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Dupon L, Trabucco B, Muñoz F, Casabianca F, Charrier F, Laval M, Jori F. A combined methodological approach to characterize pig farming and its influence on the occurrence of interactions between wild boars and domestic pigs in Corsican micro-regions. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1253060. [PMID: 38628940 PMCID: PMC11019438 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1253060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The pig sector in Corsica is based by a wide range of farming systems, mainly characterized on traditional extensive practices, which favor contacts between domestic and wild individuals. These contacts are suspected to influence the maintenance and the transmission of shared infectious diseases between both populations. Therefore, it is important to develop methods that allow to understand and anticipate their occurrence. Modeling these interactions requires accurate data on the presence, location and use of land on pig farms and farming practices, but such data are often unavailable, incomplete or outdated. In this study, we suggest a method to collect and analyze pig farming information that combines approaches from social sciences and epidemiology and enables a spatial representation of an index of potential interaction (IPI) between wild and domestic pigs at municipality level in the Corsican territory. As a first step of the process, interviews were conducted to gather information from 103 pig farms. Then, using hierarchical clustering, we identified five different clusters of pig farming practices which were evaluated and validated by local experts using participatory tools. The five pig farming clusters with their respective estimated levels of direct and indirect interactions with wild boars were combined in a linear equation with pig density to estimate a hypothetical index of potential interaction (IPI) in 155 municipalities. Our results revealed the diversity of pig farming practices across the island of Corsica and pointed out potential hotspots of interaction. Our method proved to be an effective way to collect and update information on the presence and typology of pig farms which has the potential to update official livestock production statistics. The spatial representation of an IPI between wild boars and domestic pigs in the Corsican territory could help design regional disease management strategies and policies to improve the control of certain shared pig pathogens in pig farms from Corsica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liane Dupon
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Développement de l’Elevage, INRAE, Corte, France
| | - Bastien Trabucco
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Développement de l’Elevage, INRAE, Corte, France
- UMR SELMET, CIRAD-INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Facundo Muñoz
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Montpellier, France
- ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD – INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - François Casabianca
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Développement de l’Elevage, INRAE, Corte, France
| | - François Charrier
- UMR LISIS, INRAE – Université Gustave Eiffel, Marne-la-Vallée, France
| | - Morgane Laval
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Développement de l’Elevage, INRAE, Corte, France
| | - Ferran Jori
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Montpellier, France
- ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD – INRAE, Montpellier, France
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Duarte F, Allepuz A, Casal J, Armengol R, Mateu E, Castellà J, Heras J, Ciaravino G. Characterization of biosecurity practices among cattle transport drivers in Spain. Prev Vet Med 2024; 224:106138. [PMID: 38341944 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Transmission of pathogens between farms via animal transport vehicles is a potential concern; however, the available information on driver routines and biosecurity measures implemented during transport is limited. Given the above, the aim of this study was to describe and characterize the prevailing practices and biosecurity measures adopted by cattle transport drivers in Spain. Eighty-two drivers were surveyed via face-to-face or remotely. The survey included questions on general characteristics of the drivers (type of journeys and vehicles) together with biosecurity practices implemented during cattle transport and vehicle hygiene practices. Results showed that several risky practices are performed quite frequently such as visiting different premises with different levels of risk (e.g., breeder and fattening farms); entering the farm premises to load/unload animals, passing by several farms to load and unload animals, or not always cleaning and disinfecting the vehicle between travels, among others. To explore similarities among the drivers and identify groups sharing specific practices, hierarchical clustering on principal components (HCPC) was computed on the results of multiple correspondence analysis (MCA). The first three MCA dimensions (out of 13) were retained in the agglomerative clustering and four different clusters were identified. Clusters 1 and Cluster 4 accounted for 39.5% and 29.6% of respondents, respectively. The clusters were mainly differentiated by practices in the loading/unloading of cattle, such as the frequency of contact with animals remaining on the farm, and the frequency of the vehicle's disinfection between farms. Cluster 2 and Cluster 3 were of similar size, about 15% of respondents each. Cluster 2 consisted of drivers who mainly made journeys to slaughterhouse, while drivers in Cluster 3 were characterised by the use of working clothes and boots. Based on these findings, it is advisable to increase awareness on the role that animal transport can have in the spread of pathogens between cattle farms and the importance of biosecurity in preventing such transmission. There is also a need to support animal transport professionals in such task, not only through the development of initiatives to increase awareness, but also through the investment in improving cleaning and disinfection facilities and to consider the economic cost associated with some practices to not compromise the economic viability of the sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Duarte
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Alberto Allepuz
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Casal
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ramon Armengol
- Department of Animal Science, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida 25002, Spain
| | - Enric Mateu
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joaquim Castellà
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Javier Heras
- Dairy professionals - Vether Girona S.L. Girona, 17843, Spain
| | - Giovanna Ciaravino
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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Zindler M, Haensel M, Fricke U, Schmitt TM, Tobisch C, Koellner T. Improving Agri-environmental Schemes: Suggestions from Farmers and Nature Managers in a Central European Region. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023:10.1007/s00267-023-01922-w. [PMID: 38108828 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-023-01922-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Agri-environmental schemes (AES) are important policy instruments within the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union for environmental protection. Due to the voluntary nature of AES, their attractiveness to farmers and stakeholders involved in nature management and protection (nature managers) is essential for high participation levels. This study aims to assess farmers' and nature managers' ideas to improve agri-environmental schemes. We analyzed suggestions of 825 farmers and 118 nature managers for improvements of AES collected in a large-scale survey in Bavaria, Germany. A content analysis was applied to categorize and compare suggestions by farmers (differentiated into two groups through a cluster analysis) and nature managers. The results reveal that stakeholders were highly willing to share ideas and made detailed suggestions for improvements and individual measures. They were aware of the importance of protecting nature and promoting biodiversity in agricultural landscapes and acknowledged the necessity of (financial) support programs. Farmers placed more emphasis on the practicability and profitability of measures on arable land, while nature managers tended to propose policy-related ideas focusing on nature protection, biodiversity, and specific species. Among farmers, suggestions differed with farm characteristics such as the operation mode (full-time, part-time). These findings can support the design of future AES, accounting for different background situations and thereby increasing acceptability. This includes considering perspectives from different stakeholder groups and creating regionally adapted programs with varying levels of flexibility and practicability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Zindler
- Professorship of Ecological Services, Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research (BayCEER), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Maria Haensel
- Professorship of Ecological Services, Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research (BayCEER), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447, Bayreuth, Germany.
| | - Ute Fricke
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Julius-Maximilians-University, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Thomas M Schmitt
- Professorship of Ecological Services, Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research (BayCEER), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Cynthia Tobisch
- Institute of Ecology and Landscape, Weihenstephan-Triesdorf University of Applied Sciences, Am Hofgarten 4, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Thomas Koellner
- Professorship of Ecological Services, Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research (BayCEER), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447, Bayreuth, Germany
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Puspitarani GA, Fuchs R, Fuchs K, Ladinig A, Desvars-Larrive A. Network analysis of pig movement data as an epidemiological tool: an Austrian case study. Sci Rep 2023; 13:9623. [PMID: 37316653 PMCID: PMC10267221 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-36596-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal movements represent a major risk for the spread of infectious diseases in the domestic swine population. In this study, we adopted methods from social network analysis to explore pig trades in Austria. We used a dataset of daily records of swine movements covering the period 2015-2021. We analyzed the topology of the network and its structural changes over time, including seasonal and long-term variations in the pig production activities. Finally, we studied the temporal dynamics of the network community structure. Our findings show that the Austrian pig production was dominated by small-sized farms while spatial farm density was heterogeneous. The network exhibited a scale-free topology but was very sparse, suggesting a moderate impact of infectious disease outbreaks. However, two regions (Upper Austria and Styria) may present a higher structural vulnerability. The network also showed very high assortativity between holdings from the same federal state. Dynamic community detection revealed a stable behavior of the clusters. Yet trade communities did not correspond to sub-national administrative divisions and may be an alternative zoning approach to managing infectious diseases. Knowledge about the topology, contact patterns, and temporal dynamics of the pig trade network can support optimized risk-based disease control and surveillance strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavrila A Puspitarani
- Unit of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria.
- Complexity Science Hub Vienna, Josefstaedter Strasse 39, 1080, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Reinhard Fuchs
- Department for Data, Statistics and Risk Assessment, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Zinzendorfgasse 27/1, 8010, Graz, Austria
- Institute of Systems Sciences, Innovation and Sustainability Research, University of Graz, Merangasse 18/1, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Klemens Fuchs
- Department for Data, Statistics and Risk Assessment, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Zinzendorfgasse 27/1, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Andrea Ladinig
- University Clinic for Swine, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Amélie Desvars-Larrive
- Unit of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
- Complexity Science Hub Vienna, Josefstaedter Strasse 39, 1080, Vienna, Austria
- VetFarm, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Kremesberg 13, 2563, Pottenstein, Austria
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Innovative Research Offers New Hope for Managing African Swine Fever Better in Resource-Limited Smallholder Farming Settings: A Timely Update. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12020355. [PMID: 36839627 PMCID: PMC9963711 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12020355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) in domestic pigs has, since its discovery in Africa more than a century ago, been associated with subsistence pig keeping with low levels of biosecurity. Likewise, smallholder and backyard pig farming in resource-limited settings have been notably affected during the ongoing epidemic in Eastern Europe, Asia, the Pacific, and Caribbean regions. Many challenges to managing ASF in such settings have been identified in the ongoing as well as previous epidemics. Consistent implementation of biosecurity at all nodes in the value chain remains most important for controlling and preventing ASF. Recent research from Asia, Africa, and Europe has provided science-based information that can be of value in overcoming some of the hurdles faced for implementing biosecurity in resource-limited contexts. In this narrative review we examine a selection of these studies elucidating innovative solutions such as shorter boiling times for inactivating ASF virus in swill, participatory planning of interventions for risk mitigation for ASF, better understanding of smallholder pig-keeper perceptions and constraints, modified culling, and safe alternatives for disposal of carcasses of pigs that have died of ASF. The aim of the review is to increase acceptance and implementation of science-based approaches that increase the feasibility of managing, and the possibility to prevent, ASF in resource-limited settings. This could contribute to protecting hundreds of thousands of livelihoods that depend upon pigs and enable small-scale pig production to reach its full potential for poverty alleviation and food security.
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Karl CA, Andres D, Carlos M, Peña M, Juan HO, Jorge O. Farm management practices, biosecurity and influenza a virus detection in swine farms: a comprehensive study in colombia. Porcine Health Manag 2022; 8:42. [PMID: 36199147 PMCID: PMC9532805 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-022-00287-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Biosecurity protocols (BP) and good management practices are key to reduce the risk of introduction and transmission of infectious diseases into the pig farms. In this observational cross-sectional study, survey data were collected from 176 pig farms with inventories over 100 sows in Colombia. We analyzed a complex survey dataset to explore the structure and identify clustering patterns using Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) of swine farms in Colombia, and estimated its association with Influenza A virus detection. Two principal dimensions contributed to 27.6% of the dataset variation. Farms with highest contribution to dimension 1 were larger farrow-to-finish farms, using self-replacement of gilts and implementing most of the measures evaluated. In contrast, farms with highest contribution to dimension 2 were medium to large farrow-to-finish farms, but implemented biosecurity in a lower degree. Additionally, two farm clusters were identified by Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), and the odds of influenza A virus detection was statistically different between clusters (OR 7.29, CI: 1.7,66, p = < 0.01). Moreover, after logistic regression analysis, three important variables were associated with higher odds of influenza detection: (1) “location in an area with a high density of pigs”, (2) “farm size”, and (3) “after cleaning and disinfecting, the facilities are allowed to dry before use”. Our results revealed two clustering patterns of swine farms. This systematic analysis of complex survey data identified relationships between biosecurity, husbandry practices and influenza status. This approach helped to identify gaps on biosecurity and key elements for designing successful strategies to prevent and control swine respiratory diseases in the swine industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciuoderis-Aponte Karl
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Medellín. Consortium Colombia Wisconsin One Health, Cra 75#61-85, 050034, Medellín, Colombia.
| | - Diaz Andres
- Pig Improvement Company, Hendersonville, North Carolina , USA
| | - Muskus Carlos
- Programa de Estudio y Control de Enfermedades Tropicales- PECET, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Mario Peña
- Asociación Porkcolombia - Fondo nacional de la porcicultura, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Hernández-Ortiz Juan
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Medellín. Consortium Colombia Wisconsin One Health, Cra 75#61-85, 050034, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Osorio Jorge
- Department of Pathobiological sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Consortium Colombia Wisconsin One Health, 53706, Madison, USA
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O'Hara KC, Beltrán-Alcrudo D, Hovari M, Tabakovski B, Martínez-López B. Network analysis of live pig movements in North Macedonia: Pathways for disease spread. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:922412. [PMID: 36016804 PMCID: PMC9396142 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.922412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Globalization of trade, and the interconnectivity of animal production systems, continues to challenge efforts to control disease. A better understanding of trade networks supports development of more effective strategies for mitigation for transboundary diseases like African swine fever (ASF), classical swine fever (CSF), and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). North Macedonia, bordered to the north and east by countries with ongoing ASF outbreaks, recently reported its first incursion of ASF. This study aimed to describe the distribution of pigs and pig farms in North Macedonia, and to characterize the live pig movement network. Network analyses on movement data from 2017 to 2019 were performed for each year separately, and consistently described weakly connected components with a few primary hubs that most nodes shipped to. In 2019, the network demonstrated a marked decrease in betweenness and increase in communities. Most shipments occurred within 50 km, with movements <6 km being the most common (22.5%). Nodes with the highest indegree and outdegree were consistent across years, despite a large turnover among smallholder farms. Movements to slaughterhouses predominated (85.6%), with movements between farms (5.4%) and movements to market (5.8%) playing a lesser role. This description of North Macedonia's live pig movement network should enable implementation of more efficient and cost-effective mitigation efforts strategies in country, and inform targeted educational outreach, and provide data for future disease modeling, in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen C. O'Hara
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Daniel Beltrán-Alcrudo
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Mark Hovari
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Blagojcho Tabakovski
- Food and Veterinary Agency, Republic of North Macedonia, Skopje, North Macedonia
| | - Beatriz Martínez-López
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Beatriz Martínez-López
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The Distribution Characteristics of Aerosol Bacteria in Different Types of Pig Houses. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12121540. [PMID: 35739876 PMCID: PMC9219456 DOI: 10.3390/ani12121540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Microbial aerosols from pig houses can be released into the environment, posing a serious threat to biosafety and public health. At present, there are few studies on the structural characteristics of aerosol bacteria in piggeries at different growth stages. It is important to understand the characteristics of aerosol bacteria in pig houses to solve the problems of air pollution and disease control in pig houses at different growth stages. In this study, bacterial aerosol concentrations and bacterial communities were compared in pig houses at different growth stages in Hebei Province, China. It was found that bacterial concentrations, community richness, and diversity in the air increased with the age of pigs. There are many pathogenic bacteria in the microbial aerosols of piggery. Our study highlights the importance of more comprehensive research and analysis of microbial aerosols in pig houses. Precautions for air pollution should be instituted in pig houses, including wearing masks, rigorous disinfection, and hygiene procedures. Abstract With the development of modern pig raising technology, the increasing density of animals in pig houses leads to the accumulation of microbial aerosols in pig houses. It is an important prerequisite to grasp the characteristics of bacteria in aerosols in different pig houses to solve the problems of air pollution and disease prevention and control in different pig houses. This work investigated the effects of growth stages on bacterial aerosol concentrations and bacterial communities in pig houses. Three traditional types of closed pig houses were studied: farrowing (FAR) houses, weaning (WEA) houses, and fattening (FAT) houses. The Andersen six-stage sampler and high-volume air sampler were used to assess the concentrations and size distribution of airborne bacteria, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to identify the bacterial communities. We found that the airborne bacterial concentration, community richness, and diversity index increased with pig age. We found that Acinetobacter, Erysipelothrix, Streptococcus, Moraxella, and Aerococcus in the microbial aerosols of pig houses have the potential risk of causing disease. These differences lead us to believe that disinfection strategies for pig houses should involve a situational focus on environmental aerosol composition on a case-by-case basis.
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Key risk factors and impact of African swine fever spreading on pig production in Serbia. ACTA VET-BEOGRAD 2021. [DOI: 10.2478/acve-2021-0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a viral disease of domestic pigs and wild boars and currently represents a major threat to the swine industry worldwide. Disease control is impaired by a lack of an effective vaccine and currently, it is dependent on biosecurity measures in pig production, rapid diagnosis, and stamping out of infected herds. Consequently, this swine disease has considerable social-economic significance on national or even regional level. In 2019 for the first time ASF was detected in the domestic swine population (backyards) in the central region of Serbia. From then on, there have been continuous outbreaks of new cases in the population of domestic and wild boars. Considering domestic pig population, in the majority of cases, ASF was detected in small holdings and backyards. The biosecurity measures are not officially required by veterinary regulation and are only given in a form of recommendations. On the other hand, it is not always possible to implement biosecurity measures that are recognized today as essential for sustainable pig production in the old type of industrial pig facilities. Nowadays, in 2021, it became obvious that the domestic pig cycle, human activities involving pigs, or pig-derived meat products are the dominant driver of virus transmission. Additionally, human activities are frequently a risky connection between domestic pigs and wild boars both directly or indirectly. Traditional, culture-related aspects and facts that politicians failed to recognise ASF as a serious issue that causes great economical losses were found to be very important obstacles in disease control.
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O'Hara KC, Beltrán-Alcrudo D, Hovari M, Tabakovski B, Martínez-López B. Descriptive and Multivariate Analysis of the Pig Sector in North Macedonia and Its Implications for African Swine Fever Transmission. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:733157. [PMID: 34917667 PMCID: PMC8669509 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.733157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
North Macedonia, a country in the Balkan region of Europe, is currently bordered to the north and east by countries with active African swine fever (ASF) outbreaks. The predominantly traditional backyard pig farming sector in this country is under imminent threat of disease incursion. The characteristics and practices of such sectors have rarely been described, and thus the implications for these factors on disease introduction and spread are poorly understood. Using a semi-structured questionnaire, 457 pig producers were interviewed, providing information on 77.7% of the pig population in North Macedonia. In addition, a pilot study of 25 pig producers in Kosovo was performed. This study aimed to provide a detailed description of the North Macedonian pig sector, to make comparisons with nearby Kosovo, and to identify areas with high-risk practices for targeted mitigation. Descriptive data were summarized. Results of the questionnaire were used to identify farm-level risk factors for disease introduction. These factors were used in the calculation of a biosecurity risk score. Kernel density estimation methods were used to generate density maps highlighting areas where the risk of disease introduction was particularly concentrated. Multiple correspondence analysis with hierarchical clustering on principal components was used to explore patterns in farm practices. Results show that farms were predominantly small-scale with high rates of turnover. Pig movement was predominantly local. The highest biosecurity risk scores were localized in the eastern regions of North Macedonia, concerningly the same regions with the highest frequency of wild boar sightings. Veterinarians were highly regarded, regularly utilized, and trusted sources of information. Practices that should be targeted for improvement include isolation of new pigs, and consistent application of basic sanitary practices including washing hands, use of disinfection mats, and separation of clean and dirty areas. This study provides the most complete description of the North Macedonian pig sector currently available. It also identifies regions and practices that could be targeted to mitigate the risk of disease incursion and spread. These results represent the first steps to quantify biosecurity gaps and high-risk behaviors in North Macedonia, providing baseline information to design risk-based, more cost-effective, prevention, surveillance, and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen C O'Hara
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Daniel Beltrán-Alcrudo
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Mark Hovari
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Beatriz Martínez-López
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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11
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Rolesu S, Mandas D, Loi F, Oggiano A, Dei Giudici S, Franzoni G, Guberti V, Cappai S. African Swine Fever in Smallholder Sardinian Farms: Last 10 Years of Network Transmission Reconstruction and Analysis. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:692448. [PMID: 34395576 PMCID: PMC8361751 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.692448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a viral disease of suids that frequently leads to death. There are neither licensed vaccines nor treatments available, and even though humans are not susceptible to the disease, the serious socio-economic consequences associated with ASF have made it one of the most serious animal diseases of the last century. In this context, prevention and early detection play a key role in controlling the disease and avoiding losses in the pig value chain. Target biosecurity measures are a strong strategy against ASF virus (ASFV) incursions in farms nowadays, but to be efficient, these measures must be well-defined and easy to implement, both in commercial holdings and in the backyard sector. Furthermore, the backyard sector is of great importance in low-income settings, mainly for social and cultural practices that are highly specific to certain areas and communities. These contexts need to be addressed when authorities decide upon the provisions that should be applied in the case of infection or decide to combine them with strict preventive measures to mitigate the risk of virus spread. The need for a deeper understanding of the smallholder context is essential to prevent ASFV incursion and spread. Precise indications for pig breeding and risk estimation for ASFV introduction, spread and maintenance, taking into account the fact that these recommendations would be inapplicable in some contexts, are the keys for efficient target control measures. The aim of this work is to describe the 305 outbreaks that occurred in domestic pigs in Sardinia during the last epidemic season (2010-2018) in depth, providing essential features associated with intensive and backyard farms where the outbreaks occurred. In addition, the study estimates the average of secondary cases by kernel transmission network. Considering the current absence of ASF outbreaks in domestic pig farms in Sardinia since 2018, this work is a valid tool to specifically estimate the risk associated with different farm types and update our knowledge in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandro Rolesu
- Sardinian Regional Veterinary Epidemiological Observatory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna “G. Pegreffi”, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Daniela Mandas
- Sardinian Regional Veterinary Epidemiological Observatory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna “G. Pegreffi”, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Federica Loi
- Sardinian Regional Veterinary Epidemiological Observatory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna “G. Pegreffi”, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Annalisa Oggiano
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Della Sardegna, Sassari, Italy
| | - Silvia Dei Giudici
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Della Sardegna, Sassari, Italy
| | - Giulia Franzoni
- Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Della Sardegna, Sassari, Italy
| | - Vittorio Guberti
- ISPRA—Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Cappai
- Sardinian Regional Veterinary Epidemiological Observatory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna “G. Pegreffi”, Cagliari, Italy
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12
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Njau EP, Domelevo Entfellner JB, Machuka EM, Bochere EN, Cleaveland S, Shirima GM, Kusiluka LJ, Upton C, Bishop RP, Pelle R, Okoth EA. The first genotype II African swine fever virus isolated in Africa provides insight into the current Eurasian pandemic. Sci Rep 2021; 11:13081. [PMID: 34158551 PMCID: PMC8219699 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-92593-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV) is ranked by OIE as the most important source of mortality in domestic pigs globally and is indigenous to African wild suids and soft ticks. Despite two ASFV genotypes causing economically devastating epidemics outside the continent since 1961, there have been no genome-level analyses of virus evolution in Africa. The virus was recently transported from south-eastern Africa to Georgia in 2007 and has subsequently spread to Russia, eastern Europe, China, and south-east Asia with devastating socioeconomic consequences. To date, two of the 24 currently described ASFV genotypes defined by sequencing of the p72 gene, namely genotype I and II, have been reported outside Africa, with genotype II being responsible for the ongoing pig pandemic. Multiple complete genotype II genome sequences have been reported from European, Russian and Chinese virus isolates but no complete genome sequences have yet been reported from Africa. We report herein the complete genome of a Tanzanian genotype II isolate, Tanzania/Rukwa/2017/1, collected in 2017 and determined using an Illumina short read strategy. The Tanzania/Rukwa/2017/1 sequence is 183,186 bp in length (in a single contig) and contains 188 open reading frames. Considering only un-gapped sites in the pairwise alignments, the new sequence has 99.961% identity with the updated Georgia 2007/1 reference isolate (FR682468.2), 99.960% identity with Polish isolate Pol16_29413_o23 (MG939586) and 99.957% identity with Chinese isolate ASFV-wbBS01 (MK645909.1). This represents 73 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) relative to the Polish isolate and 78 SNPs with the Chinese genome. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that Tanzania/Rukwa/2017/1 clusters most closely with Georgia 2007/1. The majority of the differences between Tanzania/Rukwa/2017/1 and Georgia 2007/1 genotype II genomes are insertions/deletions (indels) as is typical for ASFV. The indels included differences in the length and copy number of the terminal multicopy gene families, MGF 360 and 110. The Rukwa2017/1 sequence is the first complete genotype II genome from a precisely mapped locality in Africa, since the exact origin of Georgia2007/1 is unknown. It therefore provides baseline information for future analyses of the diversity and phylogeography of this globally important genetic sub-group of ASF viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma P Njau
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Nairobi, Kenya.
- Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania.
- Sokoine University of Agriculture, P. O. Box 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania.
| | | | - Eunice M Machuka
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Edwina N Bochere
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sarah Cleaveland
- Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Gabriel M Shirima
- Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Lughano J Kusiluka
- Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania
- Mzumbe University, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Chris Upton
- Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8W 3P6, Canada
| | - Richard P Bishop
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Roger Pelle
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Edward A Okoth
- Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Nairobi, Kenya
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13
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Nielsen SS, Alvarez J, Bicout DJ, Calistri P, Depner K, Drewe JA, Garin‐Bastuji B, Gonzales Rojas JL, Gortazar Schmidt C, Herskin M, Michel V, Miranda Chueca MÁ, Pasquali P, Roberts HC, Sihvonen LH, Spoolder H, Stahl K, Velarde A, Winckler C, Abrahantes JC, Dhollander S, Ivanciu C, Papanikolaou A, Van der Stede Y, Blome S, Guberti V, Loi F, More S, Olsevskis E, Thulke HH, Viltrop A. ASF Exit Strategy: Providing cumulative evidence of the absence of African swine fever virus circulation in wild boar populations using standard surveillance measures. EFSA J 2021; 19:e06419. [PMID: 33717352 PMCID: PMC7926520 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
EFSA assessed the role of seropositive wild boar in African swine fever (ASF) persistence. Surveillance data from Estonia and Latvia investigated with a generalised equation method demonstrated a significantly slower decline in seroprevalence in adult animals compared with subadults. The seroprevalence in adults, taking more than 24 months to approach zero after the last detection of ASFV circulation, would be a poor indicator to demonstrate the absence of virus circulation. A narrative literature review updated the knowledge on the mortality rate, the duration of protective immunity and maternal antibodies and transmission parameters. In addition, parameters potentially leading to prolonged virus circulation (persistence) in wild boar populations were reviewed. A stochastic explicit model was used to evaluate the dynamics of virus prevalence, seroprevalence and the number of carcasses attributed to ASF. Secondly, the impact of four scenarios on the duration of ASF virus (ASFV) persistence was evaluated with the model, namely a: (1) prolonged, lifelong infectious period, (2) reduction in the case-fatality rate and prolonged transient infectiousness; (3) change in duration of protective immunity and (4) change in the duration of protection from maternal antibodies. Only the lifelong infectious period scenario had an important prolonging effect on the persistence of ASF. Finally, the model tested the performance of different proposed surveillance strategies to provide evidence of the absence of virus circulation (Exit Strategy). A two-phase approach (Screening Phase, Confirmation Phase) was suggested for the Exit Strategy. The accuracy of the Exit Strategy increases with increasing numbers of carcasses collected and tested. The inclusion of active surveillance based on hunting has limited impact on the performance of the Exit Strategy compared with lengthening of the monitoring period. This performance improvement should be reasonably balanced against an unnecessary prolonged 'time free' with only a marginal gain in performance. Recommendations are provided for minimum monitoring periods leading to minimal failure rates of the Exit Strategy. The proposed Exit Strategy would fail with the presence of lifelong infectious wild boar. That said, it should be emphasised that the existence of such animals is speculative, based on current knowledge.
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14
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Schettino DN, Abdrakhmanov SK, Beisembayev KK, Korennoy FI, Sultanov AA, Mukhanbetkaliyev YY, Kadyrov AS, Perez AM. Risk for African Swine Fever Introduction Into Kazakhstan. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:605910. [PMID: 33644144 PMCID: PMC7904699 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.605910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a disease of swine that is endemic to some African countries and that has rapidly spread since 2007 through many regions of Asia and Europe, becoming endemic in some areas of those continents. Since there is neither vaccine nor treatment for ASF, prevention is an important action to avoid the economic losses that this disease can impose on a country. Although the Republic of Kazakhstan has remained free from the disease, some of its neighbors have become ASF-infected, raising concerns about the potential introduction of the disease into the country. Here, we have identified clusters of districts in Kazakhstan at highest risk for ASF introduction. Questionnaires were administered, and districts were visited to collect and document, for the first time, at the district level, the distribution of swine operations and population in Kazakhstan. A snowball sampling approach was used to identify ASF experts worldwide, and a conjoint analysis model was used to elicit their opinion in relation to the extent at which relevant epidemiological factors influence the risk for ASF introduction into disease-free regions. The resulting model was validated using data from the Russian Federation and Mongolia. Finally, the validated model was used to rank and categorize Kazakhstani districts in terms of the risk for serving as the point of entry for ASF into the country, and clusters of districts at highest risk of introduction were identified using the normal model of the spatial scan statistic. Results here will help to allocate resources for surveillance and prevention activities aimed at early detecting a hypothetical ASF introduction into Kazakhstan, ultimately helping to protect the sanitary status of the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniella N Schettino
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | | | | | - Fedor I Korennoy
- FGBI "Federal Centre for Animal Health" (FGBI "ARRIAH"), Vladimir, Russia
| | | | | | | | - Andres M Perez
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
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15
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Penrith ML, Bastos A, Chenais E. With or without a Vaccine-A Review of Complementary and Alternative Approaches to Managing African Swine Fever in Resource-Constrained Smallholder Settings. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9020116. [PMID: 33540948 PMCID: PMC7913123 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9020116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The spectacular recent spread of African swine fever (ASF) in Eastern Europe and Asia has been strongly associated, as it is in the endemic areas in Africa, with free-ranging pig populations and low-biosecurity backyard pig farming. Managing the disease in wild boar populations and in circumstances where the disease in domestic pigs is largely driven by poverty is particularly challenging and may remain so even in the presence of effective vaccines. The only option currently available to prevent ASF is strict biosecurity. Among small-scale pig farmers biosecurity measures are often considered unaffordable or impossible to implement. However, as outbreaks of ASF are also unaffordable, the adoption of basic biosecurity measures is imperative to achieve control and prevent losses. Biosecurity measures can be adapted to fit smallholder contexts, culture and costs. A longer-term approach that could prove valuable particularly for free-ranging pig populations would be exploitation of innate resistance to the virus, which is fully effective in wild African suids and has been observed in some domestic pig populations in areas of prolonged endemicity. We explore available options for preventing ASF in terms of feasibility, practicality and affordability among domestic pig populations that are at greatest risk of exposure to ASF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary-Louise Penrith
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +27-12-342-1514
| | - Armanda Bastos
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa;
| | - Erika Chenais
- Department of Disease Control and Epidemiology, National Veterinary Institute, S-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden;
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16
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Fonseca-Rodríguez O, Centelles García Y, Alfonso Zamora P, Ferrer-Miranda E, Montano DDLN, Blanco M, Gutiérrez Y, Calistri P, Santoro KR, Percedo MI. Classical Swine Fever in a Cuban Zone Intended for Eradication: Spatiotemporal Clustering and Risk Factors. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:38. [PMID: 32118061 PMCID: PMC7012804 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Classical Swine Fever (CSF) is an endemic disease in Cuba, and an eradication strategy by zones is planned by the Official Veterinary Service. The aim of this study was to identify high-risk areas of CSF and the risk factors associated with the disease occurrence in the Pinar del Río province, one of the prioritized areas in the eradication strategy. The outbreak occurrence at district level was analyzed through a 7-year period (2009 to 2015). A high-risk cluster (RR = 5.13, 95% CI 3.49–7.56) was detected during the last 2 years of the study period in the eastern half of the province, with 38 out of 97 districts included. The rate of CSF-affected holdings had a significant increase during 2014–2015 and seems to have occurred mainly in the high-risk cluster area. Swine population density by district (heads/km2) and road length (km) by district were associated with the disease outbreak occurrence. These results provide new insights into the knowledge of the epidemiology of the disease in Cuban endemic conditions and can contribute to improving the control and the eradication strategy in this situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osvaldo Fonseca-Rodríguez
- National Center for Animal and Plant Health (CENSA), OIE Collaborating Center for Reduction of the Risk of Disasters in Animal Health, Carretera de Jamaica y Autopista Nacional, San José de las Lajas, Cuba.,Department of Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Yosdany Centelles García
- National Center for Animal and Plant Health (CENSA), OIE Collaborating Center for Reduction of the Risk of Disasters in Animal Health, Carretera de Jamaica y Autopista Nacional, San José de las Lajas, Cuba
| | - Pastor Alfonso Zamora
- National Center for Animal and Plant Health (CENSA), OIE Collaborating Center for Reduction of the Risk of Disasters in Animal Health, Carretera de Jamaica y Autopista Nacional, San José de las Lajas, Cuba
| | - Edyniesky Ferrer-Miranda
- National Center for Animal and Plant Health (CENSA), OIE Collaborating Center for Reduction of the Risk of Disasters in Animal Health, Carretera de Jamaica y Autopista Nacional, San José de las Lajas, Cuba.,Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (UFRPE), Rua Dom Manuel de Medeiros, Recife, Brazil
| | - Damarys de Las Nieves Montano
- National Center for Animal and Plant Health (CENSA), OIE Collaborating Center for Reduction of the Risk of Disasters in Animal Health, Carretera de Jamaica y Autopista Nacional, San José de las Lajas, Cuba
| | - Miriam Blanco
- Animal Health Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Pinar del Río, Cuba
| | - Yobani Gutiérrez
- Animal Health Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Pinar del Río, Cuba
| | - Paolo Calistri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise "G. Caporale," National Reference Centre for Epidemiology and Risk Analysis, Teramo, Italy
| | - Kleber Régis Santoro
- Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (UFRPE), Rua Dom Manuel de Medeiros, Recife, Brazil
| | - María Irian Percedo
- National Center for Animal and Plant Health (CENSA), OIE Collaborating Center for Reduction of the Risk of Disasters in Animal Health, Carretera de Jamaica y Autopista Nacional, San José de las Lajas, Cuba
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17
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Karalyan Z, Avetisyan A, Avagyan H, Ghazaryan H, Vardanyan T, Manukyan A, Semerjyan A, Voskanyan H. Presence and survival of African swine fever virus in leeches. Vet Microbiol 2019; 237:108421. [PMID: 31585648 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.108421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This research is focused on the study of African swine fever virus (ASFV) survival in the leech Hirudo medicinalis. To detect the infection route of the virus in leeches, two introduction methods were used: blood-feeding from infected swine hosts and exposure to ASFV-contaminated water (leeches cultivated with ASFV). This study found that the survival of ASFV in leeches was much longer than that in leech-free medium. The persistent presence of the virus in leeches and leech excretion was detected in both groups. The virus excreted from both groups of leeches in the terminal stages of the experiment was able to induce productive infection in porcine alveolar macrophages. In an attempt to understand ASFV, transmission to pigs was conducted through the ingestion of leech-cultivated water and leeches that had fed on ASFV-infected animals or that were cultivated environmentally with the virus. The ingestion of some samples at 60-80 days after cultivation demonstrated successful ASFV transmission via per os infection. In conclusion, leeches can serve as a possible reservoirs for ASFV in the absence of its main hosts - pigs and some ticks of the genus Ornithodoros.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Karalyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia; Department of Medical Biology, Yerevan State Medical University, Yerevan, Armenia.
| | - A Avetisyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - H Avagyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - H Ghazaryan
- Laboratory of Human Genomics and Immunomics, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - T Vardanyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - A Manukyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - A Semerjyan
- Department of Medical Biology, Yerevan State Medical University, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - H Voskanyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
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18
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Beltran-Alcrudo D, Falco JR, Raizman E, Dietze K. Transboundary spread of pig diseases: the role of international trade and travel. BMC Vet Res 2019; 15:64. [PMID: 30795759 PMCID: PMC6387505 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-1800-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
As globalization increases the interconnectedness between nations, economies, and industries, the introduction of diseases will continue to remain a prominent threat to the livestock sector and the trade of animals and animal products, as well as the livelihoods of farmers, food security and public health. The global pig sector, with its size and dichotomy between production type and biosecurity level, is particularly vulnerable to the transmission of transboundary animal diseases such as African and classical swine fever, foot and mouth disease, or porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome. All of the above pose a constant threat to swine health, mainly as a result of both formal and informal international trade.Inspired in the risk assessment methodology, this paper classifies and provides an overview of the different pig disease introduction and exposure pathways, illustrated with abundant examples. Introduction pathways are classified as formal international trade (by product), informal international trade (by product), and spread through fomites. Formal trade of pigs and pork products is regulated by legislation and measures protecting animal populations from exotic diseases. Much more difficult to control is the transboundary swine disease transmission originating through informal trade, which entails illegal smuggling, but also the informal cross-border transfer of animals and products for personal use or within informal market chains. Meat products are most commonly mentioned, although fomites have also played a role in some cases, with live pigs, being more difficult to smuggle playing a role less frequently. The main exposure pathways are also described with the oral route playing a prominent role.Risk assessments can aid in the identification of pathways of pathogen introduction and exposure. However, quantitative information on informal disease introduction pathways remains very scarce and often incomplete, making it difficult to estimate the actual magnitudes of risks. Nevertheless, this knowledge is deemed essential to set up risk based awareness, prevention and surveillance programs that correspond to reality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Beltran-Alcrudo
- Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, Food and Agriculture Organization, Budapest, Hungary
| | - John R. Falco
- Animal Plant Health Inspection Service - International Service (USDA-APHIS-IS), United States Department of Agriculture, Riverdale, USA
| | - Eran Raizman
- Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy
| | - Klaas Dietze
- Institut für Epidemiologie, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
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19
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Chenais E, Depner K, Guberti V, Dietze K, Viltrop A, Ståhl K. Epidemiological considerations on African swine fever in Europe 2014-2018. Porcine Health Manag 2019; 5:6. [PMID: 30637117 PMCID: PMC6325717 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-018-0109-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2007 African swine fever (ASF) arrived at a Black Sea harbour in Georgia and in 2014 the infection reached the European Union (EU), where it still expands its territory. ASF is a fatal viral disease affecting domestic pigs and wild boar of all ages with clinical presentations ranging from per-acute to chronic disease, including apparently asymptomatic courses. Until the detection of the first case inside the EU, infections in the current epidemic were mainly seen among pig farms with generally low biosecurity, and with incidental spill over to the wild boar population. In the EU, however, the infection survived locally in the wild boar population independently from outbreaks in domestic pigs, with a steady and low prevalence. Apart from the wild boar population and the habitat, the current epidemic recognizes humans as the main responsible for both long distance transmission and virus introduction in the domestic pig farms. This underlines the importance to include social science when planning ASF-prevention, -control, or -eradication measures. Based on experiences, knowledge and data gained from the current epidemic this review highlights some recent developments in the epidemiological understanding of ASF, especially concerning the role of wild boar and their habitats in ASF epidemiology. In this regard, the qualities of three epidemiological traits: contagiousity, tenacity, and case fatality rate, and their impact on ASF persistence and transmission are especially discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Klaus Depner
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Friedrich, Germany
| | - Vittorio Guberti
- National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, Rome, Italy
| | - Klaas Dietze
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Friedrich, Germany
| | - Arvo Viltrop
- Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Karl Ståhl
- National Veterinary Institute, Uppsala, Sweden
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