The Transcript Profile of a Traditional Chinese Medicine, Atractylodes lancea, Revealing Its Sesquiterpenoid Biosynthesis of the Major Active Components

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) Koidz. Polysaccharides and the Synergistic Antigastric Cancer Effect in Combination with Oxaliplatin

Oxaliplatin (OXA) is recognized as a first-line drug for gastric cancer. However, low accumulation of the OXA in the target site and the development of drug resistance directly led to treatment failure. In the present study, an ultrasonic extraction method for Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) Koidz. polysaccharides (AKUs) and the combination treatment with OXA in vitro were studied. Results showed that when the pH level was 11, the ultrasound power at 450 W, the solid-liquid ratio was 1:20, and the ultrasound treatment for 30 min, the yield of AKUs was significantly increased to 13.20 ± 0.35%. The molecular weights of the AKUs ranged from 7.21 to 185.94 kDa, and its monosaccharides were mainly composed of arabinose (Ara), galactose (Gal), and glucose (Glu) with a ratio of 58.36, 16.90, and 15.49%, respectively. Cell experiments showed that, compared to OXA alone (2 μg/mL, inhibition rate of 18%), the treatment of OXA with AKUs had a significant synergistic inhibitory effect on MKN45 proliferation, which increased to 33, 41, and 45% with increasing AKUs concentrations (5-50 μg/mL), respectively, representing a 2.5-fold inhibition. Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) determination confirmed that AKUs significantly increased the intracellular uptake of OXA by 29%, compared to that of OXA alone. We first demonstrated that the combined synergistic inhibitory effect of AKUs and OXA on gastric cancer cells was mediated by reducing the expression of efflux proteins (MRP1 and MRP2) and increasing the expression of ingested protein (OCT2). As a result of the above, AKUs deserved to be an effective adjuvant combined with chemotherapeutics in a clinical setting.

Transcriptome analysis of three medicinal plants of the genus Polygonatum: identification of genes involved in polysaccharide and steroidal saponins biosynthesis

Polysaccharides and saponins are the main active components of Polygonati Rhizoma. Studying the molecular mechanism of their synthesis pathway is helpful in improving the content of active components at the molecular level. At present, transcriptome analysis of three Polygonatum species (Polygonatum sibiricum Red., Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua, Polygonatum kingianum Coll. et Hemsl.) has been reported, but no comparative study has been found on the transcriptome data of the three species. Transcriptome sequencing was performed on the rhizomes of three Polygonatum species based on high-throughput sequencing technology, and all transcripts were assembled. A total of 168,108 unigenes were generated after the removal of redundancy, of which 121,642 were annotated in seven databases. Through differential analysis and expression analysis of key enzyme genes in the synthesis pathway of three Polygonatum polysaccharides and steroidal saponins, 135 differentially expressed genes encoding 18 enzymes and 128 differentially expressed genes encoding 28 enzymes were identified, respectively. Numerous transcription factors are involved in the carbohydrate synthesis pathway. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to further verify the gene expression level. In this paper, we present a public transcriptome dataset of three medicinal plants of the genus Polygonatum, and analyze the key enzyme genes of polysaccharide and steroidal saponins synthesis pathway, which lays a foundation for improving the active component content of Polygonati Rhizoma by molecular means.

The phenotypic variation mechanisms of Atractylodes lancea post-cultivation revealed by conjoint analysis of rhizomic transcriptome and metabolome

The wild Atractylodes lancea rhizomes have been traditionally used as herbal medicine. As the increasingly exhaustion of wild A. lancea, the artificial cultivation mainly contributed to the medicinal material production. However, besides the phenotypic variation of rhizome phenotypic trait alteration, the qualities of cultivated A. lancea decrease compared with the wild counterpart. To unveil the physiological and molecular mechanism beneath the phenotypic variation, GC-MS-based volatile organic compounds (VOCs) profiling and RNAseq-based transcriptome analysis were conducted. The volatile metabolomics profiling revealed 65 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) while the transcriptomic profiling identified 12 009 differentially expressed unigenes (DEGs) post-cultivation. The volatile active compounds including atractylone, and eudesmol accumulated more in wild rhizome than in the cultivated counterpart, and several unigenes in terpene synthesis were downregulated under cultivated condition. Compared with the wild A. lancea rhizome, the contents of bioactive Jasmonic Acid (JAs) in cultivated A. lancea rhizome were higher, and evidences that JAs negatively regulate the terpenes biosynthesis in the cultivated A. lancea rhizome were also provided. The combinational omics analysis further indicated the high correlation between the ten cultivation-suppressed VOCs and the cultivation-altered genes for sesquiterpenoids biosynthesis in A. lancea. The network of the cultivation-altered transcription factors (TFs) and the ten VOCs suggested TFs (e.g. Arabidopsis ERF13 homologs and WRKY50) are involved in the regulation of terpenes biosynthesis. These results laid a theoretical basis for developing geo-herbalism medicinal plants with "high quality and optimal shape".

Predictive Analysis of Quality Markers of Atractylodis Rhizoma Based on Fingerprint and Network Pharmacology

BACKGROUND

Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) Koidz. (A. chinensis) is a perennial herbaceous plant that is widely used as a Chinese medicine herb for gastric diseases. However, the bioactive compounds of this herbal medicine have not been defined, and quality control is imperfect.

OBJECTIVE

Although the method of quality evaluation method for A. chinensis by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprinting has been reported in related papers, it remains unknown whether the chemical markers selected are representative of their clinical efficacy. To develop methods for qualitative analysis and improved quality evaluation of A. chinensis.

METHOD

In this study, HPLC was used to establish fingerprints and conduct similarity evaluation. Principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were used to reveal the differences of these fingerprints. Network pharmacology was used to analyze the corresponding targets of the active ingredients. Meantime, an active ingredient-target-pathway network was constructed to investigate the characteristics of the medical efficacy of A. chinensis and to predict potential Q-markers.

RESULTS

Combining network pharmacological effectiveness and composition specificity with the Q-marker concept, atractylodin (ATD), β-eudesmol, atractylenolide Ι (AT-I) and atractylenolide III (AT-III) were predicted to be potential Q-markers of A. chinensis that showed anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, anti-gastric, and antiviral effects by acting on 10 core targets and 20 key pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

The HPLC fingerprinting method established in this study is straightforward, and the identified four active constituents can be used as Q-markers of A. chinensis. These findings facilitate effective quality evaluation of A. chinensis and suggest this approach could be applied to evaluate the quality of other herbal medicines.

HIGHLIGHTS

The fingerprints of Atractylodis rhizoma were organically combined with network pharmacology to further clarify its criteria for quality control.

GC-MS and UHPLC-QTOFMS-assisted identification of the differential metabolites and metabolic pathways in key tissues of Pogostemon cablin

Pogostemon cablin is an important aromatic medicinal herb widely used in the pharmaceutical and perfume industries. However, our understanding of the phytochemical compounds and metabolites within P. cablin remains limited. To our knowledge, no integrated studies have hitherto been conducted on the metabolites of the aerial parts of P. cablin. In this study, twenty-three volatile compounds from the aerial parts of P. cablin were identified by GC-MS, predominantly sesquiterpenes. Quantitative analysis showed the highest level of patchouli alcohol in leaves (24.89 mg/g), which was 9.12 and 6.69-fold higher than in stems and flowers. UHPLC-QTOFMS was used to analyze the non-volatile compounds of leaf, stem and flower tissues. The differences in metabolites between flower and leaf tissues were the largest. Based on 112, 77 and 83 differential metabolites between flower-leaf, flower-stem and leaf-stem, three tissue-specific biomarkers of metabolites were identified, and the differential metabolites were enriched in several KEGG pathways. Furthermore, labeling differential metabolites in the primary and secondary metabolic pathways showed that flowers accumulated more lipids and amino acids, including proline, lysine and tryptophan; the leaves accumulated higher levels of terpenoids, vitamins and flavonoids, and stems contained higher levels of carbohydrate compounds. Based on the role of acetyl coenzyme A, the distribution and possible exchange mechanism of metabolites in leaves, stems and flowers of P. cablin were mapped for the first time, laying the groundwork for future research on the metabolites in P. cablin and their regulatory role.

Full-length transcriptome analysis of two chemotype and functional characterization of genes related to sesquiterpene biosynthesis in Atractylodes lancea

Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC. is an important medicinal plant mainly distributed in China. A. lancea is rich in volatile oils and has a significant effect on various diseases, including coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Based on the signature constituents of volatile oils, A. lancea is divided into two chemotypes: the Dabieshan and Maoshan chemotype. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) results revealed that the hinesol and β-eudesmol contents in the Dabieshan chemotype were higher than those in the Maoshan chemotype. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) and single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing technologies were combined to investigate the molecular mechanisms of sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis in A. lancea. A total of 42 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) for terpenoid biosynthesis were identified in the two chemotype groups, and nine full-length terpene synthase (TPS) genes were identified. Subcellular localization revealed that AlTPS1 and AlTPS2 proteins were localized in the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum. They use FPP as a substrate to generate sesquiterpenoids. AlTPS1 catalyzes biosynthesis of elemol while AlTPS2 is observed to perform β-farnesene synthase activity. This study provides information for understanding the differences in the accumulation of terpenoids in two chemotypes of A. lancea and lays a foundation for further elucidation of the molecular mechanism of sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis.

A Comparison Study on Polysaccharides Extracted from Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) Koidz. Using Different Methods: Structural Characterization and Anti-SGC-7901 Effect of Combination with Apatinib

For hundreds of years, Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) Koidz. (AK) has been widely used as a treatment for spleen and stomach diseases in China. The AK polysaccharides (AKPs) have been thought to be the important bioactive components. In this stud, the impacts of different extraction methods were analyzed. The differences between AKPs extracted by hot water extraction (HWE), AKPs extracted by ultrasonic extraction (UAE), and AKPs extracted by enzyme extraction (EAE) were compared in terms of yield, total carbohydrate content, molecular weight distribution, monosaccharide composition, and synergistic activity of the AKPs with apatinib were determined. The results indicated that the yield of the polysaccharide obtained from HWE was higher than that of UAE and EAE. However, activity assays indicated that UAE-AKPs and HWE-AKPs enhanced apoptosis of human gastric cancer cells (SGC-7901) treated with apatinib and UAE-AKPs showed the strongest synergistic activities. This is also in agreement with the fact that UAE-AKPs have a smaller molecular weight, β-configuration, and higher galactose content. These findings suggested that UAE is an efficient and environmentally friendly method for producing new polysaccharides from Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) Koidz. for the development of natural synergist and for the treatment of gastric cancer.

Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis among 1-, 2- and 3-year old Atractylodes chinensis

BACKGROUND

Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) Koidz is a well-known medicinal plant containing the major bioactive compound, atractylodin, a sesquiterpenoid. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis demonstrated that atractylodin was most abundant in 3-year old A. chinensis rhizome, compared with those from 1- and 2-year old rhizomes, however, the molecular mechanisms underlying accumulation of atractylodin in rhizomes are poorly understood.

RESULTS

In this study, we characterized the transcriptomes from rhizomes of 1-, 2- and 3-year old (Y1, Y2 and Y3, respectively) A. chinensis, to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). We identified 240, 169 and 131 unigenes encoding the enzyme genes in the mevalonate (MVA), methylerythritol phosphate (MEP), sesquiterpenoid and triterpenoid biosynthetic pathways, respectively. To confirm the reliability of the RNA sequencing analysis, eleven key gene encoding factors involved in the sesquiterpenoid and triterpenoid biosynthetic pathway, as well as in pigment, amino acid, hormone and transcription factor functions, were selected for quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis. The results demonstrated similar expression patterns to those determined by RNA sequencing, with a Pearson's correlation coefficient of 0.9 between qRT-PCR and RNA-seq data. Differential gene expression analysis of rhizomes from different ages revealed 52 genes related to sesquiterpenoid and triterpenoid biosynthesis. Among these, seven DEGs were identified in Y1 vs Y2, Y1 vs Y3 and Y2 vs Y3, of which five encoded four key enzymes, squalene/phytoene synthase (SS), squalene-hopene cyclase (SHC), squalene epoxidase (SE) and dammarenediol II synthase (DS). These four enzymes directly related to squalene biosynthesis and subsequent catalytic action. To validate the result of these seven DEGs, qRT-PCR was performed and indicated most of them displayed lower relative expression in 3-year old rhizome, similar to transcriptomic analysis.

CONCLUSION

The enzymes SS, SHC, SE and DS down-regulated expression in 3-year old rhizome. This data corresponded to the higher content of sesquiterpenoid in 3-year old rhizome, and confirmed by qRT-PCR. The results of comparative transcriptome analysis and identified key enzyme genes laid a solid foundation for investigation of production sesquiterpenoid in A. chinensis.

Effect of drought on photosynthesis, total antioxidant capacity, bioactive component accumulation, and the transcriptome of Atractylodes lancea

BACKGROUND

Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC, a medicinal herb belonging to the Asteraceae family, often faces severe drought stress during its growth. Until now, there has been no research on the effect of drought stress on the quality formation of A. lancea. Therefore, the present study aimed to study the effects of drought stress on A. lancea through physical and chemical analysis, and to reveal the related molecular mechanisms via transcriptome analysis.

RESULTS

The photosynthesis was markedly inhibited under drought stress. There were alterations to photosynthetic parameters (Pn, Gs, Ci) and chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm, NPQ), and the chlorophyll content decreased. Twenty genes encoding important regulatory enzymes in light and dark reactions, including the Rubisco gene of the Calvin cycle, were significantly downregulated. After exposure to drought stress for more than 4 days, the activities of four antioxidative enzymes (SOD, POD CAT and APX) began to decrease and continued to decrease with longer stress exposure. Meanwhile, most of the genes encoding antioxidative enzymes were downregulated significantly. The downregulation of 21 genes related to the respiratory electron transport chain indicated that the blocked electron transfer accelerated excessive ROS. The MDA content was significantly elevated. The above data showed that 15 days of drought stress caused serious oxidative damage to A. lancea. Drought stress not only reduced the size and dry weight of A. lancea, but also lowered the amount of total volatile oil and the content of the main bioactive components. The total volatile oil and atractylodin content decreased slightly, whereas the content of atractylon and β-eudesmol decreased significantly. Moreover, ten significantly downregulated genes encoding sesquiterpene synthase were mainly expressed in rhizomes.

CONCLUSIONS

After exposed to drought stress, the process of assimilation was affected by the destruction of photosynthesis; stress tolerance was impaired because of the inhibition of the antioxidative enzyme system; and bioactive component biosynthesis was hindered by the downregulation of sesquiterpene synthase-related gene expression. All these had negative impacts on the quality formation of A. lancea under drought stress.

Atractylodis Rhizoma: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and quality control

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Atractylodis Rhizoma (AR), mainly includes Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC. (A. lancea) and Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) Koidz. (A. chinensis) is widely used in East Asia as a diuretic and stomachic drug, for the treatment of rheumatic diseases, digestive disorders, night blindness, and influenza as it contains a variety of sesquiterpenoids and other components of medicinal importance.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

A systematic summary on the botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and quality control of AR was presented to explore the future therapeutic potential and scientific potential of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by consulting scientific databases including Google Scholar, Web of Science, Baidu Scholar, Springer, PubMed, ScienceDirect, CNKI, etc. Plant taxonomy was confirmed to the database "The Plant List".

RESULTS

Over 200 chemical compounds have been isolated from AR, notably sesquiterpenoids and alkynes. Various pharmacological activities have been demonstrated, especially improving gastrointestinal function and thus allowed to assert most of the traditional uses of AR.

CONCLUSIONS

The researches on AR are extensive, but gaps still remain. The molecular mechanism, structure-activity relationship, potential synergistic and antagonistic effects of these components need to be further elucidated. It is suggested that further studies should be carried out in the aspects of comprehensive evaluation of the quality of medicinal materials, understanding of the "effective forms" and "additive effects" of the pharmacodynamic substances based on the same pharmacophore of TCM, and its long-term toxicity in vivo and clinical efficacy.

De novo transcriptome sequencing of Paecilomyces tenuipes revealed genes involved in adenosine biosynthesis

The use of Paecilomyces tenuipes (P. tenuipes), a Chinese medicinal fungus in scientific research, is limited due to its low adenosine content. To improve adenosine production, the present study investigated the gene network of adenosine biosynthesis in P. tenuipes via transcriptome analysis. Mycelia of P. tenuipes cultured for 24 h (PT24), 102 h (PT102) and 196 h (PT192) were subjected to RNA sequencing. In total, 13,353 unigenes were obtained. Based on sequence similarity, 8,099 unigenes were annotated with known proteins. Of these 8,099 unigenes, 5,123 had functions assigned based on Gene Ontology terms while 4,158 were annotated based on the Eukaryotic Orthologous Groups database. Moreover, 1,272 unigenes were mapped to 281 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways. In addition, the differential gene expression of the three libraries was also performed. A total of 601, 1,658 and 628 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were detected in PT24 vs. PT102, PT24 vs. PT192 and PT102 vs. PT192 groups, respectively. Reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR was performed to analyze the expression levels of 14 DEGs putatively associated with adenosine biosynthesis in P. tenuipes. The results showed that two DEGs were closely associated with adenosine accumulation of P. tenuipes. The present study not only provides an improved understanding of the genetic information of P. tenuipes but also the findings can be used to aid research into P. tenuipes.

Evaluation of heritability of β-eudesmol/hinesol content ratio in Atractylodes lancea De Candolle

Background

Atractylodes lancea De Candolle is a medicinal plant distributed in East Asia. Its rhizome has been used as an important crude drug in traditional Chinese and Japanese medicines for the treatment of numerous diseases and disorders. In recent years, the demand for mass production of the crude drug with a stable quality has increased. Its major active compounds are sesquiterpenoids, such as β-eudesmol and hinesol that have closely related chemical structures with each other. As the criteria for evaluating the quality of A. lancea, the β-eudesmol/hinesol content ratio is considered important. In A. lancea, the ratio could be considered to be influenced by genetic factors, geographical environment factors and these interactions. Few studies of a detail genetic analyses for β-eudesmol/hinesol content ratio have been reported. Therefore, we evaluated the heritability and genotype–environment interaction on the β-eudesmol/hinesol content ratio in A. lancea using clonal lines propagated with division of rhizome.

Results

The heritability of the β-eudesmol/hinesol content ratio in A. lancea was evaluated through the cultivation of clonal lines of A. lancea in both different years (2016, 2017) and locations (Hokkaido, Ibaraki). Correlations between β-eudesmol and hinesol contents were identified in all clonal lines, with high correlation coefficients (r = 0.73–0.99). The broad-sense heritability of the β-eudesmol/hinesol content ratio was revealed to be high at 0.92. The effects of cultivation year were smaller than that of genotype, and few genotype–environment interactions were observed. In addition, the influence of cultivation location was also smaller than that of genotype, and the correlation between the two cultivation locations on the β-eudesmol/hinesol content ratio was high. The results suggested that the β-eudesmol/hinesol content ratio in A. lancea is highly dependent on genetic factors.

Conclusion

We demonstrate that the heritability of β-eudesmol/hinesol content ratio is high and that the effects of genetic factors were stronger than that of environmental factors such as cultivation location and year. Our findings suggested that selective breeding and clonal propagation are effective strategies for the production of A. lancea with stable qualities for use in the production of crude drugs.

Genetic and environmental factors influencing the contents of essential oil compounds in Atractylodes lancea

Rhizomes of Atractylodes lancea are used in traditional Japanese medicine (Kampo) and Chinese medicine to treat numerous diseases and disorders because they contain many pharmacologically active compounds. The major active compounds in A. lancea are essential oil compounds such as β-eudesmol, hinesol, atractylon, and atractylodin. The contents of the compounds in A. lancea exhibit high variability depending on their habitat. We cultivated clonal lines of A. lancea in different years (2016, 2017) and different locations (Hokkaido, Ibaraki) to investigate the influence of genetic and environmental factors on the contents of major compounds, namely, β-eudesmol, hinesol, atractylon, and atractylodin. Broad sense heritability of β-eudesmol, hinesol, atractylon, and atractylodin contents were 0.84, 0.77, 0.86, and 0.87, respectively. The effects of interannual variability on the contents of the compounds were lower than those of genotype. In addition, the cultivated environmental factors were assessed by different locations, and the correlations between Hokkaido and Ibaraki grown plants based on β-eudesmol, hinesol, atractylon, and atractylodin contents were 0.94, 0.94, 1.00, and 0.83, respectively. The results suggest that the contents of β-eudesmol, hinesol, atractylon, and atractylodin in A. lancea are largely influenced by genetic factors, and clonal propagation could be an effective strategy for obtaining populations with high contents of essential oil compounds. Furthermore, the contents of β-eudesmol, hinesol, atractylon, and atractylodin in A. lancea exhibited few correlations with rhizome yields. A. lancea cultivars with not only high contents of essential oil compounds but also high rhizome yield could be developed through selective breeding.

The Recent Applications and Developments of Bioinformatics and Omics Technologies in Traditional Chinese Medicine

Background:

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is widely utilized as complementary health care in China whose acceptance is still hindered by conventional scientific research methodology, although it has been exercised and implemented for nearly 2000 years. Identifying the molecular mechanisms, targets and bioactive components in TCM is a critical step in the modernization of TCM because of the complexity and uniqueness of the TCM system. With recent advances in computational approaches and high throughput technologies, it has become possible to understand the potential TCM mechanisms at the molecular and systematic level, to evaluate the effectiveness and toxicity of TCM treatments. Bioinformatics is gaining considerable attention to unearth the in-depth molecular mechanisms of TCM, which emerges as an interdisciplinary approach owing to the explosive omics data and development of computer science. Systems biology, based on the omics techniques, opens up a new perspective which enables us to investigate the holistic modulation effect on the body.

Objective:

This review aims to sum up the recent efforts of bioinformatics and omics techniques in the research of TCM including Systems biology, Metabolomics, Proteomics, Genomics and Transcriptomics.

Conclusion:

Overall, bioinformatics tools combined with omics techniques have been extensively used to scientifically support the ancient practice of TCM to be scientific and international through the acquisition, storage and analysis of biomedical data.

Identification of Glutathione Peroxidase (GPX) Gene Family in Rhodiola crenulata and Gene Expression Analysis under Stress Conditions

Glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) are important enzymes in the glutathione-ascorbate cycle for catalyzing the reduction of H₂O₂ or organic hydroperoxides to water. GPXs play an essential role in plant growth and development by participating in photosynthesis, respiration, and stress tolerance. Rhodiola crenulata is a popular traditional Chinese medicinal plant which displays an extreme energy of tolerance to harsh alpine climate. The GPXs gene family might provide R. crenulata for extensively tolerance to environment stimulus. In this study, five GPX genes were isolated from R. crenulata. The protein amino acid sequences were analyzed by bioinformation softwares with the results that RcGPXs gene sequences contained three conserve cysteine residues, and the subcellular location predication were in the chloroplast, endoplasmic reticulum, or cytoplasm. Five RcGPXs members presented spatial and temporal specific expression with higher levels in young and green organs. And the expression patterns of RcGPXs in response to stresses or plant hormones were investigated by quantitative real-time PCR. In addition, the putative interaction proteins of RcGPXs were obtained by yeast two-hybrid with the results that RcGPXs could physically interact with specific proteins of multiple pathways like transcription factor, calmodulin, thioredoxin, and abscisic acid signal pathway. These results showed the regulation mechanism of RcGPXs were complicated and they were necessary for R. crenulata to adapt to the treacherous weather in highland.

Transcriptome analysis reveals the genetic basis underlying the biosynthesis of volatile oil, gingerols, and diarylheptanoids in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.)

BACKGROUND

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a popular flavoring that widely used in Asian, and the volatile oil in ginger rhizomes adds a special fragrance and taste to foods. The bioactive compounds in ginger, such as gingerols, diarylheptanoids, and flavonoids, are of significant value to human health because of their anticancer, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, as a non-model plant, knowledge about the genome sequences of ginger is extremely limited, and this limits molecular studies on this plant. In this study, de novo transcriptome sequencing was performed to investigate the expression of genes associated with the biosynthesis of major bioactive compounds in matured ginger rhizome (MG), young ginger rhizome (YG), and fibrous roots of ginger (FR).

RESULTS

A total of 361,876 unigenes were generated by de novo assembly. The expression of genes involved in the pathways responsible for the biosynthesis of major bioactive compounds differed between tissues (MG, YG, and FR). Two pathways that give rise to volatile oil, gingerols, and diarylheptanoids, the "terpenoid backbone biosynthesis" and "stilbenoid, diarylheptanoid and gingerol biosynthesis" pathways, were significantly enriched (adjusted P value < 0.05) for differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (FDR < 0.005) both between the FR and YG libraries, and the FR and MG libraries. Most of the unigenes mapped in these two pathways, including curcumin synthase, phenylpropanoylacetyl-CoA synthase, trans-cinnamate 4-monooxygenase, and 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate synthase, were expressed to a significantly higher level (log₂ (fold-change) ≥ 1) in FR than in YG or MG.

CONCLUSION

This study provides the first insight into the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds in ginger at a molecular level and provides valuable genome resources for future molecular studies on ginger. Moreover, our results establish that bioactive compounds in ginger may predominantly synthesized in the root and then transported to rhizomes, where they accumulate.

Growth inhibitory effect of β-eudesmol on cholangiocarcinoma cells and its potential suppressive effect on heme oxygenase-1 production, STAT1/3 activation, and NF-κB downregulation

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a progressively fatal form of cancer originating from the malignant transformation of hepatic biliary cholangiocytes. The present study reports for the first time in vitro growth inhibitory activities of β-eudesmol, the bioactive sesquiterpenoid present in the rhizome of Atractylodes lancea (Thunb) DC., with respect to its underlying potential effects on heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) production, STAT1/3 phosphorylation, and NF-κB protein expression in human CCA cell line CL-6. The cytotoxic effect of β-eudesmol on CL-6 cells was evaluated by MTT assay using normal human embryonic fibroblast (OUMS) as a control cell line. Results indicated that β-eudesmol exhibited selective cytotoxicity towards CL-6 compared to OUMS with mean (±SD) IC₅₀ (concentration that inhibits cell growth by 50%) values of 166.75 ± 3.69 and 240.01 ± 16.54 μmol/L, respectively. In addition, it also significantly suppressed colony forming and wound healing ability of CL-6 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Western blot analysis indicated that β-eudesmol treatment resulted in significant suppression of HO-1 production in CL-6 cells. Its inhibitory effects on the phosphorylation of STAT1/3 proteins and expression of NF-κB (p65 and p50) proteins were concentration-dependent. Taken together, these results suggest that β-eudesmol exerts significant growth inhibitory activity on CL-6 cells that may be linked to its inhibitory effect on the production of HO-1, phosphorylation of STAT1/3, and expression of major NF-κB proteins.

Researches on Transcriptome Sequencing in the Study of Traditional Chinese Medicine

Due to its incomparable advantages, the application of transcriptome sequencing in the study of traditional Chinese medicine attracts more and more attention of researchers, which greatly promote the development of traditional Chinese medicine. In this paper, the applications of transcriptome sequencing in traditional Chinese medicine were summarized by reviewing recent related papers.

Preventive Effects of the Intestine Function Recovery Decoction, a Traditional Chinese Medicine, on Postoperative Intra-Abdominal Adhesion Formation in a Rat Model

The intestine function recovery decoction (IFRD) is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been used for the treatment of adhesive intestinal obstruction. In this study, the preventative effects and probable mechanism of the IFRD were investigated in a rat model. We randomly assigned rats to five groups: normal, model, control, low dose IFRD, and high dose IFRD. In the animal model, the caecum wall and parietal peritoneum were abraded to induce intra-abdominal adhesion formation. Seven days after surgery, adhesion scores were assessed using a visual scoring system, and histopathological samples were examined. The levels of serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) and transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1) were analysed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results showed that a high dose of IFRD reduced the grade of intra-abdominal adhesion in rats. Furthermore, the grades of inflammation, fibrosis, and neovascularization in the high dose IFRD group were significantly lower than those in the control group. The results indicate that the IFRD can prevent intra-abdominal adhesion formation in a rat model. These data suggest that the IFRD may be an effective antiadhesion agent.