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Nascimento DDC, Rolnick N, da Silva Almeida I, Cipriano Junior G, Durigan JL. Frequentist, Bayesian Analysis and Complementary Statistical Tools for Geriatric and Rehabilitation Fields: Are Traditional Null-Hypothesis Significance Testing Methods Sufficient? Clin Interv Aging 2024; 19:277-287. [PMID: 38380229 PMCID: PMC10878138 DOI: 10.2147/cia.s441799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Null hypothesis significant testing (NHST) is the dominant statistical approach in the geriatric and rehabilitation fields. However, NHST is routinely misunderstood or misused. In this case, the findings from clinical trials would be taken as evidence of no effect, when in fact, a clinically relevant question may have a "non-significant" p-value. Conversely, findings are considered clinically relevant when significant differences are observed between groups. To assume that p-value is not an exclusive indicator of an association or the existence of an effect, researchers should be encouraged to report other statistical analysis approaches as Bayesian analysis and complementary statistical tools alongside the p-value (eg, effect size, confidence intervals, minimal clinically important difference, and magnitude-based inference) to improve interpretation of the findings of clinical trials by presenting a more efficient and comprehensive analysis. However, the focus on Bayesian analysis and secondary statistical analyses does not mean that NHST is less important. Only that, to observe a real intervention effect, researchers should use a combination of secondary statistical analyses in conjunction with NHST or Bayesian statistical analysis to reveal what p-values cannot show in the geriatric and rehabilitation studies (eg, the clinical importance of 1kg increase in handgrip strength in the intervention group of long-lived older adults compared to a control group). This paper provides potential insights for improving the interpretation of scientific data in rehabilitation and geriatric fields by utilizing Bayesian and secondary statistical analyses to better scrutinize the results of clinical trials where a p-value alone may not be appropriate to determine the efficacy of an intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicholas Rolnick
- The Human Performance Mechanic Department, Lehman College, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Isabella da Silva Almeida
- Laboratory of Muscle and Tendon Plasticity, Faculdade de Ceilândia, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Gerson Cipriano Junior
- Graduate Program in Rehabilitation Science, Faculdade de Ceilândia, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - João Luiz Durigan
- Laboratory of Muscle and Tendon Plasticity, Faculdade de Ceilândia, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
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2
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Ko M, Ma T, Xiong S. Acute Effects of Carbon Fiber Insole on Three Aspects of Sports Performance, Lower Extremity Muscle Activity, and Subjective Comfort. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:2154. [PMID: 36850749 PMCID: PMC9966218 DOI: 10.3390/s23042154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Carbon fiber insole (CFI), which is lightweight and stiff to reduce energy loss and help wearers perform better in sports, has recently been introduced. However, reports are scarce on the effects of CFI on sports performance, muscle activation, and wearing comfort. This study investigated the acute effects of CFI on sports performance, lower extremity muscle activity, and subjective comfort. Thirty young healthy males with shoe sizes between 260 and 270 mm performed various sports tasks (power generation, agility, and speed) and treadmill runs with wearable sensors under two experimental insole conditions (benchmark insole as a baseline, CFI). The results showed that, compared to the benchmark insole, CFI significantly improved sports performance in terms of power generation (~1.5%) and agility (~1%). However, it activated more of the Tibialis Anterior (~0.7%) and Gastrocnemius Medialis (~0.8%) muscles, and was perceived to be stiffer and less comfortable. These findings suggested that CFI could improve sports performance, but could cause more lower extremity muscle activation and subjective discomfort.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shuping Xiong
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
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3
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Álvarez-Pardo S, de Paz JA, Romero-Pérez EM, Tánori-Tapia JM, Rendón-Delcid PA, González-Bernal JJ, Fernández-Solana J, Simón-Vicente L, Mielgo-Ayuso J, González-Santos J. Related Factors with Depression and Anxiety in Mastectomized Women Breast Cancer Survivors. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:2881. [PMID: 36833577 PMCID: PMC9956270 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20042881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer diagnosis with the highest mortality rate worldwide. The aim of this study was to identify factors related to depression and anxiety in mastectomized women BC survivors. A cross-sectional study was conducted with a sample of 198 women diagnosed with BC aged 30-80 years in Mexico. Depression and anxiety were assessed using the 14-item Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). The results showed that 94.44% and 69.18% of the women scored more than eight points on HADS in the anxiety and depression subscales, respectively; 70.20% and 10.60% were identified as pathological. The following variables were analyzed: age, time elapsed since the start of treatment, received treatment at the time of the evaluation, type of surgery, family history, marital status and employment status. Time elapsed since surgery, having a partner, and employment showed significant results as factors associated to levels of depression and anxiety in these patients. In conclusion, it has been shown that BCSs under 50 years of age receiving some kind of treatment, without family history, without a partner, with a job, with more than secondary education and with more than 5 years since diagnosis could have higher rates of clinical depression. On the other hand, BCSs older than 50 years receiving some kind of treatment, without family history, without a partner, with a job, with more than secondary education and with more than 5 years since diagnosis, could have higher rates of clinical anxiety. In conclusion, the variables studied provide valuable information for the implementation of psychotherapy plans in healthcare systems to reduce the risk of depression and/or anxiety in women with BC who have undergone mastectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Juan Mielgo-Ayuso
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Burgos, 09001 Burgos, Spain
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4
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Lohse K. In Defense of Hypothesis Testing: A Response to the Joint Editorial From the International Society of Physiotherapy Journal Editors on Statistical Inference Through Estimation. Phys Ther 2022; 102:pzac118. [PMID: 36070432 PMCID: PMC10071477 DOI: 10.1093/ptj/pzac118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Keith Lohse
- Physical Therapy and Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA
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5
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Beato M. Recommendations for the design of randomized controlled trials in strength and conditioning. Common design and data interpretation. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:981836. [PMID: 36157898 PMCID: PMC9493045 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.981836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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6
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Hopkins WG. Replacing statistical significance and non-significance with better approaches to sampling uncertainty. Front Physiol 2022; 13:962132. [PMID: 36267575 PMCID: PMC9578285 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.962132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
A sample provides only an approximate estimate of the magnitude of an effect, owing to sampling uncertainty. The following methods address the issue of sampling uncertainty when researchers make a claim about effect magnitude: informal assessment of the range of magnitudes represented by the confidence interval; testing of hypotheses of substantial (meaningful) and non-substantial magnitudes; assessment of the probabilities of substantial and trivial (inconsequential) magnitudes with Bayesian methods based on non-informative or informative priors; and testing of the nil or zero hypothesis. Assessment of the confidence interval, testing of substantial and non-substantial hypotheses, and assessment of Bayesian probabilities with a non-informative prior are subject to differing interpretations but are all effectively equivalent and can reasonably define and provide necessary and sufficient evidence for substantial and trivial effects. Informative priors in Bayesian assessments are problematic, because they are hard to quantify and can bias the outcome. Rejection of the nil hypothesis (presented as statistical significance), and failure to reject the nil hypothesis (presented as statistical non-significance), provide neither necessary nor sufficient evidence for substantial and trivial effects. To properly account for sampling uncertainty in effect magnitudes, researchers should therefore replace rather than supplement the nil-hypothesis test with one or more of the other three equivalent methods. Surprisal values, second-generation p values, and the hypothesis comparisons of evidential statistics are three other recent approaches to sampling uncertainty that are not recommended. Important issues beyond sampling uncertainty include representativeness of sampling, accuracy of the statistical model, individual differences, individual responses, and rewards of benefit and costs of harm of clinically or practically important interventions and side effects.
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7
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Wish List for Improving the Quality of Statistics in Sport Science. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:673-674. [PMID: 35276666 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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8
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Bergmann F, Gray R, Wachsmuth S, Höner O. Perceptual-Motor and Perceptual-Cognitive Skill Acquisition in Soccer: A Systematic Review on the Influence of Practice Design and Coaching Behavior. Front Psychol 2021; 12:772201. [PMID: 34925173 PMCID: PMC8675907 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.772201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Facilitating players' skill acquisition is a major challenge within sport coaches' work which should be supported by evidence-based recommendations outlining the most effective practice and coaching methods. This systematic review aimed at accumulating empirical knowledge on the influence of practice design and coaching behavior on perceptual-motor and perceptual-cognitive skill acquisition in soccer. A systematic search was carried out according to the PRISMA guidelines across the databases SPORTDiscus, PsycInfo, MEDLINE, and Web of Science to identify soccer-specific intervention studies conducted in applied experimental settings (search date: 22nd November 2020). The systematic search yielded 8,295 distinct hits which underwent an independent screening process. Finally, 34 eligible articles, comprising of 35 individual studies, were identified and reviewed regarding their theoretical frameworks, methodological approaches and quality, as well as the interventions' effectiveness. These studies were classified into the following two groups: Eighteen studies investigated the theory-driven instructional approaches Differential Learning, Teaching Games for Understanding, and Non-linear Pedagogy. Another seventeen studies, most of them not grounded within a theoretical framework, examined specific aspects of practice task design or coaches' instructions. The Downs and Black checklist and the Template for Intervention Description and Replication were applied to assess the quality in reporting, risk of bias, and the quality of interventions' description. Based on these assessments, the included research was of moderate quality, however, with large differences across individual studies. The quantitative synthesis of results revealed empirical support for the effectiveness of coaching methodologies aiming at encouraging players' self-exploration within representative scenarios to promote technical and tactical skills. Nevertheless, "traditional" repetition-based approaches also achieved improvements with respect to players' technical outcomes, yet, their impact on match-play performance remains widely unexplored. In the light of the large methodological heterogeneity of the included studies (e.g., outcomes or control groups' practice activities), the presented results need to be interpreted by taking the respective intervention characteristics into account. Overall, the current evidence needs to be extended by theory-driven, high-quality studies within controlled experimental designs to allow more consolidated and evidence-based recommendations for coaches' work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fynn Bergmann
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Rob Gray
- Human Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Mesa, AZ, United States
| | - Svenja Wachsmuth
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Oliver Höner
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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9
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Teixeira FJ, Tavares N, Matias CN, Phillips SM. The effects of phosphatidic acid on performance and body composition - a scoping review. J Sports Sci 2021; 40:364-369. [PMID: 34706625 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.1994769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Phosphatidic acid (PA) is a lipid mediator proposed to increase muscle protein synthesis via direct stimulation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and may act as an anabolic supplemental aid. Evidence on the effectiveness of PA as an anabolic supplement is equivocal. We aimed to systematically assess the effect of PA on performance and body composition. Due to the small number of studies, this is a scoping review. A comprehensive search was performed in Pubmed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science, from the 1 January 2010 to the 31 August 2020. Our search retrieved 2009 articles, which when filtered, resulted in six studies, published between 2012 and 2019, which were analysed further. Five studies were performed in adult male populations and one in an elderly male population. From these, three studies suggested no effect of PA on lean body mass , while the remaining showed a possible positive effect (body composition and performance improvements). In one of these, the supplement included other potentially anabolic substances, precluding an isolated effect of PA. After a thorough analysis of the studies included, the evidence does not support the supplementation with PA to increase performance or improve body composition in young or elderly men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipe J Teixeira
- Cbios (Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies), Universidade Lusófona De Humanidades E Tecnologias, Campo Grande, Lisboa, Portugal.,Atlântica, Instituto Universitário, Barcarena, Oeiras, Portugal.,Laboratory of Physiology and Biochemistry of Exercise (CIPER), Faculdade De Motricidade Humana, Universidade De Lisboa, Cruz-Quebrada, Portugal.,Innovation Direction, Bettery Lifelab, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Nelson Tavares
- Cbios (Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies), Universidade Lusófona De Humanidades E Tecnologias, Campo Grande, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Catarina N Matias
- Innovation Direction, Bettery Lifelab, Lisbon, Portugal.,CIDEFES -Universidade Lusófona, Lisboa, Portugal
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10
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Afonso J, Claudino JG, Fonseca H, Moreira-Gonçalves D, Ferreira V, Almeida JM, Clemente FM, Ramirez-Campillo R. Stretching for Recovery from Groin Pain or Injury in Athletes: A Critical and Systematic Review. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2021; 6:jfmk6030073. [PMID: 34564192 PMCID: PMC8482255 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk6030073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Stretching is usually used as part of rehabilitation protocols for groin pain or injury, but its specific contribution to and within multimodal recovery protocols is unclear. Our goal was to systematically review the effects of stretching for the recovery from groin pain or injury. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed, with eligibility criteria defined according to PICOS: (Participants) athletes with groin pain or injuries; (Interventions) interventions with stretching as the differentiating factor; (Comparators) comparators not applying stretching; (Outcomes) symptom remission or improvement and/or time to return to sport and/or return to play; (Study design) randomized controlled trials. Searches were performed on 26 March 2021, in CINAHL, Cochrane Library, EBSCO, EMBASE, PEDro, PubMed, Scielo, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science, with no limitations regarding language or date, and no filters. Of 117 retrieved results, 65 were duplicates and 49 were excluded at the screening stage. The three articles eligible for full-text analysis failed to comply with one or more inclusion criteria (participants, intervention and/or comparators). We then went beyond the protocol and searched for non-randomized trials and case series, but no intervention was found where stretching was the differentiating factor. We found no trials specifically assessing the effects of stretching on recovery or improvement of groin pain or injury in athletes. Currently, the efficacy of these interventions is unknown, and more research is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Afonso
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (J.A.); (V.F.); (J.M.A.)
| | - João Gustavo Claudino
- Laboratory of Biomechanics, School of Physical Education and Sport, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-010, Brazil;
- Research and Development Department, LOAD CONTROL, Contagem 32280-440, Brazil
| | - Hélder Fonseca
- Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure, Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (H.F.); (D.M.-G.)
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), 4050-091 Porto, Portugal
| | - Daniel Moreira-Gonçalves
- Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure, Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (H.F.); (D.M.-G.)
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), 4050-091 Porto, Portugal
| | - Victor Ferreira
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (J.A.); (V.F.); (J.M.A.)
| | - José Marques Almeida
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (J.A.); (V.F.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Filipe Manuel Clemente
- Escola Superior Desporto e Lazer, Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial de Nun’Álvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal
- Instituto de Telecomunicações, Delegação da Covilhã, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence:
| | - Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo
- Department of Physical Activity Sciences, Universidad de Los Lagos, Santiago 8320000, Chile;
- Centro de Investigación en Fisiología del Ejercicio, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago 7500000, Chile
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11
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A Systems Analysis Critique of Sport-Science Research. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1385-1392. [PMID: 34453014 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The broad aim of sport-science research is to enhance the performance of coaches and athletes. Despite decades of such research, it is well documented that sport-science research lacks empirical evidence, and critics have questioned its scientific methods. Moreover, many have pointed to a research-practice gap, whereby the work undertaken by researchers is not readily applied by practitioners. The aim of this study was to use a systems thinking analysis method, causal loop diagrams, to understand the systemic issues that interact to influence the quality of sport-science research. METHODS A group model-building process was utilized to develop the causal loop diagram based on data obtained from relevant peer-reviewed literature and subject-matter experts. RESULTS The findings demonstrate the panoply of systemic influences associated with sport-science research, including the existence of silos, a focus on quantitative research, archaic practices, and an academic system that is incongruous with what it actually purports to achieve. CONCLUSIONS The emergent outcome of the interacting components is the creation of an underperforming sport-science research system, as indicated by a lack of ecological validity, translation to practice, and, ultimately, a research-practice gap.
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12
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Jiménez SL, Díaz-Lara J, Pareja-Galeano H, Del Coso J. Caffeinated Drinks and Physical Performance in Sport: A Systematic Review. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13092944. [PMID: 34578821 PMCID: PMC8466927 DOI: 10.3390/nu13092944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is one of the most common substances used by athletes to enhance their performance during competition. Evidence suggests that the performance-enhancing properties of caffeine can be obtained by employing several forms of administration, namely, capsules/tablets, caffeinated drinks (energy drinks and sports drinks), beverages (coffee), and chewing gum. However, caffeinated drinks have become the main form of caffeine administration in sport due to the wide presence of these products in the market. The objective of this systematic review is to evaluate the different effects of caffeinated drinks on physical performance in various sports categories such as endurance, power-based sports, team sports, and skill-based sports. A systematic review of published studies was performed on scientific databases for studies published from 2000 to 2020. All studies included had blinded and cross-over experimental designs, in which the ingestion of a caffeinated drink was compared to a placebo/control trial. The total number of studies included in this review was 37. The analysis of the included studies revealed that both sports drinks with caffeine and energy drinks were effective in increasing several aspects of sports performance when the amount of drink provides at least 3 mg of caffeine per kg of body mass. Due to their composition, caffeinated sports drinks seem to be more beneficial to consume during long-duration exercise, when the drinks are used for both rehydration and caffeine supplementation. Energy drinks may be more appropriate for providing caffeine before exercise. Lastly, the magnitude of the ergogenic benefits obtained with caffeinated drinks seems similar in women and men athletes. Overall, the current systematic review provides evidence of the efficacy of caffeinated drinks as a valid form for caffeine supplementation in sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio L. Jiménez
- Centre for Sport Studies, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Fuenlabrada, 28943 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (S.L.J.); (J.D.C.)
| | - Javier Díaz-Lara
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31009 Pamplona, Spain;
| | - Helios Pareja-Galeano
- Department of Physical Education, Sport and Human Movement, Autonomous University of Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Juan Del Coso
- Centre for Sport Studies, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Fuenlabrada, 28943 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (S.L.J.); (J.D.C.)
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13
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Strength Training to Prevent Falls in Older Adults: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10143184. [PMID: 34300350 PMCID: PMC8304136 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10143184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We performed a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to assess the effects of strength training (ST), as compared to alternative multimodal or unimodal exercise programs, on the number of falls in older adults (≥60 years). Ten databases were consulted (CINAHL, Cochrane Library, EBSCO, EMBASE, PEDro, PubMed, Scielo, Scopus, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science), without limitations on language or publication date. Eligibility criteria were as follows: RCTs with humans ≥60 years of age of any gender with one group performing supervised ST and a group performing another type of exercise training, reporting data pertaining falls. Certainty of evidence was assessed with Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE). Meta-analysis used a random effects model to calculate the risk ratio (RR) for number of falls. Five RCTs with six trials were included (n = 543, 76% women). There was no difference between ST and alternative exercise interventions for falls (RR = 1.00, 95% CI 0.77–1.30, p = 0.99). The certainty of evidence was very low. No dose–response relationship could be established. In sum, ST showed comparable RR based on number of falls in older adults when compared to other multimodal or unimodal exercise modalities, but evidence is scarce and heterogeneous, and additional research is required for more robust conclusions. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42020222908.
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14
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Ramirez-Campillo R, Andrade DC, García-Pinillos F, Negra Y, Boullosa D, Moran J. Effects of jump training on physical fitness and athletic performance in endurance runners: A meta-analysis. J Sports Sci 2021; 39:2030-2050. [PMID: 33956587 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.1916261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the effects of jump training (JT) on measures of physical fitness and athletic performances in endurance runners. Controlled studies which involved healthy endurance runners, of any age and sex, were considered. A random-effects model was used to calculate effect sizes (ES; Hedge's g). Means and standard deviations of outcomes were converted to ES with alongside 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). Twenty-one moderate-to-high quality studies were included in the meta-analysis, and these included 511 participants. The main analyses revealed a significant moderate improvement in time-trial performance (i.e. distances between 2.0 and 5.0 km; ES = 0.88), without enhancements in maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), velocity at VO2max, velocity at submaximal lactate levels, heart rate at submaximal velocities, stride rate at submaximal velocities, stiffness, total body mass or maximal strength performance. However, significant small-to-moderate improvements were noted for jump performance, rate of force development, sprint performance, reactive strength, and running economy (ES = 0.36-0.73; p < 0.001 to 0.031; I2 = 0.0% to 49.3%). JT is effective in improving physical fitness and athletic performance in endurance runners. Improvements in time-trial performance after JT may be mediated through improvements in force generating capabilities and running economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo
- Human Performance Laboratory. Department of Physical Activity Sciences. Universidad de Los Lagos. Osorno, Chile.,Centro de Investigación en Fisiología del Ejercicio. Facultad de Ciencias. Universidad Mayor. Santiago, Chile
| | - David C Andrade
- Centro de Investigación en Fisiología del Ejercicio. Facultad de Ciencias. Universidad Mayor. Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Medicina y Fisiología de Altura, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Felipe García-Pinillos
- Department of Physical Education and Sports, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Department of Physical Education, Sports and Recreation, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Yassine Negra
- Research Unit (UR17JS01) «Sport Performance, Health & Society», Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Ksar Saîd, University of "La Manouba", Tunisia
| | - Daniel Boullosa
- INISA, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Brazil
| | - Jason Moran
- School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
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Afonso J, Clemente FM, Nakamura FY, Morouço P, Sarmento H, Inman RA, Ramirez-Campillo R. The Effectiveness of Post-exercise Stretching in Short-Term and Delayed Recovery of Strength, Range of Motion and Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Front Physiol 2021; 12:677581. [PMID: 34025459 PMCID: PMC8133317 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.677581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Post-exercise (i.e., cool-down) stretching is commonly prescribed for improving recovery of strength and range of motion (ROM) and diminishing delayed onset muscular soreness (DOMS) after physical exertion. However, the question remains if post-exercise stretching is better for recovery than other post-exercise modalities. Objective: To provide a systematic review and meta-analysis of supervised randomized-controlled trials (RCTs) on the effects of post-exercise stretching on short-term (≤1 h after exercise) and delayed (e.g., ≥24 h) recovery makers (i.e., DOMS, strength, ROM) in comparison with passive recovery or alternative recovery methods (e.g., low-intensity cycling). Methods: This systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO CRD42020222091). RCTs published in any language or date were eligible, according to P.I.C.O.S. criteria. Searches were performed in eight databases. Risk of bias was assessed using Cochrane RoB 2. Meta-analyses used the inverse variance random-effects model. GRADE was used to assess the methodological quality of the studies. Results: From 17,050 records retrieved, 11 RCTs were included for qualitative analyses and 10 for meta-analysis (n = 229 participants; 17–38 years, mostly males). The exercise protocols varied between studies (e.g., cycling, strength training). Post-exercise stretching included static stretching, passive stretching, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation. Passive recovery (i.e., rest) was used as comparator in eight studies, with additional recovery protocols including low intensity cycling or running, massage, and cold-water immersion. Risk of bias was high in ~70% of the studies. Between-group comparisons showed no effect of post-exercise stretching on strength recovery (ES = −0.08; 95% CI = −0.54–0.39; p = 0.750; I2 = 0.0%; Egger's test p = 0.531) when compared to passive recovery. In addition, no effect of post-exercise stretching on 24, 48, or 72-h post-exercise DOMS was noted when compared to passive recovery (ES = −0.09 to −0.24; 95% CI = −0.70–0.28; p = 0.187–629; I2 = 0.0%; Egger's test p = 0.165–0.880). Conclusion: There wasn't sufficient statistical evidence to reject the null hypothesis that stretching and passive recovery have equivalent influence on recovery. Data is scarce, heterogeneous, and confidence in cumulative evidence is very low. Future research should address the limitations highlighted in our review, to allow for more informed recommendations. For now, evidence-based recommendations on whether post-exercise stretching should be applied for the purposes of recovery should be avoided, as the (insufficient) data that is available does not support related claims. Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO, identifier: CRD42020222091.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Afonso
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipe Manuel Clemente
- Escola Superior Desporto e Lazer, Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial de Nun'Álvares, Viana do Castelo, Portugal.,Instituto de Telecomunicações, Delegação da Covilhã, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Fábio Yuzo Nakamura
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), University Institute of Maia (ISMAI), Maia, Portugal.,Associate Graduate Program in Physical Education Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE)/Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB), João Pessoa, Brazil
| | - Pedro Morouço
- Superior School of Education and Social Sciences, Polytechnic of Leiria, Leiria, Portugal
| | - Hugo Sarmento
- Research Unit for Sport and Physical Activity (CIDAF), Faculty of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Richard A Inman
- The Psychology for Positive Development Research Center (CIPD), Universidade Lusíada, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Activity Sciences, Universidad de Los Lagos, Osorno, Chile.,Centro de Investigación en Fisiología del Ejercicio, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
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16
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Li G, Walter SD, Thabane L. Shifting the focus away from binary thinking of statistical significance and towards education for key stakeholders: revisiting the debate on whether it's time to de-emphasize or get rid of statistical significance. J Clin Epidemiol 2021; 137:104-112. [PMID: 33839240 DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2021.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
There has been a long-standing controversy among scientists regarding the appropriate use of P-values and statistical significance in clinical research. This debate has resurfaced through recent calls to modify the threshold of P-value required to declare significance, or to retire statistical significance entirely. In this article, we revisit the issue by discussing: i) the connection between statistical thinking and evidence-based practice; ii) some history of statistical significance and P-values; iii) some practical challenges with statistical significance or P-value thresholds in clinical research; iv) the on-going debate on what to do with statistical significance; v) suggestions to shift the focus away from binary thinking of statistical significance and towards education for key stakeholders on research essentials including statistical thinking, critical thinking, good reporting, basic clinical research concepts and methods, and more. We then conclude with remarks and illustrations of the potential deleterious public health consequences of poor methods including selective choice of analysis approach and misguided reliance on binary use of P-values to report and interpret scientific findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guowei Li
- Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Methodology (CCEM), Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou City, Guangdong Province, China 510317; Department of Health research methods, Evidence, and Impact (HEI), McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stephen D Walter
- Department of Health research methods, Evidence, and Impact (HEI), McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lehana Thabane
- Department of Health research methods, Evidence, and Impact (HEI), McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Population Health Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Father Sean O'Sullivan Research Centre, St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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17
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Sole S, Ramírez-Campillo R, Andrade DC, Sanchez-Sanchez J. Plyometric jump training effects on the physical fitness of individual-sport athletes: a systematic review with meta-analysis. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11004. [PMID: 33717707 PMCID: PMC7931718 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of this study is to conduct a systematic review with meta-analysis to explore the effects of plyometric jump training (PJT) on the physical fitness of individual sport athletes (ISA). Methods Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, we searched through PubMed, Web of Science, and SCOPUS electronic databases. We included controlled studies that incorporated a PJT intervention among ISA (with no restriction for age or sex), that included a pre-to-post intervention assessment of physical fitness (e.g., sprint; jump). From the included studies, relevant data (e.g., PJT and participants characteristics) was extracted. We assessed the methodological quality of the included studies using the PEDro scale. Using a random-effects model, meta-analyses for a given outcome was conducted. Means and standard deviations for a measure of pre-post-intervention physical fitness from the PJT and control groups were converted to Hedges' g effect size (ES). Heterogeneity was assessed using the I 2 statistic. The risk of bias was explored using the extended Egger's test. The statistical significance threshold was set at p < 0.05. Moderator analyses were conducted according to the sex, age and sport background of the athletes. Results Twenty-six studies of moderate-high methodological quality were included (total participants, n = 667). Compared to controls, PJT improved vertical jump (ES = 0.49; p < 0.001; I = 0.0%), linear sprint (ES = 0.23; p = 0.032; I 2 = 10.9%), maximal strength (ES = 0.50; p < 0.001; I2 = 0.0%) and endurance performance (ES = 0.30; p = 0.028; I2 = 11.1%). No significant effect was noted for sprint with change of direction (ES = 0.34; p = 0.205; I2 = 70.9%). Athlete's sex, age and sport background had no modulator role on the effect of PJT on vertical jump, linear sprint, maximal strength and endurance performance. Among the included studies, none reported adverse effects related to the PJT intervention. Conclusions PJT induces small improvements on ISA physical fitness, including jumping, sprinting speed, strength and endurance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Sole
- Faculty of Nursery and Physiotherapy, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain.,GRECS Research Group, IrB Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Rodrigo Ramírez-Campillo
- Department of Physical Activity Sciences, Universidad de Los Lagos, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Investigación en Fisiología del Ejercicio, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - David C Andrade
- Centro de Investigación en Fisiología del Ejercicio, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Fisiología y Medicina de Altura, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Javier Sanchez-Sanchez
- Research Group Planning and Assessment of Training and Athletic Performance, Pontifical University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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18
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Valdez D, Vorland CJ, Brown AW, Mayo-Wilson E, Otten J, Ball R, Grant S, Levy R, Svetina Valdivia D, Allison DB. Improving open and rigorous science: ten key future research opportunities related to rigor, reproducibility, and transparency in scientific research. F1000Res 2020; 9:1235. [PMID: 33628434 PMCID: PMC7898357 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.26594.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: As part of a coordinated effort to expand research activity around rigor, reproducibility, and transparency (RRT) across scientific disciplines, a team of investigators at the Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington hosted a workshop in October 2019 with international leaders to discuss key opportunities for RRT research. Objective: The workshop aimed to identify research priorities and opportunities related to RRT. Design: Over two-days, workshop attendees gave presentations and participated in three working groups: (1) Improving Education & Training in RRT, (2) Reducing Statistical Errors and Increasing Analytic Transparency, and (3) Looking Outward: Increasing Truthfulness and Accuracy of Research Communications. Following small-group discussions, the working groups presented their findings, and participants discussed the research opportunities identified. The investigators compiled a list of research priorities, which were circulated to all participants for feedback. Results: Participants identified the following priority research questions: (1) Can RRT-focused statistics and mathematical modeling courses improve statistics practice?; (2) Can specialized training in scientific writing improve transparency?; (3) Does modality (e.g. face to face, online) affect the efficacy RRT-related education?; (4) How can automated programs help identify errors more efficiently?; (5) What is the prevalence and impact of errors in scientific publications (e.g., analytic inconsistencies, statistical errors, and other objective errors)?; (6) Do error prevention workflows reduce errors?; (7) How do we encourage post-publication error correction?; (8) How does 'spin' in research communication affect stakeholder understanding and use of research evidence?; (9) Do tools to aid writing research reports increase comprehensiveness and clarity of research reports?; and (10) Is it possible to inculcate scientific values and norms related to truthful, rigorous, accurate, and comprehensive scientific reporting? Conclusion: Participants identified important and relatively unexplored questions related to improving RRT. This list may be useful to the scientific community and investigators seeking to advance meta-science (i.e. research on research).
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Affiliation(s)
- Danny Valdez
- Indiana University School of Public Health, Bloomington, IN, 47403, USA
| | - Colby J. Vorland
- Indiana University School of Public Health, Bloomington, IN, 47403, USA
| | - Andrew W. Brown
- Indiana University School of Public Health, Bloomington, IN, 47403, USA
| | - Evan Mayo-Wilson
- Indiana University School of Public Health, Bloomington, IN, 47403, USA
| | - Justin Otten
- Indiana University School of Public Health, Bloomington, IN, 47403, USA
| | - Richard Ball
- Project TIER, Haverford College, Haverford, Pennsylvania, 19041, USA
| | - Sean Grant
- Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis Fairbanks School of Public Health, Indianapolis, IN, 46223, USA
| | - Rachel Levy
- Rachel Levy, Mathematical Association of America, 1529 18th St. NW, Washington, DC, 20036, USA
| | | | - David B. Allison
- Indiana University School of Public Health, Bloomington, IN, 47403, USA
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19
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Sainani KL, Borg DN, Caldwell AR, Butson ML, Tenan MS, Vickers AJ, Vigotsky AD, Warmenhoven J, Nguyen R, Lohse KR, Knight EJ, Bargary N. Call to increase statistical collaboration in sports science, sport and exercise medicine and sports physiotherapy. Br J Sports Med 2020; 55:118-122. [PMID: 32816788 PMCID: PMC7788220 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2020-102607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kristin L Sainani
- Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - David N Borg
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
| | - Aaron R Caldwell
- Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division, US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michael L Butson
- Deptartment of Health & Medical Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Matthew S Tenan
- Optimum Performance Analytics Associates LLC, Apex, North Carolina, USA
| | - Andrew J Vickers
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Andrew D Vigotsky
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Statistics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
| | - John Warmenhoven
- Exercise & Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Robert Nguyen
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Keith R Lohse
- Health, Kinesiology, and Recreation; Department of Physical Therapy and Athletic Training, University of Utah Health, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Emma J Knight
- School of Public Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Norma Bargary
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
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20
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Ingestion of Carbohydrate Prior to and during Maximal, Sprint Interval Cycling Has No Ergogenic Effect: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo Controlled, Crossover Study. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12082223. [PMID: 32722454 PMCID: PMC7468746 DOI: 10.3390/nu12082223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbohydrate (CHO) ingestion may improve intermittent sprint performance in repeated sprint efforts ≤15 s. Yet, evidence for its efficacy on sprint interval durations ~30 s is lacking. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of CHO ingestion on maximal sprint interval exercise. Fifteen (n = 15) recreational athletes (13/2 males/females, age 22 ± 2 years; height 176 ± 11 cm; mass 76.8 ± 11.3 kg) volunteered for this randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design. Participants completed two experimental trials (performed 10-days apart) involving the ingestion of an 8% CHO solution or a flavour and appearance-matched placebo (PLA) solution (5 mL/kg/bw), immediately before exercise, and preceding the second interval of four × 30 s bouts of repeated maximal sprint efforts (separated by 3.5 min of passive recovery). Peak and mean power (W) output progressively decreased during the repeated sprints (main effect of time, p < 0.0001), but there were no differences between CHO and PLA during any of the sprints (p > 0.05 for condition main effect and condition × time interaction). Physiological responses (blood lactate, heart rate, oxygen consumption, respiratory exchange ratio and RPE) were also unaltered by CHO ingestion. In conclusion, CHO ingestion does not enhance performance or modulate physiological responses during intermittent maximal, sprint cycling.
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21
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Harrison AJ, McErlain-Naylor SA, Bradshaw EJ, Dai B, Nunome H, Hughes GTG, Kong PW, Vanwanseele B, Vilas-Boas JP, Fong DTP. Recommendations for statistical analysis involving null hypothesis significance testing. Sports Biomech 2020; 19:561-568. [PMID: 32672099 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2020.1782555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Harrison
- Biomechanics Research Unit, Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick , Limerick, Ireland
| | | | - Elizabeth J Bradshaw
- Centre for Sport Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University , Melbourne, Australia; Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Boyi Dai
- Division of Kinesiology and Health, University of Wyoming , Laramie, USA
| | - Hiroyuki Nunome
- Faculty of Sports and Health Science, Fukuoka University , Nanakuma, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Gerwyn T G Hughes
- Department of Kinesiology, University of San Francisco , California, USA
| | - Pui W Kong
- Physical Education and Sports Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education , Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Benedicte Vanwanseele
- Human Movement Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium
| | - J Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Faculty of Sport, Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport and Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto , Porto, Portugal
| | - Daniel T P Fong
- National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University , Loughborough, UK
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