ERK inhibitor, U0126, was used, which reduced BxPC-3 cell migration and the expression of ANO6. In summary, the results of the present study demonstrate that CCR7 promoted BxPC-3 cell migration by regulating ANO6 expression perhaps via activation of the ERK signaling pathway.

High expression of long noncoding RNA NORAD indicates a poor prognosis and promotes clinical progression and metastasis in bladder cancer

PURPOSE

To explore the function of NORAD in bladder cancer (BC), and to verify whether NORAD could be used as a biomarker to determine preoperative presence of progression and lymph node metastasis. To our knowledge, it is the first study investigating NORAD and its implications in BC.

METHODS

BC specimens of 90 patients underwent bladder cystectomy or transurethral resection between January 2012 to December 2016 were tested by fluorescence in situ hybridization. The association between NORAD expression and clinicopathological features and prognosis of the patients was analyzed using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and Cox regression analysis. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed in 4 BC cell lines and 10 fresh tumor sample together with adjacent tissues. MTT, colony formation assay, and Annexin-V apoptosis detection were performed after knockdown of NORAD using shRNA in TSSCUP cells. Western blot was performed to related proteins extracted from these cells.

RESULTS

Fluorescence in situ hybridization indicated that high NORAD expression was associated with more advanced histological grade and clinical stage for patients with BC. Higher NORAD expression resulted in lower overall survival, and was an independent prognostic indicator. Real-time polymerase chain reaction showed that the expression of NORAD in BC tissues was higher than those measured in adjacent normal tissues. MTT and colony formation assay demonstrated that knockdown of NORAD results in lower proliferation in TSSCUP cells, whereas PUM2 expression was upregulated and E2F3 downregulated.

CONCLUSIONS

High NORAD expression could serve as an independent prognostic factor for overall survival of patients with transitional BC. NORAD could be considered as a promising candidate for novel biomarker and therapeutic target for human BC.

Different Cytokine and Chemokine Expression Patterns in Malignant Compared to Those in Nonmalignant Renal Cells

Objective

Cytokines and chemokines are widely involved in cancer cell progression and thus represent promising candidate factors for new biomarkers.

Methods

Four renal cell cancer (RCC) cell lines (Caki-1, 786-O, RCC4, and A498) and a nonmalignant renal cell line (RC-124) were examined with respect to their proliferation. The cytokine and chemokine expression pattern was examined by a DNA array (Human Cytokines & Chemokines RT² Profiler PCR Array; Qiagen, Hilden, Germany), and expression profiles were compared.

Results

Caki-1 and 786-O cells exhibited significantly increased proliferation rates, whereas RCC4 and A498 cells demonstrated attenuated proliferation, compared to nonmalignant RC-124 cells. Expression analysis revealed 52 cytokines and chemokines primarily involved in proliferation and inflammation and differentially expressed not only in malignant and nonmalignant renal cells but also in the four RCC cell lines.

Conclusion

This is the first study examining the expression of 84 cytokines and chemokines in four RCC cell lines compared to that in a nonmalignant renal cell line. VEGFA, NODAL, and BMP6 correlated with RCC cell line proliferation and, thus, may represent putative clinical biomarkers for RCC progression as well as for RCC diagnosis and prognosis.

CCR7 mediates human breast cancer cell invasion, migration by inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition and suppressing apoptosis through AKT pathway

Chemokine and the chemokine receptor have a key role in the tumor progress. Here, we supposed that CCR7 might induce the invasion, migration, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) process of breast cancer. In this research, human breast cancer MCF‐7 and MDA‐MB‐231cells were treated with CCL19 and small‐interfering RNA (CCR7 siRNA) for activation and inhibition of CCR7, respectively. Cell invasion and transwell assays were used to detect the effect of CCR7 on invasion and migration. The results demonstrated that CCL19 mediated cell invasion and migration by inducing the EMT, with downregulation of E‐cadherin and up‐regulation of N‐cadherin and vimentin levels. On the other hand, knockdown of CCR7 revealed the changes compared with CCL19 group and the control group. Knockdown of CCR7 inhibits CCL19‐induced breast cancer cell proliferation, the cell cycle, migration, invasion and EMT. Moreover, we demonstrated that CCL19‐induced AKT phosphorylation; however, CCR7 siRNA suppressed CCL19‐induced AKT phosphorylation, a key regulator of tumor metastasis. In conclusion, all findings demonstrated that CCL19/CCR7 axis regulated EMT progress in breast cancer cells and mediated the tumor cell invasion and migration process via activation of AKT signal pathway. Our results suggested that CCR7 may regard as a therapeutic target for the breast cancer treatment.

Chemokine Receptor Signaling and the Hallmarks of Cancer

The chemokines are a family of chemotactic cytokines that mediate their activity by acting on seven-transmembrane-spanning G protein-coupled receptors. Both the ability of the chemokines and their receptors to form homo- and heterodimers and the promiscuity of the chemokine-chemokine receptor interaction endow this protein family with enormous signaling plasticity and complexity that are not fully understood at present. Chemokines were initially identified as essential regulators of homeostatic and inflammatory trafficking of innate and adaptive leucocytes from lymphoid organs to tissues. Chemokines also mediate the host response to cancer. Nevertheless, chemokine function in this response is not limited to regulating leucocyte infiltration into the tumor microenvironment. It is now known that chemokines and their receptors influence most-if not all-hallmark processes of cancer; they act on both neoplastic and untransformed cells in the tumor microenvironment, including fibroblasts, endothelial cells (blood and lymphatic), bone marrow-derived stem cells, and, obviously, infiltrating leucocytes. This review begins with an overview of chemokine and chemokine receptor structure, to better define how chemokines affect the proliferation, survival, stemness, and metastatic potential of neoplastic cells. We also examine the main mechanisms by which chemokines regulate tumor angiogenesis and immune cell infiltration, emphasizing the pro- and antitumorigenic activity of this protein superfamily in these interrelated processes.

miR-199a-5p suppresses human bladder cancer cell metastasis by targeting CCR7

Background

C-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CCR7) overexpression correlated with lymphatic metastasis and poor prognosis is a major obstacle to bladder cancer treatment. Recent studies have revealed that miR-199a-5p was significantly abnormal expressed in several solid tumors and functioned as oncogene or tumor suppressor. This study was aimed to further investigate the effects of miR-199a-5p on the cell metastasis mediated by CCR7 in bladder cancer.

Methods

Quantitative Real Time PCR (qRT-PCR) was firstly performed to identified the expression of miR-199a-5p and CCR7 in human bladder cancer samples and cell lines. Following that, the effects of miR-199a-5p on cell migratory and invasive activities were assessed by wound healing and Matrigel invasion assays, respectively. Finally, luciferase reporter assay and western blot were employed to investigate whether CCR7 could directly interact with miR-199a-5p.

Results

miR-199a-5p downregulation and CCR7 upregulation were firstly observed in bladder cancer samples and cell lines. In addition, both miR-199a-5p downregulation and CCR7 upregulation were significantly involved in bladder cancer clinicopathological features. Moreover, overexpression of miR-199a-5p could inhibit baldder cancer cell migration and invasion. miR-199a-5p was confirmed to be able to target the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of CCR7 and regulate the expression of CCR7, Matrix metalloproteinases 9 (MMP-9) and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)-related proteins.

Conclusion

Our findings added newer insights into the multifaceted role played by miR-199a-5p/CCR7 in bladder cancer, prompting for the first time this miRNA/chemokine axis that regulates cell metastasis. The results strongly supported miR-199a-5p as a potential therapeutic agent and diagnostic marker of bladder cancer.

CXCR4 and CCR7: Two eligible targets in targeted cancer therapy

Cancer is one of the most common cause of death in the world with high negative emotional, economic, and social impacts. Conventional therapeutic methods, including chemotherapy and radiotherapy, have not proven satisfactory and relapse is common in most cases. Recent studies have focused on targeted therapy with more precise identification and targeted attacks to the cancer cells. For this purpose, chemokine receptors are proper targets and among them, CXCR4 and CCR7, with a crucial role in cancer metastasis, are being considered as desired candidates for investigation. In this review paper, the most important experimental results are highlighted on the potential targeted therapies based on CXCR4 and CCR7 chemokine receptors.

Expression of CCL21 in Ewing sarcoma shows an inverse correlation with metastases and is a candidate target for immunotherapy

Ewing sarcoma is an aggressive neoplasm predominantly occurring in adolescents and has a poor prognosis when metastasized. For patients with metastatic disease in particular, immunotherapy has been proposed as possible beneficial additive therapy. CCL21 activation-based immunotherapy was successful in preclinical studies in other tumor types; therefore, we investigated CCL21 expression in Ewing sarcoma as potential target for immunotherapy. The CCL21 RNA expression was determined in 21 Ewing sarcoma cell lines and 18 primary therapy-naive Ewing sarcoma samples. In the tumor samples, this was correlated with the number and CD4⁺/CD8⁺ ratio of infiltrating T cells and clinical parameters. Higher RNA expression levels of CCL21 significantly correlated with a lower CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T cell ratio (P = 0.009), good chemotherapeutic response (P = 0.01) and improved outcome (P < 0.001). In patients with metastases, CCL21 expression was significantly lower than in patients without (P < 0.0005). CCL21 expression was significantly higher in Ewing sarcoma tissue samples compared to cell lines (P < 0.01), implying the involvement of a stromal factor. Protein expression analysis of CCL21 and its receptor CCR7 in 24 therapy-naïve tumors showed that there was no expression in all bar one Ewing sarcoma cells. In conclusion, CCL21 is expressed in clinical Ewing sarcoma samples by nontumor-infiltrating immune cells. The observed positive correlation with survival implies that CCL21 might be a potential prognostic marker for Ewing sarcoma and marks the potential of CCL21 immunotherapy for use in Ewing sarcoma.

Silencing of CCR7 inhibits the growth, invasion and migration of prostate cancer cells induced by VEGFC

Early in prostate cancer development, tumor cells express vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGF-C), a secreted molecule that is important in angiogenesis progression. CC-chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7), another protein involved in angiogenesis, is strongly expressed in most human cancers, where it activated promotes tumor growth as well as favoring tumor cell invasion and migration. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of down-regulating CCR7 expression on the growth of human prostate cancer cells stimulated by VEGFC. The CCR7-specific small interfering RNA (siRNA) plasmid vector was constructed and then transfected into prostate cancer cells. The expression of CCR7 mRNA and protein was detected by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis, respectively. Cell proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle distribution and cell migration were assessed following knockdown of CCR7 by RNA interference (RNAi). Western blot analysis was used to identify differentially expressed angiogenesis- and cell cycle-associated proteins in cells with silenced CCR7. The expression levels of CCR7 in prostate cancer cells transfected with siRNA were decreased, leading to a significant inhibition of prostate cancer cell proliferation, migration and invasion induced by VEGFC. Western blot analysis revealed that silencing of CCR7 may inhibit vascular endothelial growth factor, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 protein expression. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that RNAi can effectively silence CCR7 gene expression and inhibit the growth of prostate cancer cells, which indicates that there is a potential of targeting CCR7 as a novel gene therapy approach for the treatment of prostate cancer.