Transgenic Expression of the Formin Protein Fhod3 Selectively in the Embryonic Heart: Role of Actin-Binding Activity of Fhod3 and Its Sarcomeric Localization during Myofibrillogenesis

FHOD-1 and profilin protect sarcomeres against contraction-induced deformation> in C. elegans

Formin HOmology Domain 2-containing (FHOD) proteins are a subfamily of actin-organizing formins important for striated muscle development in many animals. We showed previously that absence of the sole FHOD protein, FHOD-1, from Caenorhabditis elegans results in thin body wall muscles with misshapen dense bodies that serve as sarcomere Z-lines. We demonstrate here that mutations predicted to specifically disrupt actin polymerization by FHOD-1 similarly disrupt muscle development, and that FHOD-1 cooperates with profilin PFN-3 for dense body morphogenesis, and with profilins PFN-2 and PFN-3 to promote body wall muscle growth. We further demonstrate that dense bodies in worms lacking FHOD-1 or PFN-2/PFN-3 are less stable than in wild-type animals, having a higher proportion of dynamic protein, and becoming distorted by prolonged muscle contraction. We also observe accumulation of actin and actin depolymerization factor/cofilin homologue UNC-60B in body wall muscle of these mutants. Such accumulations may indicate targeted disassembly of thin filaments dislodged from unstable dense bodies, possibly accounting for the abnormally slow growth and reduced body wall muscle strength in fhod-1 mutants. Overall, these results implicate FHOD protein-mediated actin assembly in forming stable sarcomere Z-lines, and identify profilin as a new contributor to FHOD activity in striated muscle development.

Human formin FHOD3-mediated actin elongation is required for sarcomere integrity in cardiomyocytes

Contractility and cell motility depend on accurately controlled assembly of the actin cytoskeleton. Formins are a large group of actin assembly proteins that nucleate new actin filaments and act as elongation factors. Some formins may cap filaments, instead of elongating them, and others are known to sever or bundle filaments. The Formin HOmology Domain-containing protein (FHOD)-family of formins is critical to the formation of the fundamental contractile unit in muscle, the sarcomere. Specifically, mammalian FHOD3L plays an essential role in cardiomyocytes. Despite our knowledge of FHOD3L's importance in cardiomyocytes, its biochemical and cellular activities remain poorly understood. It has been proposed that FHOD-family formins act by capping and bundling, as opposed to assembling new filaments. Here, we demonstrate that FHOD3L nucleates actin and rapidly but briefly elongates filaments after temporarily pausing elongation, in vitro. We designed function-separating mutants that enabled us to distinguish which biochemical roles are reqùired in the cell. We found that human FHOD3L's elongation activity, but not its nucleation, capping, or bundling activity, is necessary for proper sarcomere formation and contractile function in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. The results of this work provide new insight into the mechanisms by which formins build specific structures and will contribute to knowledge regarding how cardiomyopathies arise from defects in sarcomere formation and maintenance.

FHOD-1/profilin-mediated actin assembly protects sarcomeres against contraction-induced deformation in C. elegans

Formin HOmology Domain 2-containing (FHOD) proteins are a subfamily of actin-organizing formins important for striated muscle development in many animals. We showed previously that absence of the sole FHOD protein, FHOD-1, from C. elegans results in thin body-wall muscles with misshapen dense bodies that serve as sarcomere Z-lines. We demonstrate here that actin polymerization by FHOD-1 is required for its function in muscle development, and that FHOD-1 cooperates with profilin PFN-3 for dense body morphogenesis, and profilins PFN-2 and PFN-3 to promote body-wall muscle growth. We further demonstrate dense bodies in fhod-1 and pfn-3 mutants are less stable than in wild type animals, having a higher proportion of dynamic protein, and becoming distorted by prolonged muscle contraction. We also observe accumulation of actin depolymerization factor/cofilin homolog UNC-60B in body-wall muscle of these mutants. Such accumulations may indicate targeted disassembly of thin filaments dislodged from unstable dense bodies, and may account for the abnormally slow growth and reduced strength of body-wall muscle in fhod-1 mutants. Overall, these results show the importance of FHOD protein-mediated actin assembly to forming stable sarcomere Z-lines, and identify profilin as a new contributor to FHOD activity in striated muscle development.

Altered Fhod3 expression involved in progressive high-frequency hearing loss via dysregulation of actin polymerization stoichiometry in the cuticular plate

Age-related hearing loss (ARHL) is a common sensory impairment with complex underlying mechanisms. In our previous study, we performed a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in mice and identified a novel locus on chromosome 18 associated with ARHL specifically linked to a 32 kHz tone burst stimulus. Consequently, we investigated the role of Formin Homology 2 Domain Containing 3 (Fhod3), a newly discovered candidate gene for ARHL based on the GWAS results. We observed Fhod3 expression in auditory hair cells (HCs) primarily localized at the cuticular plate (CP). To understand the functional implications of Fhod3 in the cochlea, we generated Fhod3 overexpression mice (Pax2-Cre+/-; Fhod3Tg/+) (TG) and HC-specific conditional knockout mice (Atoh1-Cre+/-; Fhod3fl/fl) (KO). Audiological assessments in TG mice demonstrated progressive high-frequency hearing loss, characterized by predominant loss of outer hair cells, and a decreased phalloidin intensities of CP. Ultrastructural analysis revealed loss of the shortest row of stereocilia in the basal turn of the cochlea, and alterations in the cuticular plate surrounding stereocilia rootlets. Importantly, the hearing and HC phenotype in TG mice phenocopied that of the KO mice. These findings suggest that balanced expression of Fhod3 is critical for proper CP and stereocilia structure and function. Further investigation of Fhod3 related hearing impairment mechanisms may lend new insight towards the myriad mechanisms underlying ARHL, which in turn could facilitate the development of therapeutic strategies for ARHL.

Segregated localization of two calponin-related proteins within sarcomeric thin filaments in Caenorhabditis elegans striated muscle

The calponin family proteins are expressed in both muscle and non-muscle cells and involved in the regulation of cytoskeletal dynamics and cell contractility. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, UNC-87 and CLIK-1 are calponin-related proteins with 42% identical amino acid sequences containing seven calponin-like motifs. Genetic studies demonstrated that UNC-87 and CLIK-1 have partially redundant function in regulating actin cytoskeletal organization in striated and non-striated muscle cells. However, biochemical studies showed that UNC-87 and CLIK-1 are different in their ability to bundle actin filaments. In this study, I extended comparison between UNC-87 and CLIK-1 and found additional differences in vitro and in vivo. Although UNC-87 and CLIK-1 bound to actin filaments similarly, UNC-87, but not CLIK-1, bound to myosin and inhibited actomyosin ATPase in vitro. In striated muscle, UNC-87 and CLIK-1 were segregated into different subregions within sarcomeric actin filaments. CLIK-1 was concentrated near the actin pointed ends, whereas UNC-87 was enriched toward the actin barbed ends. Restricted localization of UNC-87 was not altered in a clik-1-null mutant, suggesting that their segregated localization is not due to competition between the two related proteins. These results suggest that the two calponin-related proteins have both common and distinct roles in regulating actin filaments.

Altered Fhod3 Expression Involved in Progressive High-Frequency Hearing Loss via Dysregulation of Actin Polymerization Stoichiometry in The Cuticular Plate

Age-related hearing loss (ARHL) is a common sensory impairment with comlex underlying mechanisms. In our previous study, we performed a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in mice and identified a novel locus on chromosome 18 associated with ARHL specifically linked to a 32 kHz tone burst stimulus. Consequently, we investigated the role of Formin Homology 2 Domain Containing 3 (Fhod3), a newly discovered candidate gene for ARHL based on the GWAS results. We observed Fhod3 expression in auditory hair cells (HCs) and primarily localized at the cuticular plate (CP). To understand the functional implications of Fhod3 in the cochlea, we generated Fhod3 overexpression mice (Pax2-Cre+/-; Fhod3Tg/+) (TG) and HC-specific conditional knockout mice (Atoh1-Cre+/-; Fhod3fl/fl) (KO). Audiological assessments in TG mice demonstrated progressive high-frequency hearing loss, characterized by predominant loss of outer HCs and decrease phalloidin intensities of CP. Ultrastructural analysis revealed shortened stereocilia in the basal turn cochlea. Importantly, the hearing and HC phenotype in TG mice were replicated in KO mice. These findings indicate that Fhod3 plays a critical role in regulating actin dynamics in CP and stereocilia. Further investigation of Fhod3-related hearing impairment mechanisms may facilitate the development of therapeutic strategies for ARHL in humans.

FHODs: Nuclear tethered formins for nuclear mechanotransduction

In this review, we discuss FHOD formins with a focus on recent studies that reveal a new role for them as critical links for nuclear mechanotransduction. The FHOD family in vertebrates comprises two structurally related proteins, FHOD1 and FHOD3. Their similar biochemical properties suggest overlapping and redundant functions. FHOD1 is widely expressed, FHOD3 less so, with highest expression in skeletal (FHOD1) and cardiac (FHOD3) muscle where specific splice isoforms are expressed. Unlike other formins, FHODs have strong F-actin bundling activity and relatively weak actin polymerization activity. These activities are regulated by phosphorylation by ROCK and Src kinases; bundling is additionally regulated by ERK1/2 kinases. FHODs are unique among formins in their association with the nuclear envelope through direct, high affinity binding to the outer nuclear membrane proteins nesprin-1G and nesprin-2G. Recent crystallographic structures reveal an interaction between a conserved motif in one of the spectrin repeats (SRs) of nesprin-1G/2G and a site adjacent to the regulatory domain in the amino terminus of FHODs. Nesprins are components of the LINC (linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton) complex that spans both nuclear membranes and mediates bidirectional transmission of mechanical forces between the nucleus and the cytoskeleton. FHODs interact near the actin-binding calponin homology (CH) domains of nesprin-1G/2G enabling a branched connection to actin filaments that presumably strengthens the interaction. At the cellular level, the tethering of FHODs to the outer nuclear membrane mechanically couples perinuclear actin arrays to the nucleus to move and position it in fibroblasts, cardiomyocytes, and potentially other cells. FHODs also function in adhesion maturation during cell migration and in the generation of sarcomeres, activities distant from the nucleus but that are still influenced by it. Human genetic studies have identified multiple FHOD3 variants linked to dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathies, with many mutations mapping to "hot spots" in FHOD3 domains. We discuss how FHOD1/3's role in reinforcing the LINC complex and connecting to perinuclear actin contributes to functions of mechanically active tissues such as striated muscle.

The Mechanisms of Thin Filament Assembly and Length Regulation in Muscles

The actin containing tropomyosin and troponin decorated thin filaments form one of the crucial components of the contractile apparatus in muscles. The thin filaments are organized into densely packed lattices interdigitated with myosin-based thick filaments. The crossbridge interactions between these myofilaments drive muscle contraction, and the degree of myofilament overlap is a key factor of contractile force determination. As such, the optimal length of the thin filaments is critical for efficient activity, therefore, this parameter is precisely controlled according to the workload of a given muscle. Thin filament length is thought to be regulated by two major, but only partially understood mechanisms: it is set by (i) factors that mediate the assembly of filaments from monomers and catalyze their elongation, and (ii) by factors that specify their length and uniformity. Mutations affecting these factors can alter the length of thin filaments, and in human cases, many of them are linked to debilitating diseases such as nemaline myopathy and dilated cardiomyopathy.

Predicting Heart Cell Types by Using Transcriptome Profiles and a Machine Learning Method

The heart is an essential organ in the human body. It contains various types of cells, such as cardiomyocytes, mesothelial cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts. The interactions between these cells determine the vital functions of the heart. Therefore, identifying the different cell types and revealing the expression rules in these cell types are crucial. In this study, multiple machine learning methods were used to analyze the heart single-cell profiles with 11 different heart cell types. The single-cell profiles were first analyzed via light gradient boosting machine method to evaluate the importance of gene features on the profiling dataset, and a ranking feature list was produced. This feature list was then brought into the incremental feature selection method to identify the best features and build the optimal classifiers. The results suggested that the best decision tree (DT) and random forest classification models achieved the highest weighted F1 scores of 0.957 and 0.981, respectively. The selected features, such as NPPA, LAMA2, DLC1, and the classification rules extracted from the optimal DT classifier played a crucial role in cardiac structure and function in recent research and enrichment analysis. In particular, some lncRNAs (LINC02019, NEAT1) were found to be quite important for the recognition of different cardiac cell types. In summary, these findings provide a solid academic foundation for the development of molecular diagnostics and biomarker discovery for cardiac diseases.

Genome-wide association studies reveals polygenic genetic architecture of litter traits in Duroc pigs

With continuous improvement of sow litter size, breeders are gradually paying more attention to the quality of litter traits that directly impact the production efficiency of pig companies, such as the rate of piglets born alive (RBA) and the rate of healthy births (RHB). The objectives of this study are to dissect the genetic basis of litter traits in pig and to identify valuable genes and genetic markers, especially pleiotropic, for pig breeding. Herein, 1140 Duroc pigs and 2046 reproduction records, 5 litter traits, including the number of healthy births (NHB), number of deformed fetuses (NDF), number of stillborn (NSB), RBA, and RHB, were used in this study. Subsequently, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was performed for the five litter traits in the first two parities from two Duroc populations. A total of 76 significantly related SNPs and 10 potential candidate genes (CAV1, DAB2, FGF12, FHOD3, DYNC2H1, GRHL1, TCTN3, PYROXD2, MMP8, MMP13, and PGR) were detected, including 13 pleiotropic SNPs that affected more than one litter trait. Finally, the functional enrichment analysis of functional genes that were closest to these significant SNPs indicated that most of the significant pathways were associated with hormone secretion and embryo and organ development. This study advances our understanding of the genetic mechanisms of litter traits, especially the survival rate of piglets born, and provides an opportunity to increase the quality of litter using marker-assisted selection or genomic selection in pigs.

FHOD-1 is the only formin in Caenorhabditis elegans that promotes striated muscle growth and Z-line organization in a cell autonomous manner

The striated body wall muscles of Caenorhabditis elegans are a simple model for sarcomere assembly. Previously, we observed deletion mutants for two formin genes, fhod-1 and cyk-1, develop thin muscles with abnormal dense bodies (the sarcomere Z-line analogs). However, this work left in question whether these formins work in a muscle cell autonomous manner, particularly since cyk-1(∆) deletion has pleiotropic effects on development. Using a fast acting temperature-sensitive cyk-1(ts) mutant, we show here that neither postembryonic loss nor acute loss of CYK-1 during embryonic sarcomerogenesis cause lasting muscle defects. Furthermore, mosaic expression of CYK-1 in cyk-1(∆) mutants is unable to rescue muscle defects in a cell autonomous manner, suggesting muscle phenotypes caused by cyk-1(∆) are likely indirect. Conversely, mosaic expression of FHOD-1 in fhod-1(Δ) mutants promotes muscle cell growth and proper dense body organization in a muscle cell autonomous manner. As we observe no effect of loss of any other formin on muscle development, we conclude FHOD-1 is the only worm formin that directly promotes striated muscle development, and the effects on formin loss in C. elegans are surprisingly modest compared to other systems.

Under construction: The dynamic assembly, maintenance, and degradation of the cardiac sarcomere

The sarcomere is the basic contractile unit of striated muscle and is a highly ordered protein complex with the actin and myosin filaments at its core. Assembling the sarcomere constituents into this organized structure in development, and with muscle growth as new sarcomeres are built, is a complex process coordinated by numerous factors. Once assembled, the sarcomere requires constant maintenance as its continuous contraction is accompanied by elevated mechanical, thermal, and oxidative stress, which predispose proteins to misfolding and toxic aggregation. To prevent protein misfolding and maintain sarcomere integrity, the sarcomere is monitored by an assortment of protein quality control (PQC) mechanisms. The need for effective PQC is heightened in cardiomyocytes which are terminally differentiated and must survive for many years while preserving optimal mechanical output. To prevent toxic protein aggregation, molecular chaperones stabilize denatured sarcomere proteins and promote their refolding. However, when old and misfolded proteins cannot be salvaged by chaperones, they must be recycled via degradation pathways: the calpain and ubiquitin-proteasome systems, which operate under basal conditions, and the stress-responsive autophagy-lysosome pathway. Mutations to and deficiency of the molecular chaperones and associated factors charged with sarcomere maintenance commonly lead to sarcomere structural disarray and the progression of heart disease, highlighting the necessity of effective sarcomere PQC for maintaining cardiac function. This review focuses on the dynamic regulation of assembly and turnover at the sarcomere with an emphasis on the chaperones involved in these processes and describes the alterations to chaperones - through mutations and deficient expression - implicated in disease progression to heart failure.

Assembly and Maintenance of Sarcomere Thin Filaments and Associated Diseases

Sarcomere assembly and maintenance are essential physiological processes required for cardiac and skeletal muscle function and organism mobility. Over decades of research, components of the sarcomere and factors involved in the formation and maintenance of this contractile unit have been identified. Although we have a general understanding of sarcomere assembly and maintenance, much less is known about the development of the thin filaments and associated factors within the sarcomere. In the last decade, advancements in medical intervention and genome sequencing have uncovered patients with novel mutations in sarcomere thin filaments. Pairing this sequencing with reverse genetics and the ability to generate patient avatars in model organisms has begun to deepen our understanding of sarcomere thin filament development. In this review, we provide a summary of recent findings regarding sarcomere assembly, maintenance, and disease with respect to thin filaments, building on the previous knowledge in the field. We highlight debated and unknown areas within these processes to clearly define open research questions.

Interaction between cardiac myosin-binding protein C and formin Fhod3

Mutations in cardiac myosin-binding protein C (cMyBP-C) are a major cause of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Although cMyBP-C has been considered to regulate the cardiac function via cross-bridge arrangement at the C-zone of the myosin-containing A-band, the mechanism by which cMyBP-C functions remains unclear. We identified formin Fhod3, an actin organizer essential for the formation and maintenance of cardiac sarcomeres, as a cMyBP-C-binding protein. The cardiac-specific N-terminal Ig-like domain of cMyBP-C directly interacts with the cardiac-specific N-terminal region of Fhod3. The interaction seems to direct the localization of Fhod3 to the C-zone, since a noncardiac Fhod3 variant lacking the cMyBP-C-binding region failed to localize to the C-zone. Conversely, the cardiac variant of Fhod3 failed to localize to the C-zone in the cMyBP-C-null mice, which display a phenotype of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The cardiomyopathic phenotype of cMyBP-C-null mice was further exacerbated by Fhod3 overexpression with a defect of sarcomere integrity, whereas that was partially ameliorated by a reduction in the Fhod3 protein levels, suggesting that Fhod3 has a deleterious effect on cardiac function under cMyBP-C-null conditions where Fhod3 is aberrantly mislocalized. Together, these findings suggest the possibility that Fhod3 contributes to the pathogenesis of cMyBP-C-related cardiomyopathy and that Fhod3 is critically involved in cMyBP-C-mediated regulation of cardiac function via direct interaction.

The actin-organizing formin protein Fhod3 is required for postnatal development and functional maintenance of the adult heart in mice

Cardiac development and function require actin-myosin interactions in the sarcomere, a highly organized contractile structure. Sarcomere assembly mediated by formin homology 2 domain-containing 3 (Fhod3), a member of formins that directs formation of straight actin filaments, is essential for embryonic cardiogenesis. However, the role of Fhod3 in the neonatal and adult stages has remained unknown. Here, we generated floxed Fhod3 mice to bypass the embryonic lethality of an Fhod3 knockout (KO). Perinatal KO of Fhod3 in the heart caused juvenile lethality at around day 10 after birth with enlarged hearts composed of severely impaired myofibrils, indicating that Fhod3 is crucial for postnatal heart development. Tamoxifen-induced conditional KO of Fhod3 in the adult heart neither led to lethal effects nor did it affect sarcomere structure and localization of sarcomere components. However, adult Fhod3-deleted mice exhibited a slight cardiomegaly and mild impairment of cardiac function, conditions that were sustained over 1 year without compensation during aging. In addition to these age-related changes, systemic stimulation with the α1-adrenergic receptor agonist phenylephrine, which induces sustained hypertension and hypertrophy development, induced expression of fetal cardiac genes that was more pronounced in adult Fhod3-deleted mice than in the control mice, suggesting that Fhod3 modulates hypertrophic changes in the adult heart. We conclude that Fhod3 plays a crucial role in both postnatal cardiac development and functional maintenance of the adult heart.

Drosophila and human FHOD family formin proteins nucleate actin filaments

Formins are a conserved group of proteins that nucleate and processively elongate actin filaments. Among them, the formin homology domain-containing protein (FHOD) family of formins contributes to contractility of striated muscle and cell motility in several contexts. However, the mechanisms by which they carry out these functions remain poorly understood. Mammalian FHOD proteins were reported not to accelerate actin assembly in vitro; instead, they were proposed to act as barbed end cappers or filament bundlers. Here, we show that purified Drosophila Fhod and human FHOD1 both accelerate actin assembly by nucleation. The nucleation activity of FHOD1 is restricted to cytoplasmic actin, whereas Drosophila Fhod potently nucleates both cytoplasmic and sarcomeric actin isoforms. Drosophila Fhod binds tightly to barbed ends, where it slows elongation in the absence of profilin and allows, but does not accelerate, elongation in the presence of profilin. Fhod antagonizes capping protein but dissociates from barbed ends relatively quickly. Finally, we determined that Fhod binds the sides of and bundles actin filaments. This work establishes that Fhod shares the capacity of other formins to nucleate and bundle actin filaments but is notably less effective at processively elongating barbed ends than most well studied formins.