Monitoring compliance of CITES lion bone exports from South Africa

International wildlife trade quotas are characterized by high compliance and coverage but insufficient adaptive management

Effective management of international wildlife trade is crucial to ensure sustainability. Quotas are a common trade management tool and specify an annual number of individuals to be exported, yet at present there is no global assessment of quota coverage and compliance. Using over 7,000 country-year specific reptile quotas established under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) covering 343 species, we quantify quota coverage, compliance, trade trends pre-quota and post-quota setting and whether quotas likely represent adaptive management. Quotas predominantly concerned live wild-sourced reptiles, with only 6.6% of live non-zero quotas exceeded and 4.5% of zero quotas subverted. For 62.3% of species, quotas were established higher than pre-quota trade, with traded volumes post-quota mainly unchanged or higher than pre-quota establishment, thus potentially facilitating sustainable trade. Over 38% of quota series of species remained at the same level each year, with the longest-running quotas proportionately updated the least, indicating that many quotas do not change adaptively in response to changing threats to species through time. Greater specificity in exactly what quotas cover, justification for unchanged quotas and transparency over quota determination are needed to ensure that high compliance equates to sustainable use.

Systematic review of the impact of restrictive wildlife trade measures on conservation of iconic species in southern Africa

Trade restrictions are often advocated and implemented as measures to protect wild species threatened by overexploitation. However, in some instances, their efficacy has been questioned, notably by governments in the southern African (SADC) region, which tend to favor a sustainable use approach to wildlife management. We conducted a systematic review of published literature guided by the PRISMA process to examine the effectiveness of trade restrictions and directly related control measures in addressing threats to species conservation in the SADC region, with a focus on elephants (Loxodonta sp.), rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum, Diceros bicornis), lions (Panthera leo), and pangolins (Manis sp.). We focused in particular on the direct conservation impact of trade restrictions at species or population level, indirect conservation impact at human behavior or attitude level, and socioeconomic impact on rural livelihoods and well-being and on national economies. Research on these topics was uneven and focused strongly on the effects of trade restrictions and law enforcement on crime-related behavior. Research gaps include socioeconomic impacts of trade restrictions, including effects of international restrictions on local livelihoods and consequent secondary conservation impacts, and evaluations of attempts to disrupt criminal networks. Based on the reviewed impact evidence, the effectiveness of international trade restrictions depends on a range of fully aligned measures in countries of origin, transit, and consumption. For example, our results suggest positive ecological short-term but negative or unknown long-term socioeconomic impacts of domestic restrictions. Based on these findings, key policy requirements include more nuanced approaches to incorporate a range of appropriate measures in range, transit, and consumer countries, that focus on capacity development for early detection and apprehension of incursions inside protected areas; measures for constructive engagement with relevant local communities outside protected areas; and future research to improve understanding of the socioeconomic contribution of wildlife.

Determining the sustainability of legal wildlife trade

Exploitation of wildlife represents one of the greatest threats to species survival according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Whilst detrimental impacts of illegal trade are well recognised, legal trade is often equated to being sustainable despite the lack of evidence or data in the majority of cases. We review the sustainability of wildlife trade, the adequacy of tools, safeguards, and frameworks to understand and regulate trade, and identify gaps in data that undermine our ability to truly understand the sustainability of trade. We provide 183 examples showing unsustainable trade in a broad range of taxonomic groups. In most cases, neither illegal nor legal trade are supported by rigorous evidence of sustainability, with the lack of data on export levels and population monitoring data precluding true assessments of species or population-level impacts. We propose a more precautionary approach to wildlife trade and monitoring that requires those who profit from trade to provide proof of sustainability. We then identify four core areas that must be strengthened to achieve this goal: (1) rigorous data collection and analyses of populations; (2) linking trade quotas to IUCN and international accords; (3) improved databases and compliance of trade; and (4) enhanced understanding of trade bans, market forces, and species substitutions. Enacting these core areas in regulatory frameworks, including CITES, is essential to the continued survival of many threatened species. There are no winners from unsustainable collection and trade: without sustainable management not only will species or populations become extinct, but communities dependent upon these species will lose livelihoods.

Poaching Forensics: Animal Victims in the Courtroom

Poaching and the international trade in wildlife are escalating problems driven by poverty and greed and coordinated by increasingly sophisticated criminal networks. Biodiversity loss, caused by habitat change, is exacerbated by poaching, and species globally are facing extinction. Forensic evidence underpins human and animal criminal investigations and is critical in criminal prosecution and conviction. The application of forensic tools, particularly forensic genetics, to animal case work continues to advance, providing the systems to confront the challenges of wildlife investigations. This article discusses some of these tools, their development, and implementations, as well as recent advances. Examples of cases are provided in which forensic evidence played a key role in obtaining convictions, thus laying the foundation for the future application of techniques to disrupt the criminal networks and safeguard biodiversity through species protection.

The unregulated nature of the commercial captive predator industry in South Africa: Insights gained using the PAIA process

South Africa has allowed the commercial captive breeding and trade of African lions (Panthera leo) and other large felids since the 1990s. However, publicly available information to quantify the extent and nature of this industry, as well as insight into the diversity of relevant provincial nature conservation statutes, are lacking. Our study reviewed the provincial regulations that govern the captive predator industry in South Africa and used the Promotion of Access to Information Act (PAIA) to obtain records held by the nine provincial departments regulating the captive breeding, keeping, and trade of large felids. The information obtained through the PAIA process was highly inconsistent across provincial borders, demonstrated the absence of standard operating procedures, and highlighted the convoluted and decentralised permitting systems. The research postulates that varying and sometimes conflicting provincial regulations can lead to further exploitation of legal loopholes and unregulated growth of the industry. In addition, provincial resources are inadequate for authorities to carry out their fundamental mandates of nature conservation. Although the PAIA process was challenging, the information received provided valuable insight into the unregulated nature of this industry and demonstrated major concerns in addressing the necessary challenges associated with animal welfare. Furthermore, with more than half of the PAIA requests either refused, rejected or ignored, the true magnitude and nature of South Africa’s commercial captive predator industry cannot be accurately quantified. The evidence from this study supports the notion of transitioning away from the commercial captive predator breeding industry, as intended by the South African government.

The extent and nature of the commercial captive lion industry in the Free State province, South Africa

The captive breeding of wildlife for commercial purposes is a controversial issue. In South Africa, the farming of African lions (Panthera leo) for commercial trade emerged in the early 1990s, partly as a conservation measure to reduce the decline in wild lion numbers while meeting increasing wildlife trade demands. In May 2021, the South African Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE) announced plans to end the captive breeding of lions, keeping of lions in captivity, and the use of captive lions, their parts and derivatives for commercial trade. Here, we examined the commercial captive lion industry from 2017 to 2020 in the Free State province, the heart of the lion breeding industry. We document the extent of the industry and highlight a number of key management issues. Of particular concern were issues with microchip numbers, which are used to follow each registered lion from birth to death through the system and to avoid laundering of wild caught and/or non-registered lions. Of the 4,823 unique microchips that were identified, at least 11% could not be followed through the system. Additionally, a minimum of 199 microchip numbers may have been reused by permit holders, either on captivity, euthanasia, or transport permits, indicating potential non-compliance with the Threatened or Protected Species (TOPS) Regulations. We highlight further areas of concern that warrant additional attention for these types of activities that may cause management issues during the transition period and which may also be relevant for the keeping, breeding, and trading of other TOPS regulated species in South Africa, particularly big cat species.

Contemporary Cultural Trade of Lion Body Parts

Trade in lion parts associated with cultural and traditional use is poorly understood. Here we sought to better understand the role and use of lion body parts in the commercial traditional medicine (muthi) trade of South Africa. In 2019 we conducted a semi-structured questionnaire survey of muthi traders (n = 10) and traditional healers (n = 20) which explored the significance and symbolism of lions, traded parts and preferences, sources and supply of lion parts, and perceived sustainability of lion derivatives in the South African muthi trade. Our results suggest a cultural importance of lion associated with the umndawu ancestral spirit in particular, as well as in the training and practice of cultural-spiritual healers. Lion paws and parts thereof were most frequently reported as sold by traders and demanded by healers, correlating with recent trends in body-part removals from lion mortalities. Respondents indicated that lion parts were obtained from a variety of sources including wild lion populations in neighbouring countries and captive-breeding farms. Our findings are discussed relative to current concerns in lion conservation and highlight a need for further understanding of the traditional medicine complex, the influence that ancestral spirits have on lion body-part trade, and increased engagement with traditional medicine stakeholders.

Guidelines for evaluating the conservation value of African lion (Panthera leo) translocations

As the top predator in African ecosystems, lions have lost more than 90% of their historical range, and few countries possess strong evidence for stable populations. Translocations (broadly defined here as the capture and movement of lions for various management purposes) have become an increasingly popular action for this species, but the wide array of lion translocation rationales and subsequent conservation challenges stemming from poorly conceived or unsuitable translocations warrants additional standardized evaluation and guidance. At their best, translocations fill a key role in comprehensive strategies aimed at addressing the threats facing lions and fostering the recovery of wild populations in their historic range. At their worst, translocations can distract from addressing the major threats to wild populations and habitats, divert scarce funding from more valuable conservation actions, exacerbate conflict with humans in recipient sites, disrupt local lion demography, and undermine the genetic integrity of wild lion populations in both source and recipient sites. In the interest of developing best practice guidelines for deciding when and how to conduct lion translocations, we discuss factors to consider when determining whether a translocation is of conservation value, introduce a value assessment for translocations, and provide a decision matrix to assist practitioners in improving the positive and reducing the negative outcomes of lion translocation.