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Jacquemont J, Brandl SJ, McFarland EP, Claudet J, Baldwin CC, Barrett J, Tornabene L. Vertical structure of Caribbean deep-reef fishes from the altiphotic to deep-sea boundary. Sci Rep 2024; 14:19489. [PMID: 39174608 PMCID: PMC11341716 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-69774-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 08/08/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024] Open
Abstract
While recent technical breakthroughs have enabled advances in the description of reefs down to 150 m, the structure and depth zonation of deep-reef communities below 150 m remains largely unknown. Here, we present results from over 10 years of deep-reef fish surveys using human-occupied submersibles at four locations across the Caribbean Sea, constituting one of the only continuous reef-fish surveys from 10 to 480 m (1 site) and 40 to 300 m (3 sites). We identify four vertically stratified deep-reef fish communities between 40 and 300 m bordered by an altiphotic (0-10 m) and a deep-sea (300-480 m) community. We found a strong faunal break around 150 m that separates mesophotic and rariphotic zones and secondary breaks at ~ 70 to 90 m and ~ 180 to 200 m subdividing these zones into upper and lower communities. From 300 to 480 m in Roatán, we found a single fish community dominated by deep-sea families, indicating that the lower boundary of the reef-fish realm occurs at 300 m. No differences were found between communities ranging from 20 to 60 m, suggesting that fishes from the lower altiphotic and upper mesophotic form an ecological continuum. While some variability was observed across sites, the overall depth zonation and key species characterizing depth zones were consistent. Most deep-reef species observed were depth specialists restricted to a single depth zone, but many shallow-reef species extended down to mesophotic depths. Depth segregation among species of a genus was found across ten reef-fish genera and likely constitutes one of the mechanisms driving community distinctiveness and thereby fish diversity across depths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Jacquemont
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, 1122 NE Boat St 98195, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Simon J Brandl
- Department of Marine Science, The University of Texas at Austin, Marine Science Institute, 750 Channel View Dr, Port Aransas, TX, 78373, USA
| | - Emily P McFarland
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Joachim Claudet
- National Center for Scientific Research, PSL Université Paris, CRIOBE, CNRS-EPHE-UPVD, Maison de l'Océan, 195 rue Saint-Jacques, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Carole C Baldwin
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jenna Barrett
- National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration SWFSC, 8901 La Jolla Shores Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Luke Tornabene
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, 1122 NE Boat St 98195, Seattle, WA, USA
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2
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Backstrom CH, Padilla-Gamiño JL, Spalding HL, Roth MS, Smith CM, Gates RD, Rodrigues LJ. Mesophotic corals in Hawai'i maintain autotrophy to survive low-light conditions. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20231534. [PMID: 38378154 PMCID: PMC10878818 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
In mesophotic coral ecosystems, reef-building corals and their photosynthetic symbionts can survive with less than 1% of surface irradiance. How depth-specialist corals rely upon autotrophically and heterotrophically derived energy sources across the mesophotic zone remains unclear. We analysed the stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope values of a Leptoseris community from the 'Au'au Channel, Maui, Hawai'i (65-125 m) including four coral host species living symbiotically with three algal haplotypes. We characterized the isotope values of hosts and symbionts across species and depth to compare trophic strategies. Symbiont δ13C was consistently 0.5‰ higher than host δ13C at all depths. Mean colony host and symbiont δ15N differed by up to 3.7‰ at shallow depths and converged at deeper depths. These results suggest that both heterotrophy and autotrophy remained integral to colony survival across depth. The increasing similarity between host and symbiont δ15N at deeper depths suggests that nitrogen is more efficiently shared between mesophotic coral hosts and their algal symbionts to sustain autotrophy. Isotopic trends across depth did not generally vary by host species or algal haplotype, suggesting that photosynthesis remains essential to Leptoseris survival and growth despite low light availability in the mesophotic zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum H. Backstrom
- Department of Geography and the Environment, Villanova University, 800 E Lancaster Ave., Villanova, PA 19085, USA
| | | | - Heather L. Spalding
- Department of Biology, College of Charleston, 66 George Street, Charleston, SC 29424, USA
- School of Life Sciences, University of Hawai‘i, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - Melissa S. Roth
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, 441 Koshland Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720-3102, USA
| | - Celia M. Smith
- School of Life Sciences, University of Hawai‘i, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | | | - Lisa J. Rodrigues
- Department of Geography and the Environment, Villanova University, 800 E Lancaster Ave., Villanova, PA 19085, USA
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Pérez-Castro MÁ, Eyal G, Leyte-Morales GE, Hinojosa-Arango G, Enríquez S. Benthic Characterization of Mesophotic Communities Based on Optical Depths in the Southern Mexican Pacific Coast (Oaxaca). DIVERSITY 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/d15040531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
The distinction between shallow coral reefs and mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs) has not been fully clarified yet. The original definition of MCEs, by depths of 30–150 m, fixes their bathymetrical limits and fails to accommodate environmental and biological variation. Recent studies have indicated that water transparency and light availability may explain why MCEs do not occur at fixed depths but vary among localities. This study aimed to evaluate the presence and distribution of MCEs, along the central coast of Oaxaca, through optical depths and the associated benthic community. Using MODIS-Aqua satellite data (Kd490), we estimated the mesophotic optical depths monthly (z10%, z1%, z0.1%), over the last four years. In addition, to characterize benthic community structure, we conducted underwater photo quadrat surveys at two locations on the southern Mexican Pacific coast from 10 to 55 m depth. Significant differences between depths and locations were found in benthic communities. Furthermore, the lower distribution of photosynthetic taxa was different between the two locations but indicative to the z10% and z1% in both cases. Those differences were associated with the upwelling season, which reduces, drastically and differentially, the light availability for benthic communities between the two locations and limits the development of MCEs on the central coast of Oaxaca.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Ángel Pérez-Castro
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional (CIIDIR), Unidad Oaxaca, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Oaxaca 71230, Mexico
| | - Gal Eyal
- The Mina & Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Gerardo Esteban Leyte-Morales
- Instituto de Recursos, Campus Puerto Ángel, Universidad del Mar (UMAR), Ciudad Universitaria s/n, Puerto Ángel, Oaxaca 70902, Mexico
| | - Gustavo Hinojosa-Arango
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional (CIIDIR), Unidad Oaxaca, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Oaxaca 71230, Mexico
| | - Susana Enríquez
- Laboratory of Photobiology, Unidad Académica de Sistemas Arrecifales Puerto Morelos, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologiía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (ICML-UNAM), Puerto Morelos 77580, Mexico
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Pérez-Castro MÁ, Schubert N, Ang-Montes de Oca G, Leyte-Morales GE, Eyal G, Hinojosa-Arango G. Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems in the Eastern Tropical Pacific: The current state of knowledge and the spatial variability of their depth boundaries. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 806:150576. [PMID: 34582873 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP), Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems (MCEs) are limited by oceanographic conditions and are thought to be mostly absent. However, considering the currently discussed more flexible approach to define mesophotic boundaries, based on light availability, we performed a systematic search to assess their current state of knowledge. Using MODIS-Aqua satellite data (Kd490), we calculated the mesophotic boundaries in the ETP, based on optical depths, and performed a bibliographic search of studies carried out at those depths, including those present in turbid waters with KdPAR values up to 0.2 m-1. Seventy-seven papers on MCEs research were compiled in this review, recording a total of 138 species. The studies focus almost exclusively on taxonomy, ecosystem function, and reviews, indicating the need for future research regarding aspects, such as structuring environmental variables, molecular ecology, and natural resource management. Furthermore, remote sensing data show that there exists a high spatial variability of water transparency in the ETP, resulting in significant differences in KdPAR between oceanic and continental locations, mostly related to the occurrence of seasonal upwelling in the latter. Based on KdPAR, we estimated the mesophotic depth boundaries (z10%, z1%, z0.1%) for specific locations within the ETP and found that MCEs can potentially occur as shallow as 13-15 m in coastal regions. Also, we compared the calculated boundaries with the respective deepest records of light-dependent corals. With one exception, the presence of the corals was restricted to the upper mesophotic subzone (z10%-z1%), which agrees with reports for other regions, showing that light availability is one of the main drivers for the bathymetric distribution of MCEs and can be used as a first approach to identify their potential presence, though other local factors (e.g., geomorphology, temperature, internal waves) should also be considered, as they can cause shifts in depth limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Ángel Pérez-Castro
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional (CIIDIR), Unidad Oaxaca, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Calle de Hornos 1003, Sta. Cruz Xoxocotlán, Oaxaca, Mexico.
| | - Nadine Schubert
- CCMAR - Center of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Gabriela Ang-Montes de Oca
- Unidad Académica de Sistemas Arrecifales Puerto Morelos, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (ICML-UNAM), Cancún, Mexico
| | - Gerardo Esteban Leyte-Morales
- Universidad del Mar, Campus Puerto Ángel (UMAR), Instituto de Recursos, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, Puerto Ángel, Oaxaca, Mexico
| | - Gal Eyal
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; The Mina & Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Gustavo Hinojosa-Arango
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional (CIIDIR), Unidad Oaxaca, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Calle de Hornos 1003, Sta. Cruz Xoxocotlán, Oaxaca, Mexico.
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Coral Reef Mapping with Remote Sensing and Machine Learning: A Nurture and Nature Analysis in Marine Protected Areas. REMOTE SENSING 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/rs13152907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Mapping habitats is essential to assist strategic decisions regarding the use and protection of coral reefs. Coupled with machine learning (ML) algorithms, remote sensing has allowed detailed mapping of reefs at meaningful scales. Here we integrated WorldView-3 and Landsat-8 imagery and ML techniques to produce a map of suitable habitats for the occurrence of a model species, the hydrocoral Millepora alcicornis, in coral reefs located inside marine protected areas in Northeast Brazil. Conservation and management efforts in the region were also analyzed, integrating human use layers to the ecological seascape. Three ML techniques were applied: two to derive base layers, namely geographically weighted regressions for bathymetry and support vector machine classifier (SVM) for habitat mapping, and one to build the species distribution model (MaxEnt) for Millepora alcicornis, a conspicuous and important reef-building species in the area. Additionally, human use was mapped based on the presence of tourists and fishers. SVM yielded 15 benthic classes (e.g., seagrass, sand, coral), with an overall accuracy of 79%. Bathymetry and its derivative layers depicted the topographical complexity of the area. The Millepora alcicornis distribution model identified distance from the shore and depth as topographical factors limiting the settling and growth of coral colonies. The most important variables were ecological, showing the importance of maintaining high biodiversity in the ecosystem. The comparison of the habitat suitability model with species absence and human use maps indicated the impact of direct human activities as potential inhibitors of coral development. Results reinforce the importance of the establishment of no-take zones and other protective measures for maintaining local biodiversity.
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Stranges S, Cuervo-Robayo AP, Martínez-Meyer E, Morzaria-Luna HN, Reyes-Bonilla H. Distribución potencial bajo escenarios de cambio climático de corales del género Pocillopora (Anthozoa: Scleractinia) en el Pacífico oriental tropical. REV MEX BIODIVERS 2019. [DOI: 10.22201/ib.20078706e.2019.90.2696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
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Armstrong RA, Pizarro O, Roman C. Underwater Robotic Technology for Imaging Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems. CORAL REEFS OF THE WORLD 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-92735-0_51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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Using light-dependent scleractinia to define the upper boundary of mesophotic coral ecosystems on the reefs of Utila, Honduras. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0183075. [PMID: 28809933 PMCID: PMC5557359 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0183075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Shallow water zooxanthellate coral reefs grade into ecologically distinct mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs) deeper in the euphotic zone. MCEs are widely considered to start at an absolute depth limit of 30m deep, possibly failing to recognise that these are distinct ecological communities that may shift shallower or deeper depending on local environmental conditions. This study aimed to explore whether MCEs represent distinct biological communities, the upper boundary of which can be defined and whether the depth at which they occur may vary above or below 30m. Mixed-gas diving and closed-circuit rebreathers were used to quantitatively survey benthic communities across shallow to mesophotic reef gradients around the island of Utila, Honduras. Depths of up to 85m were sampled, covering the vertical range of the zooxanthellate corals around Utila. We investigate vertical reef zonation using a variety of ecological metrics to identify community shifts with depth, and the appropriateness of different metrics to define the upper MCE boundary. Patterns observed in scleractinian community composition varied between ordination analyses and approaches utilising biodiversity indices. Indices and richness approaches revealed vertical community transition was a gradation. Ordination approaches suggest the possibility of recognising two scleractinian assemblages. We could detect a mesophotic and shallow community while illustrating that belief in a static depth limit is biologically unjustified. The switch between these two communities occurred across bathymetric gradients as small as 10m and as large as 50m in depth. The difference between communities appears to be a loss of shallow specialists and increase in depth-generalist taxa. Therefore, it may be possible to define MCEs by a loss of shallow specialist species. To support a biological definition of mesophotic reefs, we advocate this analytical framework should be applied around the Caribbean and extended into other ocean basins where MCEs are present.
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Pyle RL, Boland R, Bolick H, Bowen BW, Bradley CJ, Kane C, Kosaki RK, Langston R, Longenecker K, Montgomery A, Parrish FA, Popp BN, Rooney J, Smith CM, Wagner D, Spalding HL. A comprehensive investigation of mesophotic coral ecosystems in the Hawaiian Archipelago. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2475. [PMID: 27761310 PMCID: PMC5068450 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the existence of coral-reef habitats at depths to 165 m in tropical regions has been known for decades, the richness, diversity, and ecological importance of mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs) has only recently become widely acknowledged. During an interdisciplinary effort spanning more than two decades, we characterized the most expansive MCEs ever recorded, with vast macroalgal communities and areas of 100% coral cover between depths of 50–90 m extending for tens of km2 in the Hawaiian Archipelago. We used a variety of sensors and techniques to establish geophysical characteristics. Biodiversity patterns were established from visual and video observations and collected specimens obtained from submersible, remotely operated vehicles and mixed-gas SCUBA and rebreather dives. Population dynamics based on age, growth and fecundity estimates of selected fish species were obtained from laser-videogrammetry, specimens, and otolith preparations. Trophic dynamics were determined using carbon and nitrogen stable isotopic analyses on more than 750 reef fishes. MCEs are associated with clear water and suitable substrate. In comparison to shallow reefs in the Hawaiian Archipelago, inhabitants of MCEs have lower total diversity, harbor new and unique species, and have higher rates of endemism in fishes. Fish species present in shallow and mesophotic depths have similar population and trophic (except benthic invertivores) structures and high genetic connectivity with lower fecundity at mesophotic depths. MCEs in Hawai‘i are widespread but associated with specific geophysical characteristics. High genetic, ecological and trophic connectivity establish the potential for MCEs to serve as refugia for some species, but our results question the premise that MCEs are more resilient than shallow reefs. We found that endemism within MCEs increases with depth, and our results do not support suggestions of a global faunal break at 60 m. Our findings enhance the scientific foundations for conservation and management of MCEs, and provide a template for future interdisciplinary research on MCEs worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Pyle
- Natural Sciences, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Raymond Boland
- Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, Honolulu, HI, United States; Hawai'i Pacific University, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Holly Bolick
- Natural Sciences, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Brian W Bowen
- Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Christina J Bradley
- Life and Environmental Sciences, University of California at Merced, Merced, CA, United States; Department of Oceanography, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Corinne Kane
- Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Washington State University , Pullman , WA , United States
| | - Randall K Kosaki
- Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Ross Langston
- Natural Sciences, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Ken Longenecker
- Natural Sciences, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Anthony Montgomery
- Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, United States; Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Frank A Parrish
- Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Brian N Popp
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawai'i at Manoa , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - John Rooney
- Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, University of Hawai'i at Manoa , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Celia M Smith
- Department of Botany, University of Hawai'i at Manoa , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Daniel Wagner
- Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Heather L Spalding
- Department of Botany, University of Hawai'i at Manoa , Honolulu , HI , United States
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Veazey LM, Franklin EC, Kelley C, Rooney J, Frazer LN, Toonen RJ. The implementation of rare events logistic regression to predict the distribution of mesophotic hard corals across the main Hawaiian Islands. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2189. [PMID: 27441122 PMCID: PMC4941748 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Predictive habitat suitability models are powerful tools for cost-effective, statistically robust assessment of the environmental drivers of species distributions. The aim of this study was to develop predictive habitat suitability models for two genera of scleractinian corals (Leptoserisand Montipora) found within the mesophotic zone across the main Hawaiian Islands. The mesophotic zone (30–180 m) is challenging to reach, and therefore historically understudied, because it falls between the maximum limit of SCUBA divers and the minimum typical working depth of submersible vehicles. Here, we implement a logistic regression with rare events corrections to account for the scarcity of presence observations within the dataset. These corrections reduced the coefficient error and improved overall prediction success (73.6% and 74.3%) for both original regression models. The final models included depth, rugosity, slope, mean current velocity, and wave height as the best environmental covariates for predicting the occurrence of the two genera in the mesophotic zone. Using an objectively selected theta (“presence”) threshold, the predicted presence probability values (average of 0.051 for Leptoseris and 0.040 for Montipora) were translated to spatially-explicit habitat suitability maps of the main Hawaiian Islands at 25 m grid cell resolution. Our maps are the first of their kind to use extant presence and absence data to examine the habitat preferences of these two dominant mesophotic coral genera across Hawai‘i.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay M Veazey
- Department of Biology, University of Hawaii at Manoa , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Erik C Franklin
- School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawaii, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology , Kaneohe , HI , United States
| | - Christopher Kelley
- The Hawaii Undersea Research Lab, University of Hawaii at Manoa , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - John Rooney
- Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, University of Hawaii at Manoa , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - L Neil Frazer
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii at Manoa , Honolulu , HI , United States
| | - Robert J Toonen
- Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii at Manoa , Kaneohe , HI , United States
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