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Gxasheka M, Gajana CS, Dlamini P. The role of topographic and soil factors on woody plant encroachment in mountainous rangelands: A mini literature review. Heliyon 2023; 9:e20615. [PMID: 37876417 PMCID: PMC10590860 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mountainous rangelands provide key ecosystem goods and services, particularly for human benefit. In spite of these benefits, mountain grasslands are undergoing extensive land-cover change as a result of woody plant encroachment. However, the influence of topographic and soil factors on woody plant encroachment is complex and has not yet been studied comprehensively. The aim of this review was to establish current knowledge on the influence of topographic and soil factors on woody plant encroachment in mountainous rangelands. To find relevant literature for our study on the impact of topographic and soil factors on woody plant encroachment in mountain rangelands, we conducted a thorough search on ScienceDirect and Google Scholar using various search terms. Initially, we found 27,745 papers. We narrowed down the search to include only 66 papers published in English that directly addressed the research area. The effect of slope aspect and slope position on woody plant encroachment is complex and dynamic, with no universal consensus on their impact. Some studies found higher woody plant encroachment on the cooler slopes, while others found increased woody plant encroachment on the warmer slopes. Slope gradient has a significant impact on woody plant encroachment, with steeper slopes tending to have more woody plant encroachment than gentle slopes. Soil texture and depth are important soil factors affecting woody plant encroachment. Coarse-textured soils promote the growth of woody plants, while fine-textured soils limit it. The effect of soil depth on woody plant encroachment remain unclear and requires further research. Soil moisture availability, soil nutrient content and soil microbial community are influenced by topography, which in turn affect the woody plant growth and distribution. In conclusion, the spread of woody plants in mountainous rangelands is a complex and dynamic process influenced by a range of factors. Further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms behind these interactions and to develop effective strategies for managing woody plant encroachment in mountainous rangelands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masibonge Gxasheka
- School of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, Department of Plant Production, Soil Science & Agricultural Engineering, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga, 0727, Limpopo, South Africa
- Department of Livestock and Pasture, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
| | - Christian Sabelo Gajana
- Department of Livestock and Pasture, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
| | - Phesheya Dlamini
- School of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, Department of Plant Production, Soil Science & Agricultural Engineering, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga, 0727, Limpopo, South Africa
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Beck JJ, Li D, Johnson SE, Rogers D, Cameron KM, Sytsma KJ, Givnish TJ, Waller DM. Functional traits mediate individualistic species-environment distributions at broad spatial scales while fine-scale species associations remain unpredictable. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2022; 109:1991-2005. [PMID: 36254552 PMCID: PMC10099973 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.16085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 09/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE Numerous processes influence plant distributions and co-occurrence patterns, including ecological sorting, limiting similarity, and stochastic effects. To discriminate among these processes and determine the spatial scales at which they operate, we investigated how functional traits and phylogenetic relatedness influence the distribution of temperate forest herbs. METHODS We surveyed understory plant communities across 257 forest stands in Wisconsin and Michigan (USA) and applied Bayesian phylogenetic linear mixed-effects models (PGLMMs) to quantify how functional traits and phylogenetic relatedness influence the environmental distribution of 139 herbaceous plant species along broad edaphic, climatic, and light gradients. These models also allowed us to test how functional and phylogenetic similarity affect species co-occurrence within microsites. RESULTS Leaf height, specific leaf area, and seed mass all influenced individualistic plant distributions along landscape-scale gradients in soil texture, soil fertility, light availability, and climate. In contrast, phylogenetic relationships did not consistently predict species-environment relationships. Neither functionally similar nor phylogenetically related herbs segregated among microsites within forest stands. CONCLUSIONS Trait-mediated ecological sorting appears to drive temperate-forest community assembly, generating individualistic plant distributions along regional environmental gradients. This finding links classic studies in plant ecology and prior research in plant physiological ecology to current trait-based approaches in community ecology. However, our results fail to support the common assumption that limiting similarity governs local plant co-occurrences. Strong ecological sorting among forest stands coupled with stochastic fine-scale interactions among species appear to weaken deterministic, niche-based assembly processes at local scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared J. Beck
- Negaunee Institute for Plant Conservation ScienceChicago Botanic Garden1000 Lake Cook RoadGlencoeIllinois60022USA
- Department of BotanyUniversity of Wisconsin‐Madison430 Lincoln DriveMadisonWisconsin53706USA
| | - Daijiang Li
- Department of Biological SciencesLouisiana State UniversityBaton RougeLouisiana70808USA
- Center for Computation & TechnologyLouisiana State UniversityBaton RougeLouisiana70808USA
| | | | - David Rogers
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Wisconsin‐ParksideKenoshaWisconsin53144USA
| | - Kenneth M. Cameron
- Department of BotanyUniversity of Wisconsin‐Madison430 Lincoln DriveMadisonWisconsin53706USA
| | - Kenneth J. Sytsma
- Department of BotanyUniversity of Wisconsin‐Madison430 Lincoln DriveMadisonWisconsin53706USA
| | - Thomas J. Givnish
- Department of BotanyUniversity of Wisconsin‐Madison430 Lincoln DriveMadisonWisconsin53706USA
| | - Donald M. Waller
- Department of BotanyUniversity of Wisconsin‐Madison430 Lincoln DriveMadisonWisconsin53706USA
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Beck JJ, Li D, Johnson SE, Rogers D, Cameron KM, Sytsma KJ, Givnish TJ, Waller DM. Functional traits mediate individualistic species-environment distributions at broad spatial scales while fine-scale species associations remain unpredictable. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2022; 109:1991-2005. [PMID: 36254552 DOI: 10.5061/dryad.98sf7m0n3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 09/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE Numerous processes influence plant distributions and co-occurrence patterns, including ecological sorting, limiting similarity, and stochastic effects. To discriminate among these processes and determine the spatial scales at which they operate, we investigated how functional traits and phylogenetic relatedness influence the distribution of temperate forest herbs. METHODS We surveyed understory plant communities across 257 forest stands in Wisconsin and Michigan (USA) and applied Bayesian phylogenetic linear mixed-effects models (PGLMMs) to quantify how functional traits and phylogenetic relatedness influence the environmental distribution of 139 herbaceous plant species along broad edaphic, climatic, and light gradients. These models also allowed us to test how functional and phylogenetic similarity affect species co-occurrence within microsites. RESULTS Leaf height, specific leaf area, and seed mass all influenced individualistic plant distributions along landscape-scale gradients in soil texture, soil fertility, light availability, and climate. In contrast, phylogenetic relationships did not consistently predict species-environment relationships. Neither functionally similar nor phylogenetically related herbs segregated among microsites within forest stands. CONCLUSIONS Trait-mediated ecological sorting appears to drive temperate-forest community assembly, generating individualistic plant distributions along regional environmental gradients. This finding links classic studies in plant ecology and prior research in plant physiological ecology to current trait-based approaches in community ecology. However, our results fail to support the common assumption that limiting similarity governs local plant co-occurrences. Strong ecological sorting among forest stands coupled with stochastic fine-scale interactions among species appear to weaken deterministic, niche-based assembly processes at local scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared J Beck
- Negaunee Institute for Plant Conservation Science, Chicago Botanic Garden, 1000 Lake Cook Road, Glencoe, Illinois, 60022, USA
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 430 Lincoln Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Daijiang Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 70808, USA
- Center for Computation & Technology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 70808, USA
| | - Sarah E Johnson
- Department of Biology, Northland College, Ashland, Wisconsin, 54806, USA
| | - David Rogers
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Parkside, Kenosha, Wisconsin, 53144, USA
| | - Kenneth M Cameron
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 430 Lincoln Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Kenneth J Sytsma
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 430 Lincoln Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Thomas J Givnish
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 430 Lincoln Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Donald M Waller
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 430 Lincoln Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
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Rchiad Z, Dai M, Hamel C, Bainard LD, Cade-Menun BJ, Terrat Y, St-Arnaud M, Hijri M. Soil Depth Significantly Shifted Microbial Community Structures and Functions in a Semiarid Prairie Agroecosystem. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:815890. [PMID: 35756012 PMCID: PMC9213743 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.815890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The North American Great Plains cover a large area of the Nearctic ecozone, and an important part of this biome is semiarid. The sustainable intensification of agriculture that is necessary to produce food for an ever-increasing world population requires knowledge of the taxonomic and functional structure of the soil microbial community. In this study, we investigated the influence of soil depth on the composition and functions of the microbial communities hosted in agricultural soils of a semiarid agroecosystem, using metagenomic profiling, and compared them to changes in soil chemical and physical properties. Shotgun sequencing was used to determine the composition and functions of the soil microbial community of 45 soil samples from three soil depths (0-15 cm, 15-30 cm, and 30-60 cm) under different agricultural land use types (native prairie, seeded prairie, and cropland) in southwest Saskatchewan. Analysis of community composition revealed the declining abundance of phyla Verrucomicrobia, Bacteroidetes, Chlorophyta, Bacillariophyta, and Acidobacteria with soil depth, whereas the abundance of phyla Ascomycota, Nitrospirae, Planctomycetes, and Cyanobacteria increased with soil depth. Soil functional genes related to nucleosides and nucleotides, phosphorus (P) metabolism, cell division and cell cycle, amino acids and derivatives, membrane transport, and fatty acids were particularly abundant at 30-60 cm. In contrast, functional genes related to DNA and RNA metabolism, metabolism of nitrogen, sulfur and carbohydrates, and stress response were more abundant in the top soil depth. The RDA analysis of functional genes and soil physico-chemical properties revealed a positive correlation between phages and soil organic P concentrations. In the rooting zone of this semiarid agroecosystem, soil microbes express variable structural patterns of taxonomic and functional diversity at different soil depths. This study shows that the soil microbial community is structured by soil depth and physicochemical properties, with the middle soil depth being an intermediate transition zone with a higher taxonomic diversity. Our results suggest the co-existence of various microbial phyla adapted to upper and lower soil depths in an intermediate-depth transition zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zineb Rchiad
- African Genome Center, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Ben Guerir, Morocco
| | - Mulan Dai
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal and Jardin Botanique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Research and Development of Enterra Corporation, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Chantal Hamel
- Quebec Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Québec, QC, Canada
- Swift Current Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Swift Current, SK, Canada
| | - Luke D. Bainard
- Swift Current Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Swift Current, SK, Canada
- Agassiz Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Agassiz, BC, Canada
| | - Barbara J. Cade-Menun
- Swift Current Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Swift Current, SK, Canada
| | - Yves Terrat
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal and Jardin Botanique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Marc St-Arnaud
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal and Jardin Botanique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Mohamed Hijri
- African Genome Center, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Ben Guerir, Morocco
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal and Jardin Botanique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
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Ksiazek‐Mikenas K, Chaudhary VB, Larkin DJ, Skogen KA. A habitat analog approach establishes native plant communities on green roofs. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Ksiazek‐Mikenas
- Department of Biology Elmhurst University Elmhurst Illinois USA
- Department of Plant Biology and Conservation Northwestern University Evanston Illinois USA
- Plant Biology and Conservation Chicago Botanic Garden Glencoe Illinois USA
| | - V. Bala Chaudhary
- Department of Environmental Studies Dartmouth College Hanover New Hampshire 03755 USA
| | - Daniel J. Larkin
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology University of Minnesota St. Paul Minnesota USA
| | - Krissa A. Skogen
- Department of Plant Biology and Conservation Northwestern University Evanston Illinois USA
- Plant Biology and Conservation Chicago Botanic Garden Glencoe Illinois USA
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Ahmed F, Arthur E, Liu H, Andersen MN. New Rootsnap Sensor Reveals the Ameliorating Effect of Biochar on In Situ Root Growth Dynamics of Maize in Sandy Soil. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:949. [PMID: 32670338 PMCID: PMC7330118 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We investigated if subsoil constraints to root development imposed by coarse sand were affected by drought and biochar application over two seasons. Biochar was applied to the subsoil of pots at 20-50 cm depth in concentrations of 0%, 1%, 2%, and 3% (B0, B1, B2, and B3). Maize was grown in the same pots 1 week and 12 months after biochar application. The maize plants were fully irrigated until flowering; thereafter, half of them were subjected to drought. A new method for observing root growth dynamics and root length density in situ, the Rootsnap sensor system, was developed. The sensors were installed at 50 cm depth just below the layer of biochar-amended subsoil. Using data from a smaller experiment with grass, the calculated root length densities from the sensors were compared with data from scanning of manually washed roots. In year 2, we investigated the effect of aged biochar on root growth using only the root wash and scanning method. The Rootsnap sensor revealed that the arrival time of the first root in B3 at the 50 cm depth averaged 47 days after planting, which was significantly earlier than in B0, by 9 days. The tendency for faster root proliferation in biochar-amended subsoil indicates that biochar reduced subsoil mechanical impedance and allowed roots to gain faster access to deep soil layers. A linear regression comparing root length density obtained from the Rootsnap sensor with the scanning method yielded an r 2 of 0.50. Our analysis using the scanning method further showed that under drought stress, maize roots responded with reduced root diameter and increased root length density at 50-70 cm depth in the first and second year, respectively. The trend under full irrigation was less clear, with significant decrease in root length density for B1 and B2 in year 2. Overall, reduction in subsoil mechanical impedance observed as early arrival of roots to the subsoil may prevent or delay the onset of drought and reduce leaching of nutrients in biochar-amended soil with positive implications for agricultural productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fauziatu Ahmed
- Regional Office for Africa, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Agroecology, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Emmanuel Arthur
- Department of Agroecology, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Hui Liu
- Department of Crop Production Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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Stein RA, Sheldon ND, Smith S. Rapid response to anthropogenic climate change by Thuja occidentalis: implications for past climate reconstructions and future climate predictions. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7378. [PMID: 31388476 PMCID: PMC6662565 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbon isotope values of leaves (δ13Cleaf) from meta-analyses and growth chamber studies of C3 plants have been used to propose generalized relationships between δ13Cleaf and climate variables such as mean annual precipitation (MAP), atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ([CO2]), and other climate variables. These generalized relationships are frequently applied to the fossil record to create paleoclimate reconstructions. Although plant evolution influences biochemistry and response to environmental stress, few studies have assessed species-specific carbon assimilation as it relates to climate outside of a laboratory. We measured δ13Cleaf values and C:N ratios of a wide-ranging evergreen conifer with a long fossil record, Thuja occidentalis (Cupressaceae) collected 1804-2017, in order to maximize potential paleo-applications of our focal species. This high-resolution record represents a natural experiment from pre-Industrial to Industrial times, which spans a range of geologically meaningful [CO2] and δ13Catm values. Δleaf values (carbon isotope discrimination between δ13Catm and δ13Cleaf) remain constant across climate conditions, indicating limited response to environmental stress. Only δ13Cleaf and δ13Catm values showed a strong relationship (linear), thus, δ13Cleaf is an excellent record of carbon isotopic changes in the atmosphere during Industrialization. In contrast with previous free-air concentration enrichment experiments, no relationship was found between C:N ratios and increasing [CO2]. Simultaneously static C:N ratios and Δleaf in light of increasing CO2 highlights plants' inability to match rapid climate change with increased carbon assimilation as previously expected; Δleaf values are not reliable tools to reconstruct MAP and [CO2], and δ13Cleaf values only decrease with [CO2] in line with atmospheric carbon isotope changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah A. Stein
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Nathan D. Sheldon
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Selena Smith
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Stockmeier LA, Givnish TJ. Plant distribution, stature, rarity, and diversity in a patterned calcareous fen: tests of geochemical and leaf-height models. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2019; 106:807-820. [PMID: 31157408 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.1298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE In patterned fens, patches of short, sparse, species-rich vegetation often occur on substrates rich in precipitated carbonates near calcareous springheads, with taller, denser vegetation farther away. Boyer and Wheeler (1989) hypothesized that phosphorus co-precipitation near springheads limits plant productivity and coverage, and Givnish (1982) proposed that aggregations of rare, short-statured plant species might reflect their competitive restriction to sparsely covered microsites. METHODS We tested these hypotheses by quantifying species distributions, leaf heights, plant coverage, community composition, and substrate and leaf chemistry of Eupatorium perfoliatum along a gradient of hydrology and geochemistry in a wetland complex in southeastern Wisconsin, USA, ranging from marl flats and fens on peat mounds near springheads to surrounding sedge meadows. RESULTS Community composition was strongly correlated with a one-dimensional environmental gradient along which coverage and height increased moving downslope from marl flats, while soil carbonate, phosphorus immobilization capacity, and local species richness decreased, consistent with theory. Regionally rare species were short and restricted to sparsely covered microsites; within and among species, leaf height increased with local coverage. NPK tissue stoichiometry did not entirely support the Boyer-Wheeler hypothesis, although nitrogen limitation appeared strongest in sedge meadows. Shifts in stature and tissue chemistry of E. perfoliatum along the marl flat-sedge meadow gradient suggested that zinc toxicity may help limit coverage near springheads despite no significant change in soil zinc content. CONCLUSIONS We propose a modified Boyer-Wheeler hypothesis to account for cascading effects of phosphorus co-precipitation near springheads on nitrogen fixation, nitrogen+phosphorus co-limitation, and zinc mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie A Stockmeier
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Thomas J Givnish
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
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Alstad AO, Damschen EI, Givnish TJ, Harrington JA, Leach MK, Rogers DA, Waller DM. The pace of plant community change is accelerating in remnant prairies. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2016; 2:e1500975. [PMID: 26989775 PMCID: PMC4788480 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1500975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Patterns of biodiversity are changing rapidly. "Legacy studies" use historical data to document changes between past and present communities, revealing long-term trends that can often be linked to particular drivers of ecological change. However, a single pair of historical samples cannot ascertain whether rates of change are consistent or whether the impact and identity of drivers have shifted. Using data from a second resurvey of 47 Wisconsin prairie remnants, we show that the pace of community change has increased with shifts in the strength of particular drivers. Annual rates of local colonization and extinction accelerated by 129 and 214%, respectively, between 1950 and 1987 and between 1987 and 2012. Two anthropogenic drivers-patch area and fire history-increased in importance between these periods. As the strength and number of anthropogenic forces increase, rates of biodiversity change are likely to accelerate in other ecosystems as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy O. Alstad
- Department of Zoology, 444 Birge Hall, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Ellen I. Damschen
- Department of Zoology, 451 Birge Hall, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Thomas J. Givnish
- Department of Botany, 315 Birge Hall, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - John A. Harrington
- Department of Landscape Architecture, 25c Agricultural Hall, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Mark K. Leach
- Integral Sustainability Consulting, N4731 510th Street, Menomonie, WI 54751, USA
| | - David A. Rogers
- Biological Science, 323 Greenquist Hall, University of Wisconsin–Parkside, Kenosha, WI 53144, USA
| | - Donald M. Waller
- Department of Botany, 232b Birge Hall, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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