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Valerio TL, Anastácio R, da Silva SS, de Oliveira CC, Vidotti M. An overview of electrochemical biosensors used for COVID-19 detection. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2024; 16:2164-2176. [PMID: 38536084 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay02042h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
This short review presents the latest advances in the field of electrochemical biosensors, focusing particularly on impedimetric biosensors for the direct measurement of analytes. As a source of study we have chosen to describe these advances in the latest global health crisis originated from the COVID-19 pandemic, initiated by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. In this period, the necessity for swift and precise detection methods has grown rapidly due to an imminent need for the development of an analytical method to identify and isolate infected patients as an attempt to control the spreading of the disease. Traditional approaches such as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), were extensively used during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, but their drawbacks, including slow response time, became evident. In this context, the potential of electrochemical biosensors as an alternative for COVID-19 detection was emphasized. These biosensors merge electrochemical technology with bioreceptors, offering benefits such as rapidity, accuracy, portability, and real-time result provision. Additionally, we present instances of electrochemical biosensors modified with conductive polymers, eliminating the necessity for an electrochemical probe. The adaptability of the developed materials and devices facilitated the prompt production of electrochemical biosensors during the pandemic, creating opportunities for broader applications in infectious disease diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Lima Valerio
- Grupo de Pesquisa em Macromoléculas e Interfaces, Universidade Federal Do Paraná (UFPR), 81531-980, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
| | - Raquel Anastácio
- Grupo de Pesquisa em Macromoléculas e Interfaces, Universidade Federal Do Paraná (UFPR), 81531-980, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
| | - Stella Schuster da Silva
- Laboratório de Células Inflamatórias e Neoplásicas (LCIN) e Laboratório de Investigação de Polissacarídeos Sulfatados (LIPS), Universidade Federal Do Paraná (UFPR), 81531-980, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Carolina Camargo de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Células Inflamatórias e Neoplásicas (LCIN) e Laboratório de Investigação de Polissacarídeos Sulfatados (LIPS), Universidade Federal Do Paraná (UFPR), 81531-980, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Marcio Vidotti
- Grupo de Pesquisa em Macromoléculas e Interfaces, Universidade Federal Do Paraná (UFPR), 81531-980, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
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AL-Saeedi AS, Abdulamir AS, Alubaidi GT. Development of a cost-effective quantitative in-house ELISA assay for screening anti-S1 IgG antibodies targeting SARS-CoV-2. J Med Life 2023; 16:883-889. [PMID: 37675173 PMCID: PMC10478653 DOI: 10.25122/jml-2023-0047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The RBD, S, and N proteins, the three main antigens of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, activate the host immune system and cause the formation of IgM and IgG antibodies. While IgM indicates an early, acute infection stage, IgG shows a past infection or persistent sickness. This study used an indirect ELISA assay that targets the S1 subunit of the SARS-CoV-2 S protein to create an in-house, qualitative serological test specific to COVID-19. A total of 60 serum samples were examined using ELISA for anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG, and 50 of those results were positive. An additional 20 samples were taken from cases that occurred before the pandemic. For the in-house ELISA assay, a plasmid containing the gene coding for the S1 subunit was transformed into E. coli DH5ɑ bacterial cells and the protein was synthesized and purified. The purified protein was utilized to coat the ELISA plate, which was subsequently used to assess the levels of IgG among individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection. The study found a significant association (p-value=0.01) between the in-house and the commercial anti-S1 subunit IgG antibodies kits. The in-house ELISA responded well, with a sensitivity and specificity of 75.0% and 88.89%, respectively. Furthermore, a library of SARS-CoV-2 recombinant S1 subunits was created by competent bacteria and may be employed for various tasks, such as creating diagnostic tools and scientific investigation. Overall, the in-house anti-SARS-CoV-2 human IgG-ELISA proved to be sensitive and specific for identifying IgG antibodies in patients exposed to SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul-Sattar AL-Saeedi
- Medical Microbiology Department, College of Medicine, Al-Nahrain University, Baghdad, Iraq
- Basic and Medical Sciences Branch, College of Nursing, University of Al-Ameed, Karbala, Iraq
| | - Ahmed Sahib Abdulamir
- Medical Microbiology Department, College of Medicine, Al-Nahrain University, Baghdad, Iraq
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Oluka GK, Namubiru P, Kato L, Ankunda V, Gombe B, Cotten M, Musenero M, Kaleebu P, Fox J, Serwanga J. Optimisation and Validation of a conventional ELISA and cut-offs for detecting and quantifying anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike, RBD, and Nucleoprotein IgG, IgM, and IgA antibodies in Uganda. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1113194. [PMID: 36999017 PMCID: PMC10045470 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1113194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023] Open
Abstract
There is an urgent need for better immunoassays to measure antibody responses as part of immune-surveillance activities and to profile immunological responses to emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. We optimised and validated an in-house conventional ELISA to identify and quantify SARS-CoV-2 spike- (S-), receptor binding domain- (RBD-), and nucleoprotein- (N-) directed IgG, IgM, and IgA binding antibodies in the Ugandan population and similar settings. Pre- and post-pandemic specimens were used to compare the utility of mean ± 2SD, mean ± 3SD, 4-fold above blanks, bootstrapping, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses in determining optimal cut-off optical densities at 450 nm (OD) for discriminating between antibody positives and negatives. "Limits of detection" (LOD) and "limits of quantitation" (LOQ) were validated alongside the assay's uniformity, accuracy, inter-assay and inter-operator precision, and parallelism. With spike-directed sensitivity and specificity of 95.33 and 94.15%, respectively, and nucleoprotein sensitivity and specificity of 82.69 and 79.71%, ROC was chosen as the best method for determining cutoffs. Accuracy measurements were within the expected CV range of 25%. Serum and plasma OD values were highly correlated (r = 0.93, p=0.0001). ROC-derived cut-offs for S-, RBD-, and N-directed IgG, IgM, and IgA were 0.432, 0.356, 0.201 (S), 0.214, 0.350, 0.303 (RBD), and 0.395, 0.229, 0.188 (N). The sensitivity and specificity of the S-IgG cut-off were equivalent to the WHO 20/B770-02 S-IgG reference standard at 100% level. Spike negative IgG, IgM, and IgA ODs corresponded to median antibody concentrations of 1.49, 3.16, and 0 BAU/mL, respectively, consistent with WHO low titre estimates. Anti-spike IgG, IgM, and IgA cut-offs were equivalent to 18.94, 20.06, and 55.08 BAU/mL. For the first time, we provide validated parameters and cut-off criteria for the in-house detection of subclinical SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccine-elicited binding antibodies in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa and populations with comparable risk factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Kevin Oluka
- Pathogen Genomics, Phenotype, and Immunity Program, Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
- Department of Immunology, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Patricia Namubiru
- Pathogen Genomics, Phenotype, and Immunity Program, Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Laban Kato
- Pathogen Genomics, Phenotype, and Immunity Program, Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Violet Ankunda
- Department of Immunology, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Ben Gombe
- Pathogen Genomics, Phenotype, and Immunity Program, Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Matthew Cotten
- Pathogen Genomics, Phenotype, and Immunity Program, Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Monica Musenero
- Science, Technology, and Innovation Secretariat, Office of the President, Government of Uganda, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Pontiano Kaleebu
- Pathogen Genomics, Phenotype, and Immunity Program, Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
- Department of Immunology, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Julie Fox
- Guy’s and St Thomas’ National Health Services Foundation Trust, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer Serwanga
- Pathogen Genomics, Phenotype, and Immunity Program, Medical Research Council, Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
- Department of Immunology, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
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Vishweshwaraiah YL, Hnath B, Rackley B, Wang J, Gontu A, Chandler M, Afonin KA, Kuchipudi SV, Christensen N, Yennawar NH, Dokholyan NV. Adaptation-proof SARS-CoV-2 vaccine design. ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2022; 32:2206055. [PMID: 36590650 PMCID: PMC9799234 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202206055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) surface spike glycoprotein - a major antibody target - is critical for virus entry via engagement of human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. Despite successes with existing vaccines and therapies that primarily target the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein, the susceptibility of RBD to mutations provides escape routes for the SARS-CoV-2 from neutralizing antibodies. On the other hand, structural conservation in the spike protein can be targeted to reduce escape mutations and achieve broad protection. Here, we designed candidate stable immunogens that mimic surface features of selected conserved regions of spike protein through 'epitope grafting,' in which we present the target epitope topology on diverse heterologous scaffolds that can structurally accommodate the spike epitopes. Structural characterization of the epitope-scaffolds showed stark agreement with our computational models and target epitopes. The sera from mice immunized with engineered designs display epitope-scaffolds and spike binding activity. We also demonstrated the utility of the designed epitope-scaffolds in diagnostic applications. Taken all together, our study provides important methodology for targeting the conserved, non-RBD structural motifs of spike protein for SARS-CoV-2 epitope vaccine design and demonstrates the potential utility of 'epitope grafting' in rational vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brianna Hnath
- Department of PharmacologyPenn State College of MedicineHersheyPA17033‐0850USA
| | - Brendan Rackley
- Department of PharmacologyPenn State College of MedicineHersheyPA17033‐0850USA
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of PharmacologyPenn State College of MedicineHersheyPA17033‐0850USA
| | - Abhinay Gontu
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences and The Huck Institutes of the Life SciencesThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPA16802USA
| | - Morgan Chandler
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of North Carolina at CharlotteCharlotteNC28223USA
| | - Kirill A. Afonin
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of North Carolina at CharlotteCharlotteNC28223USA
| | - Suresh V. Kuchipudi
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences and The Huck Institutes of the Life SciencesThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPA16802USA
| | - Neil Christensen
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyPenn State College of MedicineHersheyPA17033‐0850USA
| | - Neela H. Yennawar
- The Huck Institutes of the Life SciencesThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPA16802USA
| | - Nikolay V. Dokholyan
- Department of PharmacologyPenn State College of MedicineHersheyPA17033‐0850USA
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular BiologyPenn State College of MedicineHersheyPA17033‐0850USA
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Chung LTK, Vung ND, Uyen NT, Hanh BTM, Huong LT, Hien PT, Xuan LTT, Ha NT, Dat DX. A brief review on the validation of biology methods for COVID-19 detection. FRONTIERS IN TROPICAL DISEASES 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fitd.2022.1013130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 global pandemic has been going on for more than two years, and the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 with many variants of concern still poses a risk to public health. Sufficient access to qualified and validated testing plays an important role in detecting and alerting trends of the pandemic and provides evidence for making decisions in preventive strategies and policies. Depending on the method of testing and laboratory conditions, validation parameters (i.e., analytical sensitivity, limit of detection, diagnostic sensitivity, analytical specificity, diagnostic specificity, repeatability, reproducibility, robustness, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, applicability, practicability, and time to results) can be very different. With three main types of COVID-19 detection kits available, comprising nucleic acid, serological, and antigen detection, the kind of validation parameters that should be used becomes a complicated consideration and takes time to assess. Our review provides valuable and comprehensive information for laboratories in the assessment and selection of the optimal parameters to validate new COVID-19 test kits.
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Vishweshwaraiah YL, Hnath B, Rackley B, Wang J, Gontu A, Chandler M, Afonin KA, Kuchipudi SV, Christensen N, Yennawar NH, Dokholyan NV. Adaptation-proof SARS-CoV-2 vaccine design. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2022:2022.05.17.492310. [PMID: 35611332 PMCID: PMC9128779 DOI: 10.1101/2022.05.17.492310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) surface spike glycoprotein - a major antibody target - is critical for virus entry via engagement of human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. Despite successes with existing vaccines and therapies that primarily target the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein, the susceptibility of RBD to mutations provides escape routes for the SARS-CoV-2 from neutralizing antibodies. On the other hand, structural conservation in the spike protein can be targeted to reduce escape mutations and achieve broad protection. Here, we designed candidate stable immunogens that mimic surface features of selected conserved regions of spike protein through 'epitope grafting,' in which we present the target epitope topology on diverse heterologous scaffolds that can structurally accommodate the spike epitopes. Structural characterization of the epitope-scaffolds showed stark agreement with our computational models and target epitopes. The sera from mice immunized with engineered designs display epitope-scaffolds and spike binding activity. We also demonstrated the utility of the designed epitope-scaffolds in diagnostic applications. Taken all together, our study provides important methodology for targeting the conserved, non-RBD structural motifs of spike protein for SARS-CoV-2 epitope vaccine design and demonstrates the potential utility of 'epitope grafting' in rational vaccine design.
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Alandijany TA, Faizo AA. Development of Serological Assays and Seroprevalence Studies of the New Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19): Reports from Saudi Arabia. Healthcare (Basel) 2021; 9:healthcare9121730. [PMID: 34946456 PMCID: PMC8701666 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare9121730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Serological assays are valuable tools for tracking COVID-19 spread, estimation of herd immunity, and evaluation of vaccine effectiveness. Several reports from Saudi Arabia describe optimized in-house protocols that enable detection of SARS-CoV-2 specific antibodies and measurement of their neutralizing activity. Notably, there were variations in the approaches utilized to develop and validate these immunoassays in term of sample size, validation methodologies, and statistical analyses. The developed enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISAs) were based on the viral full-length spike (S), S1 subunit, and nucleocapsid (NP), and enabled detection of IgM and/or IgG. ELISAs were evaluated and validated against a microneutralization assay utilizing a local SARS-CoV-2 clinical isolate, FDA-approved commercially available immunoassays, and/or real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Overall, the performance of the described assays was high, reaching up to 100% sensitivity and 98.9% specificity with no cross-reactivity with other coronaviruses. In-house immunoassays, along with commercially available kits, were subsequently applied in a number of sero-epidemiological studies aiming to estimate sero-positivity status among local populations including healthcare workers, COVID-19 patients, non-COVID-19 patients, and healthy blood donors. The reported seroprevalence rates differed widely among these studies, ranging from 0.00% to 32.2%. These variations are probably due to study period, targeted population, sample size, and performance of the immunoassays utilized. Indeed, lack of sero-positive cases were reported among healthy blood donors during the lockdown, while the highest rates were reported when the number of COVID-19 cases peaked in the country, particularly among healthcare workers working in referral hospitals and quarantine sites. In this review, we aim to (1) provide a critical discussion about the developed in-house immunoassays, and (2) summarize key findings of the sero-epidemiological studies and highlight strengths and weaknesses of each study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thamir A. Alandijany
- Special Infectious Agents Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 128442, Jeddah 21362, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80324, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: (T.A.A.); (A.A.F.)
| | - Arwa A. Faizo
- Special Infectious Agents Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 128442, Jeddah 21362, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80324, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: (T.A.A.); (A.A.F.)
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