1
|
Grenell A, Butts JR, Levine SC, Fyfe ER. Children's confidence on mathematical equivalence and fraction problems. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 246:106003. [PMID: 39043115 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2024.106003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
Metacognition is how people think about their own thinking, and it includes children's confidence in their problem-solving solutions. We assessed children's metacognition in two areas of mathematics that are often plagued by misconceptions and often studied separately-mathematical equivalence (e.g., 3 + 4 = 5 +__) and fraction magnitude (e.g., 1/3 = 2/__). Specifically, we quantified children's metacognitive skills across these topics, examined whether these skills are topic-specific, and determined how these skills covary with domain-general executive functioning. A total of 80 elementary school children (Mage = 7.70 years, SD = 0.69) provided trial-by-trial performance data and confidence judgments on equivalence and fraction problems as well as assessments of executive function. Children's metacognitive skills were especially impaired when using incorrect strategies based on misconceptions, and we did not find robust evidence for cross-topic associations. We found modest associations between children's metacognitive skills and their working memory and inhibitory control. Findings have theoretical and practical implications for understanding which children struggle with these important mathematics concepts and why.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Grenell
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Jacob R Butts
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Susan C Levine
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Emily R Fyfe
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
van Loon M, Orth U, Roebers C. The structure of metacognition in middle childhood: Evidence for a unitary metacognition-for-memory factor. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 241:105857. [PMID: 38241971 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
It has been debated whether children's metacognitive monitoring and control processes rely on a general resource or whether metacognitive processes are task specific. Moreover, findings about the extent to which metacognitive processes are related to first-order task performance are mixed. The current study aimed to uncover the relationships among children's monitoring (discrimination between correct and incorrect responses), control (accurate withdrawal of wrong answers), and performance across three memory-based learning tasks: Kanji learning, text comprehension, and secret code learning. All tasks consisted of a study phase, a test phase, monitoring (confidence judgments), and control (maintaining/withdrawing responses). Participants were 325 children (151 second graders [Mage = 8.12 years] and 174 fourth graders [Mage = 10.20 years]). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that a model in which monitoring and control loaded on a joint factor and performance on a separate factor provided the best fit to the data. Fourth graders had better monitoring and control accuracy than second graders. However, the factor structure of metacognition was similar for both age groups, contradictory to the assumption that metacognition generalizes across tasks as children grow older. After accounting for task-specific processes, monitoring and control skills for language-based memory tasks appear to be generalizable in middle childhood. In sum, children's monitoring and control for three separate memory tasks appear to reflect a unitary metacognition-for-memory factor related to, but distinguishable from, performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariëtte van Loon
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, 8050 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Ulrich Orth
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Roebers
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liao M, Zhu K, Wang G. Can human-machine feedback in a smart learning environment enhance learners' learning performance? A meta-analysis. Front Psychol 2024; 14:1288503. [PMID: 38268803 PMCID: PMC10805823 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1288503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective The human-machine feedback in a smart learning environment can influences learners' learning styles, ability enhancement, and affective interactions. However, whether it has stability in improving learning performance and learning processes, the findings of many empirical studies are controversial. This study aimed to analyze the effect of human-machine feedback on learning performance and the potential boundary conditions that produce the effect in a smart learning environment. Methods Web of Science, EBSCO, PsycINFO, and Science Direct were searched for publications from 2010 to 2022. We included randomized controlled trials with learning performance as outcome. The random effects model was used in the meta-analysis. The main effect tests and the heterogeneity tests were used to evaluate the effect of human-machine feedback mechanism on learning performance, and the boundary conditions of the effect were tested by moderating effects. Moreover, the validity of the meta-analysis was proved by publication bias test. Results Out of 35 articles identified, 2,222 participants were included in this study. Human-machine interaction feedback had significant effects on learners' learning process (d = 0.594, k = 26) and learning outcomes (d = 0.407, k = 42). Also, the positive effects of human-machine interaction feedback were regulated by the direction of feedback, the form of feedback, and the type of feedback technique. Conclusion To enhance learning performance through human-machine interactive feedback, we should focus on using two-way and multi-subject feedback. The technology that can provide emotional feedback and feedback loops should be used as a priority. Also, pay attention to the feedback process and mechanism, avoid increasing students' dependence on machines, and strengthen learners' subjectivity from feedback mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengyi Liao
- School of Education, Pingdingshan University, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Kaige Zhu
- School of Education, Pingdingshan University, Pingdingshan, Henan, China
| | - Guangshuai Wang
- National Engineering Research Center of Educational Big Data, Faculty of Artificial Intelligence in Education, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
West RK, Harrison WJ, Matthews N, Mattingley JB, Sewell DK. Modality independent or modality specific? Common computations underlie confidence judgements in visual and auditory decisions. PLoS Comput Biol 2023; 19:e1011245. [PMID: 37450502 PMCID: PMC10426961 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms that enable humans to evaluate their confidence across a range of different decisions remain poorly understood. To bridge this gap in understanding, we used computational modelling to investigate the processes that underlie confidence judgements for perceptual decisions and the extent to which these computations are the same in the visual and auditory modalities. Participants completed two versions of a categorisation task with visual or auditory stimuli and made confidence judgements about their category decisions. In each modality, we varied both evidence strength, (i.e., the strength of the evidence for a particular category) and sensory uncertainty (i.e., the intensity of the sensory signal). We evaluated several classes of computational models which formalise the mapping of evidence strength and sensory uncertainty to confidence in different ways: 1) unscaled evidence strength models, 2) scaled evidence strength models, and 3) Bayesian models. Our model comparison results showed that across tasks and modalities, participants take evidence strength and sensory uncertainty into account in a way that is consistent with the scaled evidence strength class. Notably, the Bayesian class provided a relatively poor account of the data across modalities, particularly in the more complex categorisation task. Our findings suggest that a common process is used for evaluating confidence in perceptual decisions across domains, but that the parameter settings governing the process are tuned differently in each modality. Overall, our results highlight the impact of sensory uncertainty on confidence and the unity of metacognitive processing across sensory modalities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca K. West
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - William J. Harrison
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Natasha Matthews
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jason B. Mattingley
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, Toronto, Canada
| | - David K. Sewell
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hong SS, Bae J, Son LK, Kim K. Negative emotion can be “more negative” for those with high metacognitive abilities when problem-solving. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1110211. [PMID: 36998380 PMCID: PMC10043754 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1110211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionMetacognitive monitoring ability enables you to learn and solve problems more efficiently through appropriate strategies. At the same time, those who are high in monitoring ability are known to allocate more cognitive resources to the perception and control of negative emotions, as compared to those with low metacognitive ability. Therefore, while monitoring emotions may help reduce the negative emotion by enabling efficient control, it could also interrupt the use of an efficient strategy when problem-solving, as cognitive resources may be depleted.MethodsTo confirm this, we divided participants into groups with high and low monitoring abilities and manipulated emotions by presenting emotional videos. Subsequent to the manipulation, problem solving strategies were examined using items from the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT).ResultsResults showed that those who were high in monitoring ability were shown to use more efficient problem-solving strategies than those who were lower in monitoring ability, but only in situations when positive or no emotions were manipulated. However, as hypothesized, when negative emotion was aroused, the CRT scores of high monitoring ability group were significantly lowered, decreasing to the same performance as those with low monitoring ability. We also found that metacognitive monitoring ability, when interacting with emotion, indirectly affected CRT scores, and that monitoring and control, when affected by emotion, were mediated in the process.DiscussionThese findings suggest a novel and complicated interaction between emotion and metacognition and warrant further research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seok-sung Hong
- Social Science Institute, Ajou University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
- *Correspondence: Seok-sung Hong,
| | - Jinhee Bae
- Brain Science, Institute Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Lisa K. Son
- Department of Psychology, Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Kyungil Kim
- Department of Psychology, Ajou University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Godfrey M, Casnar C, Stolz E, Ailion A, Moore T, Gioia G. [Formula: see text] A review of procedural and declarative metamemory development across childhood. Child Neuropsychol 2023; 29:183-212. [PMID: 35343879 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2022.2055751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Metamemory is a component of metacognition that includes both the knowledge of factors that affect memory (i.e. declarative metamemory) and knowledge and application of factors in one's own learning and recall performance (i.e. procedural metamemory). The current paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of studies examining metamemory ability development from preschool into adolescence in order to improve the understanding of metamemory, its developmental course, and the available assessment methods. We examined the developmental trajectory of procedural and declarative metamemory abilities for both typically developing children and clinical populations. We found procedural metamemory abilities emerge around 4 to 5 years old, and significantly improve across childhood and into adulthood, although less is known about metamemory development across adolescence in typically developing children. Additionally, metamemory abilities vary significantly based on clinical pathology, although relatively fewer studies have examined these abilities in children with neurodevelopmental disorders or other neurologic conditions, such as acquired brain injury. The methods of metamemory assessment varied significantly across studies as well, indicating a need for a standardized metamemory measure, which would have high utility for clinical care.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary Godfrey
- Division of Neuropsychology, Children's National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Christy Casnar
- Division of Neuropsychology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Erin Stolz
- Division of Neuropsychology, Children's National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Alyssa Ailion
- Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Trey Moore
- Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gerard Gioia
- Division of Neuropsychology, Children's National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Baer C, Kidd C. Learning with certainty in childhood. Trends Cogn Sci 2022; 26:887-896. [PMID: 36085134 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Learners use certainty to guide learning. They maintain existing beliefs when certain, but seek further information when they feel uninformed. Here, we review developmental evidence that this metacognitive strategy does not require reportable processing. Uncertainty prompts nonverbal human infants and nonhuman animals to engage in strategies like seeking help, searching for additional information, or opting out. Certainty directs children's attention and active learning strategies and provides a common metric for comparing and integrating conflicting beliefs across people. We conclude that certainty is a continuous, domain-general signal of belief quality even early in life.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Baer
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
| | - Celeste Kidd
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Wacker S, Roebers CM. Stop and think: Additional time supports monitoring processes in young children. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0274460. [PMID: 36107922 PMCID: PMC9477363 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0274460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
When children evaluate their certainty, monitoring is often inaccurate. Even though young children struggle to estimate their confidence, existing research shows that monitoring skills are developing earlier than expected. Using a paired associates learning task with integrated monitoring, we implemented a time window to—"Stop and Think"—before children generated their answers and evaluated their confidence in the chosen response. Results show that kindergarten and second grade children in the—"Stop and Think"—condition have higher monitoring accuracy than the control group. Implementing a time window thus seems to support children in their evaluation of different certainty levels. Relating individual differences in independently measured inhibitory control skills revealed a correlation between monitoring and inhibition for kindergarteners.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Wacker
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Cong P, Jia N. An Event-Related Potential Study on Differences Between Higher and Lower Easy of Learning Judgments: Evidence for the Ease-of-Processing Hypothesis. Front Psychol 2022; 13:779907. [PMID: 35369252 PMCID: PMC8972125 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.779907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Easy of learning (EOL) judgments occur before active learning begins, and it is a prediction of how difficult it will be to learn new material in future learning. This study compared the amplitude of event-related potential (ERP) components and brain activation regions between high and low EOL judgments by adopting ERPs with a classical EOL judgment paradigm, aiming to confirm the ease-of-processing hypothesis. The results showed that (1) the magnitudes of EOL judgments are affected by encoding fluency cues, and the judgment magnitude increases with encoding fluency; (2) low EOL judgments are associated with higher N400 amplitude at the left superior frontal gyrus (SFG) and left middle frontal gyrus (MFG). High EOL judgments showed enlarged slow-wave (600–1,000 ms) potentials than low EOL judgments at the left medial temporal lobe (MTL), right ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Our results support the ease-of-processing hypothesis, particularly, by affirming that EOL judgments are affected by encoding fluency in two processing stages. N400 reflects the process of acquiring encoding fluency cues, while slow-wave indicates that individuals use encoding fluency cues for metacognitive monitoring.
Collapse
|
10
|
Domain-specific and domain-general metacognition for strategy selection in children with learning disabilities. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-02733-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
|
11
|
Baer C, Odic D. Mini managers: Children strategically divide cognitive labor among collaborators, but with a self-serving bias. Child Dev 2021; 93:437-450. [PMID: 34664258 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Strategic collaboration according to the law of comparative advantage involves dividing tasks based on the relative capabilities of group members. Three experiments (N = 405, primarily White and Asian, 45% female, collected 2016-2019 in Canada) examined how this strategy develops in children when dividing cognitive labor. Children divided questions about numbers between two partners. By 7 years, children allocated difficult questions to the skilled partner (Experiment 1, d = 1.42; Experiment 2, d = 0.87). However, younger children demonstrated a self-serving bias, choosing the easiest questions for themselves. Only when engaging in a third-party collaborative task did 5-year-olds assign harder questions to the more skilled individual (Experiment 3, d = 0.55). These findings demonstrate early understanding of strategic collaboration subject to a self-serving bias.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Baer
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Darko Odic
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Lenzoni S, Baker J, Sumich AL, Mograbi DC. New insights into neural networks of error monitoring and clinical implications: a systematic review of ERP studies in neurological diseases. Rev Neurosci 2021; 33:161-179. [PMID: 34214387 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2021-0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Error monitoring allows for the efficient performance of goal-directed behaviors and successful learning. Furthermore, error monitoring as a metacognitive ability may play a crucial role for neuropsychological interventions, such as rehabilitation. In the past decades, research has suggested two electrophysiological markers for error monitoring: the error-related negativity (ERN) and the error positivity (Pe), thought to reflect, respectively, error detection and error awareness. Studies on several neurological diseases have investigated the alteration of the ERN and the Pe, but these findings have not been summarized. Accordingly, a systematic review was conducted to understand what neurological conditions present alterations of error monitoring event-related potentials and their relation with clinical measures. Overall, ERN tended to be reduced in most neurological conditions while results related to Pe integrity are less clear. ERN and Pe were found to be associated with several measures of clinical severity. Additionally, we explored the contribution of different brain structures to neural networks underlying error monitoring, further elaborating on the domain-specificity of error processing and clinical implications of findings. In conclusion, electrophysiological signatures of error monitoring could be reliable measures of neurological dysfunction and a robust tool in neuropsychological rehabilitation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Lenzoni
- Department of Psychology, Pontifical University of Rio de Janeiro, 22451-900, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, NG1 4FQ, Nottingham, UK
| | - Joshua Baker
- Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, NG1 4FQ, Nottingham, UK.,Institute for Systems Neuroscience, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251Hamburg, Germany
| | - Alexander L Sumich
- Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, NG1 4FQ, Nottingham, UK.,Department of Psychology, Auckland University of Technology, 1010, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel C Mograbi
- Department of Psychology, Pontifical University of Rio de Janeiro, 22451-900, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, SE5 8AF, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Baer C, Malik P, Odic D. Are children's judgments of another's accuracy linked to their metacognitive confidence judgments? METACOGNITION AND LEARNING 2021; 16:485-516. [PMID: 34720771 PMCID: PMC8550463 DOI: 10.1007/s11409-021-09263-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The world can be a confusing place, which leads to a significant challenge: how do we figure out what is true? To accomplish this, children possess two relevant skills: reasoning about the likelihood of their own accuracy (metacognitive confidence) and reasoning about the likelihood of others' accuracy (mindreading). Guided by Signal Detection Theory and Simulation Theory, we examine whether these two self- and other-oriented skills are one in the same, relying on a single cognitive process. Specifically, Signal Detection Theory proposes that confidence in a decision is purely derived from the imprecision of that decision, predicting a tight correlation between decision accuracy and confidence. Simulation Theory further proposes that children attribute their own cognitive experience to others when reasoning socially. Together, these theories predict that children's self and other reasoning should be highly correlated and dependent on decision accuracy. In four studies (N = 374), children aged 4-7 completed a confidence reasoning task and selective social learning task each designed to eliminate confounding language and response biases, enabling us to isolate the unique correlation between self and other reasoning. However, in three of the four studies, we did not find that individual differences on the two tasks correlated, nor that decision accuracy explained performance. These findings suggest self and other reasoning are either independent in childhood, or the result of a single process that operates differently for self and others. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11409-021-09263-x.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Baer
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, 2121 Berkeley Way West, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Puja Malik
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Darko Odic
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
| |
Collapse
|