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Shima T, Taniguchi K, Inomata Y, Arima J, Lee SW. Glycolysis in gastrointestinal stromal tumor: a brief overview. Neoplasia 2024; 55:101022. [PMID: 38943997 PMCID: PMC11261875 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2024.101022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/01/2024]
Abstract
Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) is the most prevalent mesenchymal tumor of the digestive tract. Its growth is primarily influenced by mutations in KIT or PDGFRA. Surgery is the primary treatment option for GIST; however, KIT inhibitors, such as imatinib, are used for inoperable cases. Resistance to imatinib is an upcoming challenge, especially because the effectiveness of alternative drugs is limited. Enhancement of the glycolysis pathway in cancer cells has been identified as a key feature in cancer. This unique metabolic activity has implications on tumor growth, prognosis, and resistance to therapy, even in GIST. Members of the glucose transporter (GLUT) family (particularly GLUT-1) play a significant role in GIST progression and response to treatment. Diagnostic imaging using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography, which enables visualization of glucose metabolism, can aid in GIST diagnosis and risk assessment. The interplay between glycolysis and GIST can lead to the development of various therapeutic strategies, especially those involving glycolysis-related molecules, such as hexokinase and lactate dehydrogenase. However, further research is required to understand the full spectrum of glycolysis in GIST and its therapeutic potential. Herein, we present an exhaustive overview and analysis of the role of glycolysis in GIST, especially as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Shima
- Department of General and Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan
| | - Kohei Taniguchi
- Department of General and Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan; Center for Medical Research & Development, Division of Translational Research, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan.
| | - Yosuke Inomata
- Department of General and Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan
| | - Jun Arima
- Department of General and Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan
| | - Sang-Woong Lee
- Department of General and Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan
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Zyla J, Papiez A, Zhao J, Qu R, Li X, Kluger Y, Polanska J, Hatzis C, Pusztai L, Marczyk M. Evaluation of zero counts to better understand the discrepancies between bulk and single-cell RNA-Seq platforms. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2023; 21:4663-4674. [PMID: 37841335 PMCID: PMC10568495 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2023.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in sample preparation and sequencing technology have made it possible to profile the transcriptomes of individual cells using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-Seq). Compared to bulk RNA-Seq data, single-cell data often contain a higher percentage of zero reads, mainly due to lower sequencing depth per cell, which affects mostly measurements of low-expression genes. However, discrepancies between platforms are observed regardless of expression level. Using four paired datasets with multiple samples each, we investigated technical and biological factors that can contribute to this expression shift. Using two separate machine learning models we found that, in addition to expression level, RNA integrity, gene or UTR3 length, and the number of transcripts potentially also influence the occurrence of zeros. These findings could enable the development of novel analytical methods for cross-platform expression shift correction. We also identified genes and biological pathways in our diverse datasets that consistently showed differences when assessed at the single cell versus bulk level to assist in interpreting analysis across transcriptomic platforms. At the gene level, 25 genes (0.12%) were found in all datasets as discordant, but at the pathway level, 7 pathways (2.02%) showed shared enrichment in discordant genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Zyla
- Department of Data Science and Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice 44-100, Poland
| | - Anna Papiez
- Department of Data Science and Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice 44-100, Poland
| | - Jun Zhao
- Computational Biology and Bioinformatics Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Rihao Qu
- Computational Biology and Bioinformatics Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Xiaotong Li
- Breast Medical Oncology, Yale Cancer Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Yuval Kluger
- Computational Biology and Bioinformatics Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Applied Mathematics Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Joanna Polanska
- Department of Data Science and Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice 44-100, Poland
| | - Christos Hatzis
- Breast Medical Oncology, Yale Cancer Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Lajos Pusztai
- Breast Medical Oncology, Yale Cancer Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Michal Marczyk
- Department of Data Science and Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice 44-100, Poland
- Breast Medical Oncology, Yale Cancer Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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3
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Yebra M, Bhargava S, Kumar A, Burgoyne AM, Tang CM, Yoon H, Banerjee S, Aguilera J, Cordes T, Sheth V, Noh S, Ustoy R, Li S, Advani SJ, Corless CL, Heinrich MC, Kurzrock R, Lippman SM, Fanta PT, Harismendy O, Metallo C, Sicklick JK. Establishment of Patient-Derived Succinate Dehydrogenase-Deficient Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumor Models for Predicting Therapeutic Response. Clin Cancer Res 2021; 28:187-200. [PMID: 34426440 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-21-2092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) is the most common sarcoma of the gastrointestinal tract, with mutant succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) subunits (A-D) comprising less than 7.5% (i.e., 150-200/year) of new cases annually in the United States. Contrary to GISTs harboring KIT or PDGFRA mutations, SDH-mutant GISTs affect adolescents/young adults, often metastasize, and are frequently resistant to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI). Lack of human models for any SDH-mutant tumors, including GIST, has limited molecular characterization and drug discovery. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We describe methods for establishing novel patient-derived SDH-mutant (mSDH) GIST models and interrogated the efficacy of temozolomide on these tumor models in vitro and in clinical trials of patients with mSDH GIST. RESULTS Molecular and metabolic characterization of our patient-derived mSDH GIST models revealed that these models recapitulate the transcriptional and metabolic hallmarks of parent tumors and SDH deficiency. We further demonstrate that temozolomide elicits DNA damage and apoptosis in our mSDH GIST models. Translating our in vitro discovery to the clinic, a cohort of patients with SDH-mutant GIST treated with temozolomide (n = 5) demonstrated a 40% objective response rate and 100% disease control rate, suggesting that temozolomide represents a promising therapy for this subset of GIST. CONCLUSIONS We report the first methods to establish patient-derived mSDH tumor models, which can be readily employed for understanding patient-specific tumor biology and treatment strategies. We also demonstrate that temozolomide is effective in patients with mSDH GIST who are refractory to existing chemotherapeutic drugs (namely, TKIs) in clinic for GISTs, bringing a promising treatment option for these patients to clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayra Yebra
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Shruti Bhargava
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Avi Kumar
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Adam M Burgoyne
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Chih-Min Tang
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Hyunho Yoon
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Sudeep Banerjee
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Joseph Aguilera
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Thekla Cordes
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Vipul Sheth
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, Stanford, California
| | - Sangkyu Noh
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Rowan Ustoy
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Sam Li
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Sunil J Advani
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | | | - Michael C Heinrich
- Hematology/Medical Oncology, Portland VA Health Care System and OHSU Knight Cancer Institute, Portland, Oregon
| | - Razelle Kurzrock
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California.,Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of California San Diego Moores Cancer Center, San Diego, California
| | - Scott M Lippman
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California.,Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of California San Diego Moores Cancer Center, San Diego, California
| | - Paul T Fanta
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California.,Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of California San Diego Moores Cancer Center, San Diego, California
| | - Olivier Harismendy
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Medicine, Division of Biomedical Informatics, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California
| | - Christian Metallo
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Diabetes and Endocrinology Research Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.,Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Jason K Sicklick
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California. .,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California.,Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of California San Diego Moores Cancer Center, San Diego, California
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4
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Mühlenberg T, Ketzer J, Heinrich MC, Grunewald S, Marino-Enriquez A, Trautmann M, Hartmann W, Wardelmann E, Treckmann J, Worm K, Bertram S, Herold T, Schildhaus HU, Glimm H, Stenzinger A, Brors B, Horak P, Hohenberger P, Fröhling S, Fletcher JA, Bauer S. KIT-Dependent and KIT-Independent Genomic Heterogeneity of Resistance in Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors - TORC1/2 Inhibition as Salvage Strategy. Mol Cancer Ther 2019; 18:1985-1996. [PMID: 31308077 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-18-1224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Sporadic gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST), characterized by activating mutations of KIT or PDGFRA, favorably respond to KIT inhibitory treatment but eventually become resistant. The development of effective salvage treatments is complicated by the heterogeneity of KIT secondary resistance mutations. Recently, additional mutations that independently activate KIT-downstream signaling have been found in pretreated patients-adding further complexity to the scope of resistance. We collected genotyping data for KIT from tumor samples of pretreated GIST, providing a representative overview on the distribution and incidence of secondary KIT mutations (n = 80). Analyzing next-generation sequencing data of 109 GIST, we found that 18% carried mutations in KIT-downstream signaling intermediates (NF1/2, PTEN, RAS, PIK3CA, TSC1/2, AKT, BRAF) potentially mediating resistance to KIT inhibitors. Notably, we found no apparent other driver mutations in refractory cases that were analyzed by whole exome/genome sequencing (13/109). Using CRISPR/Cas9 methods, we generated a panel of GIST cell lines harboring mutations in KIT, PTEN, KRAS, NF1, and TSC2 We utilized this panel to evaluate sapanisertib, a novel mTOR kinase inhibitor, as a salvage strategy. Sapanisertib had potent antiproliferative effects in all cell lines, including those with KIT-downstream mutations. Combinations with KIT or MEK inhibitors completely abrogated GIST-survival signaling and displayed synergistic effects. Our isogenic cell line panel closely approximates the genetic heterogeneity of resistance observed in heavily pretreated patients with GIST. With the clinical development of novel, broad spectrum KIT inhibitors, emergence of non-KIT-related resistance may require combination treatments with inhibitors of KIT-downstream signaling such as mTOR or MEK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Mühlenberg
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sarcoma Center, West German Cancer Center, University Duisburg-Essen, Medical School, Essen, Germany.
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julia Ketzer
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sarcoma Center, West German Cancer Center, University Duisburg-Essen, Medical School, Essen, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael C Heinrich
- Portland VA Health Care System, Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Susanne Grunewald
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sarcoma Center, West German Cancer Center, University Duisburg-Essen, Medical School, Essen, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Adrian Marino-Enriquez
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Marcel Trautmann
- Gerhard Domagk Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Hartmann
- Gerhard Domagk Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Eva Wardelmann
- Gerhard Domagk Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Jürgen Treckmann
- Department of Visceral and Transplant Surgery, Sarcoma Center, West German Cancer Center, University Duisburg-Essen, Medical School, Essen, Germany
| | - Karl Worm
- Institute of Pathology, University Hospital of Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
| | - Stefanie Bertram
- Institute of Pathology, University Hospital of Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
| | - Thomas Herold
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute of Pathology, University Hospital of Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
| | | | - Hanno Glimm
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Translational Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT) Dresden, Dresden University Hospital, Dresden, Germany
| | - Albrecht Stenzinger
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute of Pathology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Benedikt Brors
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Peter Horak
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Translational Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT) Heidelberg, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Stefan Fröhling
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Translational Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT) Heidelberg, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jonathan A Fletcher
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Sebastian Bauer
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sarcoma Center, West German Cancer Center, University Duisburg-Essen, Medical School, Essen, Germany.
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
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5
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Hasse FC, Koerber SA, Prigge ES, Liermann J, von Knebel Doeberitz M, Debus J, Sterzing F. Overcoming radioresistance in WiDr cells with heavy ion irradiation and radiosensitization by 2-deoxyglucose with photon irradiation. Clin Transl Radiat Oncol 2019; 19:52-58. [PMID: 31517070 PMCID: PMC6733777 DOI: 10.1016/j.ctro.2019.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
2-DG acts as a radiosensitizer to photons depending on the time of its application. There is no sensitization to 12C irradiation by 2-DG. 12C combination therapy still has the higher dose effectiveness.
Background and purpose Radiosensitizers and heavy ion irradiation could improve therapy for female patients with malignant tumors located in the pelvic region through dose reduction. Aim of the study was to investigate the radiosensitizing potential of 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) in combination with carbon ion-irradiation (12C) in representative cell lines of cancer in the female pelvic region. Materials and methods The human cervix carcinoma cell line CaSki and the colorectal carcinoma cell line WiDr were used. 2-DG was employed in two different settings, pretreatment and treatment simultaneous to irradiation. Clonogenic survival, α and β values for application of the linear quadratic model and relative biological effectiveness (RBE) were determined. ANOVA tests were used for statistical group comparison. Isobolograms were generated for curve comparisons. Results The comparison of monotherapy with 12C versus photons yielded RBE values of 2.4 for CaSki and 3.5 for WiDr along with a significant increase of α values in the 12C setting. 2-DG monotherapy reduced the colony formation of both cell lines. Radiosensitization was found in WiDr for the combination of photon irradiation with synchronous application of 2-DG. The same setup for 12C showed no radiosensitization, but rather an additive effect. In all settings with CaSki, the combination of irradiation and 2-DG exhibited additive properties. Conclusion The combination of 2-DG and photon therapy, as well as irradiation with carbon ions can overcome radioresistance of tumor cells such as WiDr.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Christian Hasse
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Alexander Koerber
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Elena Sophie Prigge
- Department of Applied Tumor Biology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jakob Liermann
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Magnus von Knebel Doeberitz
- Department of Applied Tumor Biology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Juergen Debus
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Florian Sterzing
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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6
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Protein N-glycosylation alteration and glycolysis inhibition both contribute to the antiproliferative action of 2-deoxyglucose in breast cancer cells. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2018; 171:581-591. [DOI: 10.1007/s10549-018-4874-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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7
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Lian BSX, Yek AEH, Shuvas H, Abdul Rahman SF, Muniandy K, Mohana-Kumaran N. Synergistic anti-proliferative effects of combination of ABT-263 and MCL-1 selective inhibitor A-1210477 on cervical cancer cell lines. BMC Res Notes 2018; 11:197. [PMID: 29580266 PMCID: PMC5870236 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-018-3302-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There are number of studies which report that BCL-2 anti-apoptotic proteins (e.g. BCL-2, BCL-XL, and MCL-1) are highly expressed in cervical cancer tissues compared to the normal cervical epithelia. Despite these reports, targeting these proteins for cervical cancer treatment has not been explored extensively. BH3-mimetics that inhibit specific BCL-2 anti-apoptotic proteins may hold encouraging treatment outcomes for cervical cancer management. Hence, the aim of this pilot study is to investigate the sensitivity of cervical cancer cell lines to combination of two BH3-mimetics namely ABT-263 which selectively inhibits BCL-2, BCL-XL and BCL-w and A-1210477, a selective MCL-1 inhibitor. RESULTS We report that combination of A-1210477 and ABT-263 exhibited synergistic effects on all cervical cancer cell lines tested. Drug sensitization studies revealed that A-1210477 sensitised the cervical cancer cell lines SiHa and CaSki to ABT-263 by 11- and fivefold, respectively. Sensitization also occurred in the opposite direction whereby ABT-263 sensitised SiHa and CaSki to A-1210477 by eightfold. This report shows that combination of ABT-263 and A-1210477 could be a potential treatment strategy for cervical cancer. Extensive drug mechanistic studies and drug sensitivity studies in physiological models are necessary to unleash the prospect of this combination for cervical cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Angeline En Hui Yek
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Gelugor, Penang Malaysia
| | - Hemalata Shuvas
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Gelugor, Penang Malaysia
| | | | - Kalaivani Muniandy
- Institute for Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Gelugor, Penang Malaysia
| | - Nethia Mohana-Kumaran
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Gelugor, Penang Malaysia
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8
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Abstract
Despite availability of sequence site-specific information resulting from years of sequencing and sequence feature curation, there have been few efforts to integrate and annotate this information. In this study, we update the number of human N-linked glycosylation sequons (NLGs), and we investigate cancer-relatedness of glycosylation-impacting somatic nonsynonymous single-nucleotide variation (nsSNV) by mapping human NLGs to cancer variation data and reporting the expected loss or gain of glycosylation sequon. We find 75.8% of all human proteins have at least one NLG for a total of 59,341 unique NLGs (includes predicted and experimentally validated). Only 27.4% of all NLGs are experimentally validated sites on 4,412 glycoproteins. With respect to cancer, 8,895 somatic-only nsSNVs abolish NLGs in 5,204 proteins and 12,939 somatic-only nsSNVs create NLGs in 7,356 proteins in cancer samples. nsSNVs causing loss of 24 NLGs on 23 glycoproteins and nsSNVs creating 41 NLGs on 40 glycoproteins are identified in three or more cancers. Of all identified cancer somatic variants causing potential loss or gain of glycosylation, only 36 have previously known disease associations. Although this work is computational, it builds on existing genomics and glycobiology research to promote identification and rank potential cancer nsSNV biomarkers for experimental validation.
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9
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Rubio-Patiño C, Bossowski JP, Villa E, Mondragón L, Zunino B, Proïcs E, Chiche J, Bost F, Verhoeyen E, Ricci JE. Low carbohydrate diet prevents Mcl-1-mediated resistance to BH3-mimetics. Oncotarget 2018; 7:73270-73279. [PMID: 27689327 PMCID: PMC5341978 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.12309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Overexpression of Mcl-1 is implicated in resistance of several cancers to chemotherapeutic treatment, therefore identifying a safe way to decrease its expression in tumor cells represents a central goal. We investigated if a modulation of the diet could impact on Mcl-1 expression using a Myc-driven lymphoma model. We established that a partial reduction of caloric intake by 25% represents an efficient way to decrease Mcl-1 expression in tumor cells. Furthermore, using isocaloric custom diets, we observed that carbohydrates (CHO) are the main regulators of Mcl-1 expression within the food. Indeed, feeding lymphoma-bearing mice with a diet having 25% less carbohydrates was sufficient to decrease Mcl-1 expression by 50% in lymphoma cells. We showed that a low CHO diet resulted in AMPK activation and mTOR inhibition leading to eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2) inhibition, blocking protein translation elongation. Strikingly, a low CHO diet was sufficient to sensitize Myc-driven lymphoma-bearing mice to ABT-737-induced cell death in vivo. Thus reducing carbohydrate intake may represent a safe way to decrease Mcl-1 expression and to sensitize tumor cells to anti-cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Rubio-Patiño
- Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Contrôle Métabolique des Morts Cellulaires", Nice, France.,Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France
| | - Jozef P Bossowski
- Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Contrôle Métabolique des Morts Cellulaires", Nice, France.,Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France
| | - Elodie Villa
- Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Contrôle Métabolique des Morts Cellulaires", Nice, France.,Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France
| | - Laura Mondragón
- Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Contrôle Métabolique des Morts Cellulaires", Nice, France.,Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France
| | - Barbara Zunino
- Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Contrôle Métabolique des Morts Cellulaires", Nice, France.,Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France
| | - Emma Proïcs
- Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Contrôle Métabolique des Morts Cellulaires", Nice, France.,Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France.,Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Département d'Anesthésie Réanimation, Nice, France
| | - Johanna Chiche
- Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Contrôle Métabolique des Morts Cellulaires", Nice, France.,Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France
| | - Frédéric Bost
- Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France.,Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Cellular and Molecular Physiopathology of Obesity and Diabetes", Nice, France
| | - Els Verhoeyen
- Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Contrôle Métabolique des Morts Cellulaires", Nice, France.,Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France
| | - Jean-Ehrland Ricci
- Inserm, U1065, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), Équipe "Contrôle Métabolique des Morts Cellulaires", Nice, France.,Université Nice Côte d'Azur, Inserm, C3M, France
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10
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Kouidhi S, Ben Ayed F, Benammar Elgaaied A. Targeting Tumor Metabolism: A New Challenge to Improve Immunotherapy. Front Immunol 2018; 9:353. [PMID: 29527212 PMCID: PMC5829092 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, a marked number of clinical trials on cancer treatment have revealed the success of immunomodulatory therapies based on immune checkpoint inhibitors that activate tumor-specific T cells. However, the therapeutic efficacy of cancer immunotherapies is only restricted to a small fraction of patients. A deeper understanding of key mechanisms generating an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) remains a major challenge for more effective antitumor immunity. There is a growing evidence that the TME supports inappropriate metabolic reprogramming that dampens T cell function, and therefore impacts the antitumor immune response and tumor progression. Notably, the immunosuppressive TME is characterized by a lack of crucial carbon sources critical for T cell function and increased inhibitory signals. Here, we summarize the basics of intrinsic and extrinsic metabolic remodeling and metabolic checkpoints underlying the competition between cancer and infiltrating immune cells for nutrients and metabolites. Intriguingly, the upregulation of tumor programmed death-L1 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 alters the metabolic programme of T cells and drives their exhaustion. In this context, targeting both tumor and T cell metabolism can beneficially enhance or temper immunity in an inhospitable microenvironment and markedly improve the success of immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumaya Kouidhi
- Laboratory BVBGR, LR11ES31, Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Sidi Thabet (ISBST), Department of Biotechnology, University of Manouba, Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Genetics, Immunology and Human Pathology, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Department of Biology, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Farhat Ben Ayed
- Association Tunisienne de Lutte contre le Cancer (ATCC), Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Amel Benammar Elgaaied
- Laboratory of Genetics, Immunology and Human Pathology, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Department of Biology, University Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
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11
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Hayashi Y, Toyomasu Y, Saravanaperumal SA, Bardsley MR, Smestad JA, Lorincz A, Eisenman ST, Cipriani G, Nelson Holte MH, Al Khazal FJ, Syed SA, Gajdos GB, Choi KM, Stoltz GJ, Miller KE, Kendrick ML, Rubin BP, Gibbons SJ, Bharucha AE, Linden DR, Maher LJ, Farrugia G, Ordog T. Hyperglycemia Increases Interstitial Cells of Cajal via MAPK1 and MAPK3 Signaling to ETV1 and KIT, Leading to Rapid Gastric Emptying. Gastroenterology 2017; 153:521-535.e20. [PMID: 28438610 PMCID: PMC5526732 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2017.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 04/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Depletion of interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) is common in diabetic gastroparesis. However, in approximately 20% of patients with diabetes, gastric emptying (GE) is accelerated. GE also occurs faster in obese individuals, and is associated with increased blood levels of glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes. To understand the fate of ICCs in hyperinsulinemic, hyperglycemic states characterized by rapid GE, we studied mice with mutation of the leptin receptor (Leprdb/db), which in our colony had accelerated GE. We also investigated hyperglycemia-induced signaling in the ICC lineage and ICC dependence on glucose oxidative metabolism in mice with disruption of the succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit C gene (Sdhc). METHODS Mice were given breath tests to analyze GE of solids. ICCs were studied by flow cytometry, intracellular electrophysiology, isometric contractility measurement, reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction, immunoblot, immunohistochemistry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and metabolite assays; cells and tissues were manipulated pharmacologically and by RNA interference. Viable cell counts, proliferation, and apoptosis were determined by methyltetrazolium, Ki-67, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, bromodeoxyuridine, and caspase-Glo 3/7 assays. Sdhc was disrupted in 2 different strains of mice via cre recombinase. RESULTS In obese, hyperglycemic, hyperinsulinemic female Leprdb/db mice, GE was accelerated and gastric ICC and phasic cholinergic responses were increased. Female KitK641E/+ mice, which have genetically induced hyperplasia of ICCs, also had accelerated GE. In isolated cells of the ICC lineage and gastric organotypic cultures, hyperglycemia stimulated proliferation by mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1)- and MAPK3-dependent stabilization of ets variant 1-a master transcription factor for ICCs-and consequent up-regulation of v-kit Hardy-Zuckerman 4 feline sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KIT) receptor tyrosine kinase. Opposite changes occurred in mice with disruption of Sdhc. CONCLUSIONS Hyperglycemia increases ICCs via oxidative metabolism-dependent, MAPK1- and MAPK3-mediated stabilization of ets variant 1 and increased expression of KIT, causing rapid GE. Increases in ICCs might contribute to the acceleration in GE observed in some patients with diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujiro Hayashi
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Gastroenterology Research Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Yoshitaka Toyomasu
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Gastroenterology Research Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Siva Arumugam Saravanaperumal
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Gastroenterology Research Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Michael R. Bardsley
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Gastroenterology Research Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - John A. Smestad
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Andrea Lorincz
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Gastroenterology Research Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | | | | | | | - Fatimah J. Al Khazal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Sabriya A. Syed
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Gastroenterology Research Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Gabriella B. Gajdos
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Gastroenterology Research Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Kyoung Moo Choi
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Gary J. Stoltz
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Katie E. Miller
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | | | - Brian P. Rubin
- Departments of Anatomic Pathology and Cancer Biology, Robert J. Tomsich Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute and Taussig Cancer Center, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Simon J. Gibbons
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Adil E. Bharucha
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - David R. Linden
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Louis James Maher
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | | | - Tamas Ordog
- Enteric Neuroscience Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota.
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12
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Ravegnini G, Sammarini G, Nannini M, Pantaleo MA, Biasco G, Hrelia P, Angelini S. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST): Facing cell death between autophagy and apoptosis. Autophagy 2017; 13:452-463. [PMID: 28055310 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2016.1256522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy and apoptosis are 2 fundamental biological mechanisms that may cooperate or be antagonistic, although both are involved in deciding the fate of cells in physiological or pathological conditions. These 2 mechanisms coexist simultaneously in cells and share common upstream signals and stimuli. Autophagy and apoptosis play pivotal roles in cancer development. Autophagy plays a key function in maintaining tumor cell survival by providing energy during unfavorable metabolic conditions through its recycling mechanism, and supporting the high energy requirement for metabolism and growth. This review focuses on gastrointestinal stromal tumors and cell death through autophagy and apoptosis, taking into account the involvement of both of these processes in tumor development and growth and as mechanisms of drug resistance. We also focus on the crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis as an emerging field with major implications for the development of novel therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Ravegnini
- a Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology , University of Bologna , Bologna Italy
| | - Giulia Sammarini
- a Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology , University of Bologna , Bologna Italy
| | - Margherita Nannini
- b Department of Specialized , Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine, Sant'Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, University of Bologna , Bologna , Italy
| | - Maria A Pantaleo
- b Department of Specialized , Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine, Sant'Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, University of Bologna , Bologna , Italy.,c "Giorgio Prodi" Cancer Research Center, University of Bologna , Bologna , Italy
| | - Guido Biasco
- b Department of Specialized , Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine, Sant'Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, University of Bologna , Bologna , Italy.,c "Giorgio Prodi" Cancer Research Center, University of Bologna , Bologna , Italy
| | - Patrizia Hrelia
- a Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology , University of Bologna , Bologna Italy
| | - Sabrina Angelini
- a Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology , University of Bologna , Bologna Italy
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13
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Ranftler C, Meisslitzer-Ruppitsch C, Neumüller J, Ellinger A, Pavelka M. Golgi apparatus dis- and reorganizations studied with the aid of 2-deoxy-D-glucose and visualized by 3D-electron tomography. Histochem Cell Biol 2016; 147:415-438. [PMID: 27975144 PMCID: PMC5359389 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-016-1515-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We studied Golgi apparatus disorganizations and reorganizations in human HepG2 hepatoblastoma cells by using the nonmetabolizable glucose analogue 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2DG) and analyzing the changes in Golgi stack architectures by 3D-electron tomography. Golgi stacks remodel in response to 2DG-treatment and are replaced by tubulo-glomerular Golgi bodies, from which mini-Golgi stacks emerge again after removal of 2DG. The Golgi stack changes correlate with the measured ATP-values. Our findings indicate that the classic Golgi stack architecture is impeded, while cells are under the influence of 2DG at constantly low ATP-levels, but the Golgi apparatus is maintained in forms of the Golgi bodies and Golgi stacks can be rebuilt as soon as 2DG is removed. The 3D-electron microscopic results highlight connecting regions that interlink membrane compartments in all phases of Golgi stack reorganizations and show that the compact Golgi bodies mainly consist of continuous intertwined tubules. Connections and continuities point to possible new transport pathways that could substitute for other modes of traffic. The changing architectures visualized in this work reflect Golgi stack dynamics that may be essential for basic cell physiologic and pathologic processes and help to learn, how cells respond to conditions of stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Ranftler
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Schwarzspanierstraße 17, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Josef Neumüller
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Schwarzspanierstraße 17, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Adolf Ellinger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Schwarzspanierstraße 17, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Margit Pavelka
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Schwarzspanierstraße 17, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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14
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VHL-deficient renal cancer cells gain resistance to mitochondria-activating apoptosis inducers by activating AKT through the IGF1R-PI3K pathway. Tumour Biol 2016; 37:13295-13306. [PMID: 27460078 PMCID: PMC5097090 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-016-5260-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously developed (2-deoxyglucose)-(ABT-263) combination therapy (2DG-ABT), which induces apoptosis by activating Bak in the mitochondria of highly glycolytic cells with varied genetic backgrounds. However, the rates of apoptosis induced by 2DG-ABT were lower in von Hippel-Lindau (VHL)-deficient cancer cells. The re-expression of VHL protein in these cells lowered IGF1R expression in a manner independent of oxygen concentration. Lowering IGF1R expression via small interfering RNA (siRNA) sensitized the cells to 2DG-ABT, suggesting that IGF1R interfered with the activation of apoptosis by the mitochondria. To determine which of the two pathways activated by IGF1R, the Ras-ERK pathway or the PI3K-AKT pathway, was involved in the impairment of mitochondria activation, the cells were treated with a specific inhibitor of either PI3K or ERK, and 2DG-ABT was added to activate the mitochondria. The apoptotic rates resulting from 2DG-ABT treatment were higher in the cells treated with the PI3K inhibitor, while the rates remained approximately the same in the cells treated with the ERK inhibitor. In 2DG-ABT-sensitive cells, a 4-h 2DG treatment caused the dissociation of Mcl-1 from Bak, while ABT treatment alone caused the dissociation of Bcl-xL from Bak without substantially reducing Mcl-1 levels. In 2DG-ABT-resistant cells, Mcl-1 dissociated from Bak only when AKT activity was inhibited during the 4-h 2DG treatment. Thus, in VHL-deficient cells, IGF1R activated AKT and stabilized the Bak-Mcl-1 complex, thereby conferring cell resistance to apoptosis.
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15
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Molecular subtypes of gastrointestinal stromal tumor requiring specific treatments. Curr Opin Oncol 2016; 28:331-7. [DOI: 10.1097/cco.0000000000000303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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