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Sako H, Youssef M, Elisseeva O, Akimoto T, Suzuki K, Ushida T, Yamamoto T. microRNAs slow translating ribosomes to prevent protein misfolding in eukaryotes. EMBO J 2023; 42:e112469. [PMID: 37492926 PMCID: PMC10505912 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2022112469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Slower translation rates reduce protein misfolding. Such reductions in speed can be mediated by the presence of non-optimal codons, which allow time for proper folding to occur. Although this phenomenon is conserved from bacteria to humans, it is not known whether there are additional eukaryote-specific mechanisms which act in the same way. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), not present in prokaryotes, target both coding sequences (CDS) and 3' untranslated regions (UTR). Given their low suppressive efficiency, it has been unclear why miRNAs are equally likely to bind to a CDS. Here, we show that miRNAs transiently stall translating ribosomes, preventing protein misfolding with little negative effect on protein abundance. We first analyzed ribosome profiles and miRNA binding sites to examine whether miRNAs stall ribosomes. Furthermore, either global or specific miRNA deficiency accelerated ribosomes and induced aggregation of a misfolding-prone polypeptide reporter. These defects were rescued by slowing ribosomes using non-cleaving shRNAs as miRNA mimics. We finally show that proinsulin misfolding, associated with type II diabetes, was resolved by non-cleaving shRNAs. Our findings provide a eukaryote-specific mechanism of co-translational protein folding and a previously unknown mechanism of action to target protein misfolding diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Sako
- Cell Signal UnitOkinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (OIST)OkinawaJapan
| | - Mohieldin Youssef
- Cell Signal UnitOkinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (OIST)OkinawaJapan
| | - Olga Elisseeva
- Cell Signal UnitOkinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (OIST)OkinawaJapan
| | | | | | - Takashi Ushida
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringThe University of TokyoTokyoJapan
| | - Tadashi Yamamoto
- Cell Signal UnitOkinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (OIST)OkinawaJapan
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2
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Billon C, Sitaula S, Banerjee S, Welch R, Elgendy B, Hegazy L, Oh TG, Kazantzis M, Chatterjee A, Chrivia J, Hayes ME, Xu W, Hamilton A, Huss JM, Zhang L, Walker JK, Downes M, Evans RM, Burris TP. Synthetic ERRα/β/γ Agonist Induces an ERRα-Dependent Acute Aerobic Exercise Response and Enhances Exercise Capacity. ACS Chem Biol 2023; 18:756-771. [PMID: 36988910 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.2c00720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Repetitive physical exercise induces physiological adaptations in skeletal muscle that improves exercise performance and is effective for the prevention and treatment of several diseases. Genetic evidence indicates that the orphan nuclear receptors estrogen receptor-related receptors (ERRs) play an important role in skeletal muscle exercise capacity. Three ERR subtypes exist (ERRα, β, and γ), and although ERRβ/γ agonists have been designed, there have been significant difficulties in designing compounds with ERRα agonist activity. Additionally, there are limited synthetic agonists that can be used to target ERRs in vivo. Here, we report the identification of a synthetic ERR pan agonist, SLU-PP-332, that targets all three ERRs but has the highest potency for ERRα. Additionally, SLU-PP-332 has sufficient pharmacokinetic properties to be used as an in vivo chemical tool. SLU-PP-332 increases mitochondrial function and cellular respiration in a skeletal muscle cell line. When administered to mice, SLU-PP-332 increased the type IIa oxidative skeletal muscle fibers and enhanced exercise endurance. We also observed that SLU-PP-332 induced an ERRα-specific acute aerobic exercise genetic program, and the ERRα activation was critical for enhancing exercise endurance in mice. These data indicate the feasibility of targeting ERRα for the development of compounds that act as exercise mimetics that may be effective in the treatment of numerous metabolic disorders and to improve muscle function in the aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyrielle Billon
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Sadichha Sitaula
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Subhashis Banerjee
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Ryan Welch
- Gene Expression Laboratory Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Bahaa Elgendy
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Lamees Hegazy
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Tae Gyu Oh
- Gene Expression Laboratory Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Melissa Kazantzis
- The Scripps Research Institute Jupiter, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Arindam Chatterjee
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - John Chrivia
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Matthew E Hayes
- University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Weiyi Xu
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Angelica Hamilton
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Endocrinology, City of Hope, Duarte, California 91010, United States
| | - Janice M Huss
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Endocrinology, City of Hope, Duarte, California 91010, United States
| | - Lilei Zhang
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - John K Walker
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri 63103, United States
| | - Michael Downes
- Gene Expression Laboratory Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Ronald M Evans
- Gene Expression Laboratory Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Thomas P Burris
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
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3
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Bioenergetic Evaluation of Muscle Fatigue in Murine Tongue. Dysphagia 2022:10.1007/s00455-022-10537-y. [DOI: 10.1007/s00455-022-10537-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
AbstractMuscle fatigue is the diminution of force required for a particular action over time. Fatigue may be particularly pronounced in aging muscles, including those used for swallowing actions. Because risk for swallowing impairment (dysphagia) increases with aging, the contribution of muscle fatigue to age-related dysphagia is an emerging area of interest. The use of animal models, such as mice and rats (murine models) allows experimental paradigms for studying the relationship between muscle fatigue and swallowing function with a high degree of biological precision that is not possible in human studies. The goal of this article is to review basic experimental approaches to the study of murine tongue muscle fatigue related to dysphagia. Traditionally, murine muscle fatigue has been studied in limb muscles through direct muscle stimulation and behavioral exercise paradigms. As such, physiological and bioenergetic markers of muscle fatigue that have been validated in limb muscles may be applicable in studies of cranial muscle fatigue with appropriate modifications to account for differences in muscle architecture, innervation ratio, and skeletal support. Murine exercise paradigms may be used to elicit acute fatigue in tongue muscles, thereby enabling study of putative muscular adaptations. Using these approaches, hypotheses can be developed and tested in mice and rats to allow for future focused studies in human subjects geared toward developing and optimizing treatments for age-related dysphagia.
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4
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Cheng Q, Lu C, Qian R. The circadian clock regulates metabolic responses to physical exercise. Chronobiol Int 2022; 39:907-917. [PMID: 35282722 DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2022.2050384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
It has been proposed for years that physical exercise ameliorates metabolic diseases. Optimal exercise timing in humans and mammals has indicated that circadian clocks play a vital role in exercise and body metabolism. Skeletal muscle metabolism exhibits a robust circadian rhythm under the control of the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. Clock genes also control the development, differentiation, and function of skeletal muscles. In this review, we aimed to clarify the relationship between exercise, skeletal muscles, and the circadian clock. Health benefits can be attained by the scheduling of exercise at the best circadian time. Exercise therapy for metabolic diseases and cardiovascular health is a key adjuvant method. This review highlights the importance of exercise timing in maintaining healthy metabolism and circadian clocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianyun Cheng
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chao Lu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ruizhe Qian
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Shirokikh NE. Translation complex stabilization on messenger RNA and footprint profiling to study the RNA responses and dynamics of protein biosynthesis in the cells. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2021; 57:261-304. [PMID: 34852690 DOI: 10.1080/10409238.2021.2006599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
During protein biosynthesis, ribosomes bind to messenger (m)RNA, locate its protein-coding information, and translate the nucleotide triplets sequentially as codons into the corresponding sequence of amino acids, forming proteins. Non-coding mRNA features, such as 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTRs), start sites or stop codons of different efficiency, stretches of slower or faster code and nascent polypeptide interactions can alter the translation rates transcript-wise. Most of the homeostatic and signal response pathways of the cells converge on individual mRNA control, as well as alter the global translation output. Among the multitude of approaches to study translational control, one of the most powerful is to infer the locations of translational complexes on mRNA based on the mRNA fragments protected by these complexes from endonucleolytic hydrolysis, or footprints. Translation complex profiling by high-throughput sequencing of the footprints allows to quantify the transcript-wise, as well as global, alterations of translation, and uncover the underlying control mechanisms by attributing footprint locations and sizes to different configurations of the translational complexes. The accuracy of all footprint profiling approaches critically depends on the fidelity of footprint generation and many methods have emerged to preserve certain or multiple configurations of the translational complexes, often in challenging biological material. In this review, a systematic summary of approaches to stabilize translational complexes on mRNA for footprinting is presented and major findings are discussed. Future directions of translation footprint profiling are outlined, focusing on the fidelity and accuracy of inference of the native in vivo translation complex distribution on mRNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay E Shirokikh
- Division of Genome Sciences and Cancer, The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
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6
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Abstract
Endurance testing simultaneously assesses a wide variety of physiological systems including the cardiovascular, respiratory, metabolic, and neuromuscular systems (Gabriel and Zierath, Cell Metab 25:1000-1011, 2017). Treadmill running is a noninvasive method to evaluate fitness capacity in a longitudinal or cross-sectional manner. High-intensity exercise tests can be used to determine peak physical capacity in mice. However, because aging is associated with a progressive loss of physical capacity the running protocols can be adapted and optimized for aged mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph C Reynolds
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Changhan Lee
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. .,USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA. .,Biomedical Science, Graduate School, Ajou University, Suwon, South Korea.
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Glucose Ingestion Inhibits Endurance Exercise-Induced IL-6 Producing Macrophage Infiltration in Mice Muscle. Nutrients 2019; 11:nu11071496. [PMID: 31262006 PMCID: PMC6682949 DOI: 10.3390/nu11071496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Carbohydrate (CHO) supplementation during exercise attenuates exercise-induced increases in plasma Interleukin (IL)-6 concentration. However, the effects of CHO supplementation on muscle IL-6 production during endurance exercise is controversial. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of CHO supplementation on muscle IL-6 production during endurance exercise with a special focus on the IL-6 producing cells. Methods: C57BL/6J mice were divided into three groups—sedentary with water ingestion group as the control (Con; n = 10), exercise with water ingestion group (Ex; n = 10), and exercise with 6% glucose ingestion group (Ex + glucose; n = 10). The Ex and Ex + glucose groups completed 3 h of treadmill running (24 m/min, 7% incline) and were sacrificed immediately after exercise. Results: The exercise-induced increases of plasma IL-6 concentration and gastrocnemius IL-6 gene expression were attenuated by glucose ingestion. However, the increases of soleus IL-6 gene expression and gastrocnemius and soleus IL-6 protein expression were not attenuated by glucose ingestion. Furthermore, we observed that macrophages that infiltrated muscle produce IL-6 and glucose ingestion attenuated the infiltration of IL-6-producing macrophages. Conclusion: This study revealed that infiltrating macrophages may be one type of IL-6-producing cells during endurance exercise, and the infiltration of these cells in muscle was attenuated by glucose ingestion. However, the effects of glucose ingestion on muscle IL-6 production were limited.
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Zou ZY, Liu J, Chang C, Li JJ, Luo J, Jin Y, Ma Z, Wang TH, Shao JL. Biliverdin administration regulates the microRNA-mRNA expressional network associated with neuroprotection in cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury in rats. Int J Mol Med 2019; 43:1356-1372. [PMID: 30664169 PMCID: PMC6365090 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2019.4064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory response has an important role in the outcome of cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury (CIR). Biliverdin (BV) administration can relieve CIR in rats, but the mechanism remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to explore the expressional network of microRNA (miRNA)-mRNA in CIR rats following BV administration. A rat middle cerebral artery occlusion model with BV treatment was established. After neurobehavior was evaluated by neurological severity scores (NSS), miRNA and mRNA expressional profiles were analyzed by microarray technology from the cerebral cortex subjected to ischemia and BV administration. Then, bioinformatics prediction was used to screen the correlation between miRNA and mRNA, and 20 candidate miRNAs and 33 candidate mRNAs were verified by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Furthermore, the regulation relationship between ETS proto-oncogene 1 (Ets1) and miRNA204-5p was examined by luciferase assay. A total of 86 miRNAs were differentially expressed in the BV group compared with the other groups. A total of 10 miRNAs and 26 candidate genes were identified as a core 'microRNA-mRNA' regulatory network that was linked with the functional improvement of BV administration in CIR rats. Lastly, the luciferase assay results confirmed that miRNA204-5p directly targeted Ets1. The present findings suggest that BV administration may regulate multiple miRNAs and mRNAs to improve neurobehavior in CIR rats, by influencing cell proliferation, apoptosis, maintaining ATP homeostasis, and angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Yao Zou
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
| | - Jia Liu
- Experimental Animal Center, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
| | - Cheng Chang
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
| | - Jun-Jie Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
| | - Jing Luo
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
| | - Yuan Jin
- Experimental Animal Center, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
| | - Zheng Ma
- Experimental Animal Center, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
| | - Ting-Hua Wang
- Experimental Animal Center, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
| | - Jian-Lin Shao
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650000, P.R. China
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Cho Y, Ross RS. A mini review: Proteomics approaches to understand disused vs. exercised human skeletal muscle. Physiol Genomics 2018; 50:746-757. [PMID: 29958080 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00043.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Immobilization, bed rest, or denervation leads to muscle disuse and subsequent skeletal muscle atrophy. Muscle atrophy can also occur as a component of various chronic diseases such as cancer, AIDS, sepsis, diabetes, and chronic heart failure or as a direct result of genetic muscle disorders. In addition to this atrophic loss of muscle mass, metabolic deregulation of muscle also occurs. In contrast, physical exercise plays a beneficial role in counteracting disuse-induced atrophy by increasing muscle mass and strength. Along with this, exercise can also reduce mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic deregulation. Still, while exercise causes valuable metabolic and functional adaptations in skeletal muscle, the mechanisms and effectors that lead to these changes such as increased mitochondria content or enhanced protein synthesis are not fully understood. Therefore, mechanistic insights may ultimately provide novel ways to treat disuse induced atrophy and metabolic deregulation. Mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics offers enormous promise for investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying disuse and exercise-induced changes in skeletal muscle. This review will focus on initial findings uncovered by using proteomics approaches with human skeletal muscle specimens and discuss their potential for the future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshitake Cho
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego , La Jolla, California
| | - Robert S Ross
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego , La Jolla, California.,Cardiology Section, Department of Medicine, Veterans Administration Healthcare , San Diego, California
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10
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Potential role for microRNA in regulating hypoxia-induced metabolic suppression in jumbo squids. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2018; 1861:586-593. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2018.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Revised: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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11
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Fix DK, Hardee JP, Gao S, VanderVeen BN, Velázquez KT, Carson JA. Role of gp130 in basal and exercise-trained skeletal muscle mitochondrial quality control. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2018; 124:1456-1470. [PMID: 29389248 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01063.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The IL-6 cytokine family activates intracellular signaling pathways through glycoprotein-130 (gp130), and this signaling has established regulatory roles in muscle glucose metabolism and proteostasis. Although the IL-6 family has been implicated as myokines regulating the muscles' metabolic response to exercise, gp130's role in mitochondrial quality control involving fission, fusion, mitophagy, and biogenesis is not well understood. Therefore, we examined gp130's role in basal and exercise-trained muscle mitochondrial quality control. Muscles from C57BL/6, skeletal muscle-specific gp130 knockout (KO) mice, and C2C12 myotubes, were examined. KO did not alter treadmill run-to-fatigue or indices of mitochondrial content [cytochrome- c oxidase (COX) activity] or biogenesis (AMPK, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α, mitochondrial transcription factor A, and COX IV). KO increased mitochondrial fission 1 protein (FIS-1) while suppressing mitofusin-1 (MFN-1), which was recapitulated in myotubes after gp130 knockdown. KO induced ubiquitin-binding protein p62, Parkin, and ubiquitin in isolated mitochondria from gastrocnemius muscles. Knockdown of gp130 in myotubes suppressed STAT3 and induced accumulation of microtubule-associated protein-1 light chain 3B (LC3)-II relative to LC3-I. Suppression of myotube STAT3 did not alter FIS-1 or MFN-1. Exercise training increased muscle gp130 and suppressed STAT3. KO did not alter the exercise-training induction of COX activity, biogenesis, FIS-1, or Beclin-1. KO increased MFN-1 and suppressed 4-hydroxynonenal after exercise training. These findings suggest a role for gp130 in the modulation of mitochondrial dynamics and autophagic processes. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Although the IL-6 family of cytokines has been implicated in the regulation of skeletal muscle protein turnover and metabolism, less is understood about its role in mitochondrial quality control. We examined the glycoprotein-130 receptor in the regulation of skeletal muscle mitochondria quality control in the basal and exercise-trained states. We report that the muscle glycoprotein-130 receptor modulates basal mitochondrial dynamics and autophagic processes and is not necessary for exercise-training mitochondrial adaptations to quality control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis K Fix
- Integrative Muscle Biology Laboratory, Division of Applied Physiology, Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina
| | - Justin P Hardee
- Integrative Muscle Biology Laboratory, Division of Applied Physiology, Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina
| | - Song Gao
- Integrative Muscle Biology Laboratory, Division of Applied Physiology, Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina
| | - Brandon N VanderVeen
- Integrative Muscle Biology Laboratory, Division of Applied Physiology, Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina
| | - Kandy T Velázquez
- Integrative Muscle Biology Laboratory, Division of Applied Physiology, Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina.,Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina
| | - James A Carson
- Integrative Muscle Biology Laboratory, Division of Applied Physiology, Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina.,Center for Colon Cancer Research, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina
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