Identification and functional characterization of the ZmCOPT copper transporter family in maize

Distinct function of Chlamydomonas CTRA-CTR transporters in Cu assimilation and intracellular mobilization

Successful acclimation to copper (Cu) deficiency involves a fine balance between Cu import and export. In the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Cu import is dependent on a transcription factor, Copper Response Regulator 1 (CRR1), responsible for activating genes in Cu-deficient cells. Among CRR1 target genes are two Cu transporters belonging to the CTR/COPT gene family (CTR1 and CTR2) and a related soluble protein (CTR3). The ancestor of these green algal proteins was likely acquired from an ancient chytrid and contained conserved cysteine-rich domains (named the CTR-associated domains, CTRA) that are predicted to be involved in Cu acquisition. We show by reverse genetics that Chlamydomonas CTR1 and CTR2 are canonical Cu importers albeit with distinct affinities, while loss of CTR3 did not result in an observable phenotype under the conditions tested. Mutation of CTR1, but not CTR2, recapitulates the poor growth of crr1 in Cu-deficient medium, consistent with a dominant role for CTR1 in high-affinity Cu(I) uptake. On the other hand, the overaccumulation of Cu(I) (20 times the quota) in zinc (Zn) deficiency depends on CRR1 and both CTR1 and CTR2. CRR1-dependent activation of CTR gene expression needed for Cu over-accumulation can be bypassed by the provision of excess Cu in the growth medium. Over-accumulated Cu is sequestered into the acidocalcisome but can become remobilized by restoring Zn nutrition. This mobilization is also CRR1-dependent, and requires activation of CTR2 expression, again distinguishing CTR2 from CTR1 and consistent with the lower substrate affinity of CTR2.

ONE SENTENCE SUMMARY

Regulation of Cu uptake and sequestration by members of the CTR family of proteins in Chlamydomonas.

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of the Copper Transporter (COPT/Ctr) Gene Family in Kandelia obovata, a Typical Mangrove Plant

The copper transporter (COPT/Ctr) gene family plays a critical part in maintaining the balance of the metal, and many diverse species depend on COPT to move copper (Cu) across the cell membrane. In Arabidopsis thaliana, Oryza sativa, Medicago sativa, Zea mays, Populus trichocarpa, Vitis vinifera, and Solanum lycopersicum, a genome-wide study of the COPT protein family was performed. To understand the major roles of the COPT gene family in Kandelia obovata (Ko), a genome-wide study identified four COPT genes in the Kandelia obovata genome for the first time. The domain and 3D structural variation, phylogenetic tree, chromosomal distributions, gene structure, motif analysis, subcellular localization, cis-regulatory elements, synteny and duplication analysis, and expression profiles in leaves and Cu were all investigated in this research. Structural and sequence investigations show that most KoCOPTs have three transmembrane domains (TMDs). According to phylogenetic research, these KoCOPTs might be divided into two subgroups, just like Populus trichocarpa. KoCOPT gene segmental duplications and positive selection pressure were discovered by universal analysis. According to gene structure and motif analysis, most KoCOPT genes showed consistent exon-intron and motif organization within the same group. In addition, we found five hormones and four stress- and seven light-responsive cis-elements in the KoCOPTs promoters. The expression studies revealed that all four genes changed their expression levels in response to copper (CuCl2) treatments. In summary, our study offers a thorough overview of the Kandelia obovata COPT gene family's expression pattern and functional diversity, making it easier to characterize each KoCOPT gene's function in the future.

Distinct function of Chlamydomonas CTRA-CTR transporters in Cu assimilation and intracellular mobilization

Successful acclimation to copper (Cu) deficiency involves a fine balance between Cu import and export. In the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii , Cu import is dependent on C opper R esponse R egulator 1 (CRR1), the master regulator of Cu homeostasis. Among CRR1 target genes are two Cu transporters belonging to the CTR/COPT gene family ( CTR1 and CTR2 ) and a related soluble cysteine-rich protein (CTR3). The ancestor of these green algal proteins was likely acquired from an ancient chytrid and contained conserved cysteine-rich domains (named the CTR-associated domains, CTRA) that are predicted to be involved in Cu acquisition. We show by reverse genetics that Chlamydomonas CTR1 and CTR2 are canonical Cu importers albeit with distinct affinities, while loss of CTR3 did not result in an observable phenotype under the conditions tested. Mutation of CTR1 , but not CTR2 , recapitulate the poor growth of crr1 in Cu-deficient medium, consistent with a dominant role for CTR1 in high affinity Cu(I) uptake. Notably, the over-accumulation of Cu(I) in Zinc (Zn)-deficiency (20 times the quota) depends on CRR1 and both CTR1 and CTR2. CRR1-dependent activation of CTR gene expression needed for Cu over-accumulation can be bypassed by the provision of excess Cu in the growth medium. Over-accumulated Cu is sequestered into the acidocalcisome but can become remobilized by restoring Zn nutrition. This mobilization is also CRR1-dependent, and requires activation of CTR2 expression, again distinguishing CTR2 from CTR1 and is consistent with the lower substrate affinity of CTR2.

Molecular Responses of Red Ripe Tomato Fruit to Copper Deficiency Stress

Fruit nutritional value, plant growth, and yield can be compromised by deficient copper (Cu) bioavailability, which often appears in arable lands. This condition causes low Cu content and modifications in the ripening-associated processes in tomato fruit. This research studies the transcriptomic changes that occur in red ripe tomato fruit grown under suboptimal Cu conditions to shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying this stress. Comparative RNA-sequencing and functional analyses revealed that Cu deficiency during cultivation activates signals for metal ion transport, cellular redox homeostasis, pyridoxal phosphate binding, and amino acid metabolism while repressing the response to phosphate starvation in harvested fruit. Transcriptomic analyses highlighted a number of novel Cu stress-responsive genes of unknown function and indicated that Cu homeostasis regulation in tomato fruit may involve additional components than those described in model plants. It also studied the regulation of high-affinity Cu transporters and a number of well-known Cu stress-responsive genes during tomato fruit ripening depending on Cu availability, which allowed potential candidates to be targeted for biotechnological improvements in reproductive tissues. We provide the first study characterizing the molecular responses of fruit to Cu deficiency stress for any fruit crop.

Latent Benefits and Toxicity Risks Transmission Chain of High Dietary Copper along the Livestock-Environment-Plant-Human Health Axis and Microbial Homeostasis: A Review

The extensive use of high-concentration copper (Cu) in feed additives, fertilizers, pesticides, and nanoparticles (NPs) inevitably causes significant pollution in the ecological environment. This type of chain pollution begins with animal husbandry: first, Cu accumulation in animals poisons them; second, high Cu enters the soil and water sources with the feces and urine to cause toxicity, which may further lead to crop and plant pollution; third, this process ultimately endangers human health through consumption of livestock products, aquatic foods, plants, and even drinking water. High Cu potentially alters the antibiotic resistance of soil and water sources and further aggravates human disease risks. Thus, it is necessary to formulate reasonable Cu emission regulations because the benefits of Cu for livestock and plants cannot be ignored. The present review evaluates the potential hazards and benefits of high Cu in livestock, the environment, the plant industry, and human health. We also discuss aspects related to bacterial and fungal resistance and homeostasis and perspectives on the application of Cu-NPs and microbial high-Cu removal technology to reduce the spread of toxicity risks to humans.

Mapping and functional analysis of high-copper accumulation mutant oshc1 in rice

Copper (Cu) is an essential but potentially toxic element in rice. Little is known about the mechanism of rice grain Cu accumulation. In this study, we identified a high copper accumulation in grain 1 (oshc1) mutant from the wild type indica rice cultivar 9311 (WT) mutant bank. Compared with those in WT, more Cu was shown to accumulate in the shoots of seedlings and the above-ground tissues except nodes although less total Cu content in oshc1. Further analysis showed that the mutant had an accelerated Cu transport ratio from roots to shoots and higher Cu concentration in xylem sap than WT. This phenomenon in oshc1 was controlled by a single recessive gene, which was identified as BGIOSGA007732, and named OsHMA4. The eight base frame-shift from 1021 to 1028 bp in the coding sequence of OsHMA4 led to a modification after the 341st amino acid and resulted in premature translation termination of OsHMA4 at the 377th amino acid. This may change the function of OsHMA4. Furthermore, the up-regulated OsCOPT7 and OsATX1 and down-regulated OsHMA4 probably decrease Cu compartmentalization in roots of oshc1. In summary, the frame-shift in OsHMA4 changes the function of OsHMA4 and the expression of genes relative to Cu transport in the mutant, which leads to more Cu transport upward and higher Cu accumulation in the rice grains. Moreover, oshc1 was more tolerance to Cu-shortage than WT, while more sensitive to Cu excess exposure than WT. However, RNA-Seq analysis shown that changes in transcription levels of genes in oshc1 involving in molecular function of ions binding and biological processes of cell wall organization and defense response to bio-stress. Which indicates that oshc1 is advantage to Cu limited condition than WT. This work reveals the mechanism of high Cu accumulation in the grains of oshc1 and provides a material to breed new cultivars with optimum levels of Cu in brown rice by crossing with other dominant varieties, which can be planted in different soils to ensure the yield and quality of rice.

Malus rootstocks affect copper accumulation and tolerance in trees by regulating copper mobility, physiological responses, and gene expression patterns

We investigated the roles of rootstocks in Cu accumulation and tolerance in Malus plants by grafting 'Hanfu' (HF) scions onto M. baccata (Mb) and M. prunifolia (Mp) rootstocks, which have different Cu tolerances. The grafts were exposed to basal or excess Cu for 20 d. Excess Cu-treated HF/Mb had less biomass, and pronounced root architecture deformation and leaf ultrastructure damage than excess Cu-challenged HF/Mp. Root Cu concentrations and bio-concentration factor (BCF) were higher in HF/Mp than HF/Mb, whereas HF/Mb had higher stem and leaf Cu concentrations than HF/Mp. Excess Cu lowered root and aerial tissue BCF and translocation factor (T_f) in all plants; however, T_f was markedly higher in HF/Mb than in HF/Mp. The subcellular distribution of Cu in the roots and leaves indicated that excess Cu treatments increased Cu fixation in the root cell walls, which decreased Cu mobility. Compared to HF/Mb, HF/Mp sequestered more Cu in its root cell walls and less Cu in leaf plastids, nuclei, and mitochondria. Moreover, HF/Mp roots and leaves had higher concentrations of water-insoluble Cu compounds than HF/Mb, which reduced Cu mobility and toxicity. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis showed that the carboxyl, hydroxyl and acylamino groups of the cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and proteins were the main Cu binding sites in the root cell walls. Excess Cu-induced superoxide anion and malondialdehyde were 28.6% and 5.1% lower, but soluble phenolics, ascorbate and glutathione were 10.5%, 41.9% and 17.7% higher in HF/Mp than HF/Mb leaves. Compared with HF/Mb, certain genes involved in Cu transport were downregulated, while other genes involved in detoxification were upregulated in HF/Mp roots and leaves. Our results show that Mp inhibited Cu translocation and mitigated Cu toxicity in Malus scions by regulating Cu mobility, antioxidant defense mechanisms, and transcription of key genes involved in Cu translocation and detoxification.

Improving abiotic stress tolerance in sorghum: focus on the nutrient transporters and marker-assisted breeding

Identification of molecular markers and characterization of nutrient transporters could help to improve the tolerance under abiotic and low nutrient stresses in sorghum ensuring higher yield to conserve food security Sorghum is an important cereal crop delivering food and energy security in the semi-arid tropics of the world. Adverse climatic conditions induced by global warming and low input agriculture system in developing countries demand for the improvement of sorghum to tolerate various abiotic stresses. In this review, we discuss the application of marker-assisted breeding and nutrient transporter characterization studies targeted towards improving the tolerance of sorghum under drought, salinity, cold, low phosphate and nitrogen stresses. Family members of some nutrient transporters such as nitrate transporter (NRT), phosphate transporter (PHT) and sulphate transporter (SULTR) were identified and characterized for improving the low nutrient stress tolerance in sorghum. Several quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified for drought, salinity and cold stresses with an intention to enhance the tolerance of sorghum under these stresses. A very few QTL and nutrient transporters have been identified and validated under low nitrogen and phosphorus stresses compared to those under drought, salinity and cold stresses. Marker-assisted breeding and nutrient transporter characterization have not yet been attempted in sorghum under other macro- and micro-nutrient stresses. We hope this review will raise awareness among plant breeders, scientists and biotechnologists about the importance of sorghum and need to conduct the studies on marker-assisted breeding and nutrient transporter under low nutrient stresses to improve the sorghum production.

Arabidopsis COPPER TRANSPORTER 1 undergoes degradation in a proteasome-dependent manner

The essential nutrient copper is toxic in excess. Therefore, plants must tightly control copper uptake and distribution. Arabidopsis thaliana high-affinity copper transporters (COPTs) mediate copper uptake, partitioning, and redistribution. Here we show that COPT1 localizes to the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum in stably transgenic plants expressing a COPT1-green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion protein, and the fusion protein is rapidly degraded upon plant exposure to excess copper. MG132 treatment largely abolished copper-induced degradation of COPT1, implying a link between the proteasome and COPT1 activity in modulating copper uptake. Co-immunoprecipitation analyses revealed that COPT1 cannot be ubiquitinated in the presence of excess copper and MG132. Through site-directed mutagenesis, we identified Lys159 in the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of COPT1 as critical for copper acquisition, but not for copper-mediated down-regulation of COPT1, in plants. Furthermore, pharmacological analysis showed that treatment with a vesicle trafficking inhibitor or a V-ATPase inhibitor does not alter the subcellular dynamics of COPT1-GFP, consistent with the absence of a connection between the endosomal recycling/vacuolar system and COPT1 degradation. Together, our data suggest that proteasomal degradation rather than vacuolar proteolysis is important for the regulation of copper transport to maintain copper homeostasis in plants.

Characterization of the Copper Transporters from Lotus spp. and Their Involvement under Flooding Conditions

Forage legumes are an important livestock nutritional resource, which includes essential metals, such as copper. Particularly, the high prevalence of hypocuprosis causes important economic losses to Argentinian cattle agrosystems. Copper deficiency in cattle is partially due to its low content in forage produced by natural grassland, and is exacerbated by flooding conditions. Previous results indicated that incorporation of Lotus spp. into natural grassland increases forage nutritional quality, including higher copper levels. However, the biological processes and molecular mechanisms involved in copper uptake by Lotus spp. remain poorly understood. Here, we identify four genes that encode putative members of the Lotus copper transporter family, denoted COPT in higher plants. A heterologous functional complementation assay of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ctr1∆ctr3∆ strain, which lacks the corresponding yeast copper transporters, with the putative Lotus COPT proteins shows a partial rescue of the yeast phenotypes in restrictive media. Under partial submergence conditions, the copper content of L. japonicus plants decreases and the expression of two Lotus COPT genes is induced. These results strongly suggest that the Lotus COPT proteins identified in this work function in copper uptake. In addition, the fact that environmental conditions affect the expression of certain COPT genes supports their involvement in adaptive mechanisms and envisages putative biotechnological strategies to improve cattle copper nutrition.