Monitoring recovery from diaphragm paralysis with ultrasound

The Role of Diaphragmatic Ultrasound in Identifying Sarcopenia in COPD Patients: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background/Aim

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is often complicated by sarcopenia, a condition of reduced muscle mass and function that adversely affects quality of life, lung function, and exacerbation rates. Ultrasonography could be an effective tool for detecting sarcopenia, notably by assessing diaphragmatic function, which may indicate muscle health in COPD patients. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of diaphragmatic ultrasound in detecting sarcopenia among COPD patients.

Materials and Methods

Thirty-five patients with COPD, with a forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) between 30% and 80%, were consecutively enrolled in this cross-sectional and double-blind study. Sarcopenia was defined using the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People 2 (EWGSOP2) criteria. Muscle mass was assessed with bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), muscle strength was assessed using the handgrip test and physical performance was assessed using a 4-meter gait speed test. Pulmonary function tests (PFT) (including maximum inspiratory pressure-MIP and maximum expiratory pressure-MEP) were performed. Diaphragm excursion and thickness at residual volume, functional residual capacity, and total lung capacity were measured using ultrasound. The diaphragm thickening fraction was calculated during normal (TF) and deep breathing (TLC-TF).

Results

Seventeen of 35 patients (48.6%) were found to be sarcopenic. Diaphragm thickness did not show significant variation between the groups. Both TF (27.43%) and TLC-TF (39.7%) were found to be lower in the sarcopenic group (p<0.05). The diaphragmatic excursion in the sarcopenic group was found to be 1.38 cm (p=0.078). There was no difference in median MIP and MEP values between the groups.

Conclusion

Diaphragmatic TF may be a valuable tool for detecting sarcopenia in COPD patients, which may vary independently of PFTs. This study highlights TF as a potential auxiliary measure, but further research with larger sample sizes and additional parameters is needed to confirm its clinical utility.

Diaphragmatic ultrasound: approach, emerging evidence, and future perspectives in non-ICU patients

Diaphragmatic dysfunction is an important contributor to hypercapnic respiratory failure, but its presence is often challenging to determine at the bedside. Diaphragm ultrasound provides an opportunity to evaluate the function of the diaphragm noninvasively by evaluating the following parameters that can help define diaphragmatic dysfunction: diaphragm excursion, diaphragm muscle thickness, and thickening fraction. Its evaluation has the potential to assist with diagnosis of respiratory failure, provide prognosis, and assist with patient monitoring and should be considered as part of an internal medicine physician's and emergency physician's skill set. This article provides an overview on how to perform diaphragm ultrasound, review its pitfalls, and discuss the evidence of its use in patients with neuromuscular disorders and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Finally, its potential emerging uses in the perioperative setting and for evaluation of acute heart failure are discussed.

Respiratory muscle dysfunction in acute and chronic respiratory failure: how to diagnose and how to treat?

Assessing and treating respiratory muscle dysfunction is crucial for patients with both acute and chronic respiratory failure. Respiratory muscle dysfunction can contribute to the onset of respiratory failure and may also worsen due to interventions aimed at treatment. Evaluating respiratory muscle function is particularly valuable for diagnosing, phenotyping and assessing treatment efficacy in these patients. This review outlines established methods, such as measuring respiratory pressures, and explores novel techniques, including respiratory muscle neurophysiology assessments using electromyography and imaging with ultrasound.Additionally, we review various treatment strategies designed to support and alleviate the burden on overworked respiratory muscles or to enhance their capacity through training interventions. These strategies range from invasive and noninvasive mechanical ventilation approaches to specialised respiratory muscle training programmes. By summarising both established techniques and recent methodological advancements, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the tools available in clinical practice for evaluating and treating respiratory muscle dysfunction. Our goal is to present a clear understanding of the current capabilities and limitations of these diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Integrating advanced diagnostic methods and innovative treatment strategies should help improve patient management and outcomes. This comprehensive review serves as a resource for clinicians, equipping them with the necessary knowledge to effectively diagnose and treat respiratory muscle dysfunction in both acute and chronic respiratory failure scenarios.

Weaning failure due to isolated residual diaphragmatic paralysis after cervical spinal cord ischemia following aortic surgery- a case report

BACKGROUND

Bilateral diaphragmatic dysfunction can lead to dyspnea and recurrent respiratory failure. In rare cases, it may result from high cervical spinal cord ischemia (SCI) due to anterior spinal artery syndrome (ASAS). We present a case of a patient experiencing persistent isolated diaphragmatic paralysis after SCI at level C3/C4 following thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR) for Kommerell's diverticulum. This is, to our knowledge, the first documented instance of a patient fully recovering from tetraplegia due to SCI while still exhibiting ongoing bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis.

CASE PRESENTATION

The patient, a 67-year-old male, presented to the Vascular Surgery Department for surgical treatment of symptomatic Kommerell's diverticulum in an aberrant right subclavian artery. After successful surgery in two stages, the patient presented with respiratory insufficiency and flaccid tetraparesis consistent with anterior spinal artery syndrome with maintained sensibility of all extremities. A computerized tomography scan (CT) revealed a high-grade origin stenosis of the left vertebral artery, which was treated by angioplasty and balloon-expandable stenting. Consecutively, the tetraparesis immediately resolved, but weaning remained unsuccessful requiring tracheostomy. Abdominal ultrasound revealed a residual bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis. A repeated magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 14 days after vertebral artery angioplasty confirmed SCI at level C3/C4. The patient was transferred to a pulmonary clinic with weaning center for further recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

This novel case highlights the need to consider diaphragmatic paralysis due to SCI as a cause of respiratory failure in patients following aortic surgery. Diaphragmatic paralysis may remain as an isolated residual in these patients.

Unilateral Diaphragmatic Paralysis: A Case Report of an Often Overlooked Diagnosis

Unilateral diaphragmatic paralysis, resulting from nerve or muscle injuries, is an uncommon phenomenon often missed due to its asymptomatic nature. This condition can lead to decreased pulmonary function, particularly in patients with underlying comorbidities or cardiopulmonary issues. Identification and understanding of the underlying cause of the paralysis are essential for effective management and improved patient outcomes. Here, we present a case of a 49-year-old male who presented with left flank pain and complained of dyspnea on exertion. Further workup and a sniff test confirmed the diagnosis of left hemidiaphragm paralysis.

Diaphragm Ultrasound in Different Clinical Scenarios: A Review with a Focus on Older Patients

Diaphragm muscle dysfunction is increasingly recognized as a fundamental marker of several age-related diseases and conditions including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure and critical illness with respiratory failure. In older individuals with physical frailty and sarcopenia, the loss of muscle mass and function may also involve the diaphragm, contributing to respiratory dysfunction. Ultrasound has recently emerged as a feasible and reliable strategy to visualize diaphragm structure and function. In particular, it can help to predict the timing of extubation in patients undergoing mechanical ventilation in intensive care units (ICUs). Ultrasonographic evaluation of diaphragmatic function is relatively cheap, safe and quick and can provide useful information for real-time monitoring of respiratory function. In this review, we aim to present the current state of scientific evidence on the usefulness of ultrasound in the assessment of diaphragm dysfunction in different clinical settings, with a particular focus on older patients. We highlight the importance of the qualitative information gathered by ultrasound to assess the integrity, excursion, thickness and thickening of the diaphragm. The implementation of bedside diaphragm ultrasound could be useful for improving the quality and appropriateness of care, especially in older subjects with sarcopenia who experience acute respiratory failure, not only in the ICU setting.

MUltiparametric Score for Ventilation Discontinuation in Intensive Care Patients: A Protocol for an Observational Study

BACKGROUND

Mechanical ventilation significantly improves patient survival but is associated with complications, increasing healthcare costs and morbidity. Identifying optimal weaning times is paramount to minimize these risks, yet current methods rely heavily on clinical judgment, lacking specificity.

METHODS

This study introduces a novel multiparametric predictive score, the MUSVIP (MUltiparametric Score for Ventilation discontinuation in Intensive care Patients), aimed at accurately predicting successful extubation. Conducted at Santo Stefano Hospital's ICU, this single-center, observational, prospective cohort study will span over 12 months, enrolling adult patients undergoing invasive mechanical ventilation. The MUSVIP integrates variables measured before and during a spontaneous breathing trial (SBT) to formulate a predictive score.

RESULTS

Preliminary analyses suggest an Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 0.815 for the MUSVIP, indicating high predictive capacity. By systematically applying this score, we anticipate identifying patients likely to succeed in weaning earlier, potentially reducing ICU length of stay and associated healthcare costs.

CONCLUSION

This study's findings could significantly influence clinical practices, offering a robust, easy-to-use tool for optimizing weaning processes in ICUs.

Diaphragm ultrasonography as a monitor in assessing antagonistic effect of sugammadex on rocuronium in patients with Child-Pugh grades A and B

Background

Although diaphragm ultrasound can be used for detecting residual neuromuscular blockade post-surgery, there exists notable dearth in contemporary research exploring the correlation between preoperative Child-Pugh classification and the effectiveness of sugammadex in reversing rocuronium-induced blockade as evaluated by diaphragmatic ultrasonography.

Methods

This was a prospective, double-blind, non-randomized controlled clinical trial conducted on patients scheduled for laparoscopic liver resection surgery. The participants were categorized into two groups, A and B, based on their preoperative Child-Pugh classification. Prior to anesthesia induction, baseline diaphragm thickness was evaluated using ultrasonography. Throughout the surgical procedure, a deep neuromuscular blockade was maintained with rocuronium. Post-surgery, sugammadex (2 mg/kg) was intravenously administered to patients in both groups upon reaching a train-of-four ratio of 0.2. Diaphragm thickness was assessed at 0, 10, and 30 min, as well as 2 h after extubation, to analyze thickening fractioning (TF) and thickness recovery fractioning (TRF).

Results

No significant differences in TF or TRF were observed between the two groups at 0, 10, and 30 min, as well as 2 h after extubation. Furthermore, there were no significant variances in hemodynamic stability following sugammadex administration. However, patients in the Child-Pugh B group experienced a significantly prolonged time from sugammadex administration to tracheal extubation (19 ± 8.0 min vs. 11 ± 6.1 min) and an extended post-anesthesia care unit stay (123 ± 28.3 min vs. 103 ± 26.0 min) compared to those in the Child-Pugh A group.

Conclusion

The preoperative Child-Pugh grades may not exhibit a significant association with the reversal effect of sugammadex on rocuronium, as evaluated through diaphragmatic ultrasonography.

Clinical trial registration

Registered in the ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05028088) on July 18, 2021.

Relationship Between Diaphragm Thickness, Thickening Fraction, Dome Excursion, and Respiratory Pressures in Healthy Subjects: An Ultrasound Study

PURPOSE

Diaphragm ultrasonography is used to identify causes of diaphragm dysfunction. However, its correlation with pulmonary function tests, including maximal inspiratory (MIP) and expiratory pressures (MEP), remains unclear. This study investigated this relationship by measuring diaphragm thickness, thickening fraction (TF), and excursion (DE) using ultrasonography, and their relationship to MIP and MEP. It also examined the influence of age, sex, height, and BMI on these measures.

METHODS

We recruited healthy Japanese volunteers and conducted pulmonary function tests and diaphragm ultrasonography in a seated position. Diaphragm ultrasonography was performed during quiet breathing (QB) and deep breathing (DB) to measure the diaphragm thickness, TF, and DE. A multivariate analysis was conducted, adjusting for age, sex, height, and BMI.

RESULTS

Between March 2022 and January 2023, 109 individuals (56 males) were included from three facilities. The mean (standard deviation) MIP and MEP [cmH2O] were 72.2 (24.6) and 96.9 (35.8), respectively. Thickness [mm] at the end of expiration was 1.7 (0.4), TF [%] was 50.0 (25.9) during QB and 110.7 (44.3) during DB, and DE [cm] was 1.7 (0.6) during QB and 4.4 (1.4) during DB. Multivariate analysis revealed that only DE (DB) had a statistically significant relationship with MIP and MEP (p = 0.021, p = 0.008). Sex, age, and BMI had a statistically significant influence on relationships between DE (DB) and MIP (p = 0.008, 0.048, and < 0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSION

In healthy adults, DE (DB) has a relationship with MIP and MEP. Sex, age, and BMI, but not height, are influencing factors on this relationship.

Ultrasound assessment of diaphragm thickness, contractility, and strain in healthy pediatric patients

BACKGROUND

Ultrasound-based diaphragmatic assessments are becoming more common in pediatric acute care, but baseline pediatric diaphragm thickness and contractility values remain unknown.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective, observational study of healthy children aged <18 years undergoing elective surgery. Diaphragm thickness at end-expiration (Tdi-exp), thickening fraction (DTF) and excursion were measured by ultrasound during spontaneous breathing and during mechanical ventilation. Diaphragm strain and peak strain rate were ascertained post hoc. Measurements were compared across a priori specified age groups (<1 year, 1 to <3, 3 to <6, 6 to <12, and 12 to <18 years) and with versus without mechanical ventilation.

RESULTS

Fifty subjects were evaluated (n = 10 per age group). Baseline mean Tdi-exp was 0.19 ± 0.04 cm, DTF 0.19 ± 0.09, excursion 1.69 ± 0.97 cm, strain -10.3 ± 4.9, peak strain rate -0.48 ± 0.21 s-1 . No significant difference in Tdi-exp or DTF was observed across age groups (p > .05). Diaphragm excursion increased with age (p < .0001). Diaphragm strain was significantly greater in the 12-17-year age group (-14.3 ± 6.4), p = .048, but there were no age-related differences in peak strain rate (p = .08). During mechanical ventilation, there were significant decreases in DTF 0.12 ± 0.04 (p < .0001), excursion 1.08 ± 0.31 cm (p < .0001), strain -4.60 ± 1.93 (p < .0001), and peak strain rate -0.20 ± 0.10 s-1 (p < .0001) while there was no change in Tdi-exp 0.18 ± 0.03 cm (p = .25) when compared to baseline values.

CONCLUSION

Pediatric Tdi-exp, DTF, and diaphragm peak strain rate were similar across age groups. Diaphragm excursion and strain varied across age groups. All measures of diaphragm contractility were diminished during mechanical ventilation.

Perioperative Diaphragm Dysfunction

Diaphragm Dysfunction (DD) is a respiratory disorder with multiple causes. Although both unilateral and bilateral DD could ultimately lead to respiratory failure, the former is more common. Increasing research has recently delved into perioperative diaphragm protection. It has been established that DD promotes atelectasis development by affecting lung and chest wall mechanics. Diaphragm function must be specifically assessed for clinicians to optimally select an anesthetic approach, prepare for adequate monitoring, and implement the perioperative plan. Recent technological advancements, including dynamic MRI, ultrasound, and esophageal manometry, have critically aided disease diagnosis and management. In this context, it is noteworthy that therapeutic approaches for DD vary depending on its etiology and include various interventions, either noninvasive or invasive, aimed at promoting diaphragm recruitment. This review aims to unravel alternative anesthetic and operative strategies that minimize postoperative dysfunction by elucidating the identification of patients at a higher risk of DD and procedures that could cause postoperative DD, facilitating the recognition and avoidance of anesthetic and surgical interventions likely to impair diaphragmatic function.

Quality-of-life impact of diaphragm plication in patients with diaphragmatic paralysis: A retrospective study

OBJECTIVES

While the overall incidence and prevalence of diaphragmatic paralysis are unknown due to a wide variety of underlying causes, symptomatic patients experience a marked decline in their quality of life. The goal of this study was to measure the impact of diaphragm plication surgery on the quality of life in patients who were diagnosed with diaphragmatic paralysis.

METHODS

A retrospective review of the medical records of 46 patients who underwent diaphragmatic plication surgery was performed. The review included patients who experienced unilateral and bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis. Patients who underwent repeat diaphragm plication surgery were also included in the study. Patients from the retrospective cohort were then contacted by telephone to answer the Dyspnea-12 (D-12) questionnaire. Patients were asked to recall the severity of their symptoms and quality of life preplication, 1-month postplication, and 6-month postplication. Severity of symptoms was ranked as either none, mild, moderate, or severe. Values were then assigned to each rank as follows: none = 0, mild = 1, moderate = 2, and severe = 3. Relative change and statistical significance were calculated with preplication measurements used as the baseline. Scores between preplication versus 1-month postplication and 6-month postplication were then compared by Student's paired t-test. All tests were two-sided and statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

Forty-six patients were included in the study, from which 21 answered the D-12 questionnaire. Average scores from each component of the D-12 questionnaire showed improvement in the severity of symptoms from preplication to 1-month postplication. The latter period was then followed by continued improvement in all areas when symptoms 6-month postplication were assessed.

CONCLUSION

In patients with diaphragmatic paralysis, diaphragm plication was effective in reducing patients' symptoms while improving overall quality of life.

Imaging of the Diaphragm Following Cardiac Surgery: Focus on Ultrasonographic Assessment

Diaphragm dysfunction is a common complication following cardiac surgery. Its clinical impact is variable, ranging from the absence of symptoms to the acute respiratory failure. Post-operative diaphragm dysfunction may negatively affect patients' prognosis delaying the weaning from the mechanical ventilation (MV), extending the time of hospitalization and increasing mortality. Ultrasonography is a valid tool to evaluate diaphragmatic impairment in different settings, like the Intensive Care Unit, to predict successful weaning from the MV, and the Cardiovascular Rehabilitation Unit, to stratify patients in terms of risk of functional recovery failure. The aim of this review is to describe the pathophysiology of post-cardiac surgery diaphragm dysfunction, the techniques used for its diagnosis and the potential applications of diaphragm ultrasound.

Assessment of diaphragmatic function by ultrasonography in patients with systemic sclerosis and its relation to clinical parameters : A case-control study

BACKGROUND

Diaphragmatic function can be affected in many diseases and disorders. Although systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a serious connective tissue disease that affects not only the skin but also the pulmonary and musculoskeletal systems, there is insufficient information about diaphragm function.

AIMS

To compare the diaphragmatic parameters by ultrasonography (USG) in patients with SSc and healthy individuals and examine the relationship between these parameters and clinical features in patients with SSc.

METHODS

This study included 13 patients with SSc and 15 healthy individuals. Muscle thickness (in deep inspiration Tins and at the end of calm expiration Texp), changes in thickness (∆T), and thickening fraction at deep breathing were evaluated by USG. Skin thickness, pulmonary function tests, respiratory muscle strength, and the perception of dyspnea were measured as clinical features.

RESULTS

The results of Texp, Tins, and ∆T were similar in both groups (p > 0.05), albeit patients in the SSc group had less thickening fraction compared to the control group (79.9 ± 36.7 cm and 103.8 ± 20.6 cm, respectively, p < 0.05). The Tins, ∆T, and thickening fraction of the diaphragm were associated with skin thickness, pulmonary function test parameters, and respiratory muscle strength (p < 0.05). Besides, there was significant correlation between muscle thickening fraction and perception of dyspnea (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These results confirm that diaphragm thickness and contractility can be affected in patients with SSc. Therefore, ultrasonographic evaluation of the diaphragm can play a complementary role to pulmonary function test and respiratory muscle strength measurement in the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with SSc.

Ultrasonic Evaluation of Diaphragm in Patients with Systemic Sclerosis

The diaphragm is the most important muscle in respiration. Nevertheless, its function is rarely evaluated. Patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc) could be at risk of diaphragmatic dysfunction because of multiple factors. These patients often develop interstitial lung disease (SSc-ILD) and earlier studies have indicated that patients with different ILDs have decreased diaphragmatic mobility on ultrasound (US). This study aimed to evaluate diaphragmatic function in SSc patients using US with regard to the ILD, evaluated with the Warrick score on high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT), and to investigate associations between ultrasonic parameters and dyspnea, lung function, and other important clinical parameters. In this cross-sectional study, we analyzed diaphragm mobility, thickness, lung function, HRCT findings, Modified Medical Research Council (mMRC) dyspnea scale, modified Rodnan skin score (mRSS), autoantibodies, and esophageal diameters on HRCT in patients with SSc. Fifty patients were enrolled in the study. Patients with SSc-ILD had lower diaphragmatic mobility in deep breathing than patients without ILD. The results demonstrated negative correlations between diaphragmatic mobility and mMRC, mRSS, anti-Scl-70 antibodies, esophageal diameters on HRCT, and a positive correlation with lung function. Patients with SSc who experience dyspnea should be evaluated for diaphragmatic dysfunction for accurate symptom phenotyping and personalized pulmonary rehabilitation treatment.

Conservative rehabilitation therapy for respiratory dysfunction due to phrenic nerve sacrifice during resection of massive mediastinal tumor: A case series study

RATIONALE

Cases of respiratory dysfunction due to phrenic nerve sacrifice during resection of massive mediastinal tumor have rarely been studied in detail. Diaphragmatic dysfunction in such cases can lead to potentially fatal respiratory and circulatory disturbances. Therefore, timely diagnosis and intervention are important. Conservative rehabilitation therapy is the first choice for respiratory dysfunction due to diaphragmatic dysfunction.

PATIENT CONCERNS, DIAGNOSES AND INTERVENTIONS

We present 3 patients with respiratory dysfunction due to phrenic nerve sacrifice during resection of massive mediastinal tumor. The diagnostic methods and therapeutic procedures for diaphragmatic dysfunction for each patient are described in detail. This study highlights the role of ventilator support combined with physical therapy in the treatment of respiratory dysfunction in such cases. The diagnosis of diaphragmatic dysfunction as well as the risk assessment of phrenic nerve involvement are also discussed. The modalities of ventilator support, including modes and parameters, are listed.

OUTCOMES AND LESSONS

This study provides experiences of diagnosis and treatment of respiratory dysfunction due to phrenic nerve sacrifice during resection of massive mediastinal tumor. Timely diagnosis of diaphragmatic dysfunction primarily relies on clinical manifestations and radiography. Conservative rehabilitation therapy can improve or restore diaphragmatic function in majority of patients, and avert or delay the need for surgical intervention. Preoperative assessment of the risk of phrenic nerve involvement is important in such cases.

Evaluation of diaphragm functions with diaphragm ultrasound and pulmonary function tests in individuals with Friedreich's ataxia

Background/aim

It is known that the correlation of pulmonary function tests (PFT) with muscle dysfunction is insufficient. Here, we aimed to evaluate the diaphragm functions in individuals with Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA) and to examine its relationship with respiratory parameters and disease severity.

Materials and methods

This prospective study, conducted between November and December 2022, at Erciyes University, included 14 individuals with genetically confirmed FRDA and an age- and gender-matched healthy control group of eight individuals. We examined pulmonary functions with spirometric methods and evaluated diaphragm excursion, and diaphragm thickness-expiratory (Tde) and - end of inspiration (Tdi) with ultrasonography during calm breathing. Thickening fraction (TF) calculated. Also, we examined PaCO2 at rest. The neurological status of individuals was assessed using the Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA).

Results

The mean values of FEV1(lt), FEV1(%), FVC (lt), and FVC (%) were higher in the control group (p; <0.001, 0.013, <0.001, and 0.009, respectively). Also, mean Tdi, Tde, excursion and TF were lower in the FRDA group compared to the control group (p = 0.005, 0.294,0.005, and 0.019, respectively). The mean excursion value was 1.13 ± 0.54cm in the FRDA group and 1.71 ± 0.49cm in the control group. There is a strong, negative, and statistically significant correlation between SARA total score with excursion and TF (r = -0.7432, p = 0.002; r = -0.697, p = 0.008). There is no statistically significant relationship between excursion and BMI, standing-to-supine decrease in FVC, FEV1, and PaCO2. Also, the relationship between maximal inspiratory pressure (PImax) and excursion was moderate.

Conclusion

Diaphragm ultrasound may reveal respiratory dysfunction better than PFT. Diaphragm excursion and TF are associated with disease scores in individuals with FDRA. Further studies are needed regarding the detection of alveolar hypoventilation.

Role of ultrasound in acute respiratory failure and in the weaning of mechanical ventilation

Comprehensive ultrasound assessment has become an essential tool to facilitate the diagnosis and therapeutic management of critically ill patients with acute respiratory failure (ARF). There is evidence supporting the use of ultrasound for the diagnosis of pneumothorax, acute respiratory distress syndrome, cardiogenic pulmonary edema, pneumonia and acute pulmonary thromboembolism, and in patients with COVID-19. In addition, in recent years, the use of ultrasound to evaluate responses to treatment in critically ill patients with ARF has been developed, providing a noninvasive tool for titrating positive end-expiratory pressure, monitoring recruitment maneuvers and response to prone position, as well as for facilitating weaning from mechanical ventilation. The objective of this review is to summarize the basic concepts on the utility of ultrasound in the diagnosis and monitoring of critically ill patients with ARF.

Impaired diaphragmatic motility in treatment-naive adult patients with spinal muscular atrophy improved during nusinersen treatment

INTRODUCTION/AIMS

The leading clinical feature of 5q-associated spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is symmetric, proximal muscle weakness. Muscles involved in ventilation exhibit a specific pattern of denervation: intercostal muscles are severely atrophic, whereas the diaphragm muscle is less affected. The aim of this study was to investigate the involvement of diaphragmatic function by ultrasound imaging in adult patients with SMA and to quantify dynamics of diaphragmatic function during nusinersen treatment.

METHODS

Diaphragmatic thickness, thickening, and excursion during quiet breathing were assessed in 24 adult patients with SMA type 2 and 3 by diaphragm ultrasound imaging before and during nusinersen treatment and were correlated with spirometric parameters.

RESULTS

Diaphragm thickness was not reduced, but increased in a remarkable proportion of patients, whereas diaphragm thickening and excursion were reduced in about 20% to 30% of nusinersen-naive, adult patients with SMA types 2 and 3. During 26 months of nusinersen treatment, diaphragm thickening fraction and excursion improved.

DISCUSSION

Diaphragm ultrasound imaging can provide disease- and treatment-relevant information that is not identified during routine clinical assessments and may therefore be a valuable complementary outcome measure.

[Robotic Diaphragm Plication]

Acquired unilateral hemidiaphragm elevation is characterised by dyspnoea, which is typically aggravated when lying down, bending over or during swimming. The most common causes are idiopathic or due to injury to the phrenic nerve during cervical or cardio-thoracic surgery. To date, surgical diaphragm plication remains the only effective treatment. The aim of the procedure is to plicate the diaphragm to restore its tension and thus improve breathing mechanics, increase the available space for the lung and reduce compression from abdominal organs. In the past, various techniques using open and minimally invasive approaches have been described. Robot-assisted thoracoscopic diaphragm plication combines the advantages of a minimally invasive approach with excellent visualisation and freedom of movement. It was shown to be a safe technique which is easy to establish and can significantly improve pulmonary function.

Single port thoracoscopic diaphragm plication: A novel treatment approach to bilateral phrenic nerve palsy and diaphragm paralysis

INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

The diaphragm is the primary muscle of respiration. Bilateral paralysis of the diaphragm due to phrenic nerve palsy causes severe dyspnoea and is life threatening. Diaphragmatic Plication has shown great promise in treating diaphragm paralysis and has evolved as operative treatment from an open thoracotomy to multiport and robotic video assisted thoracoscopic surgery.

CASE PRESENTATION

Here we present a case of idiopathic bilateral diaphragm paralysis resulting significant deterioration in lung function tests, supplemental oxygen, and ventilator dependence. The patient was treated with a 2-stage operative plication of each hemidiaphragm through a 2.5 cm single incision thoracoscopic technique, which resulted in normalization of lung function tests, elimination of oxygen dependence and negligible analgesia requirements.

CASE DISCUSSION

This is the first case reported in the literature of a single port VATS plication of the diaphragm for the treatment of bilateral phrenic nerve palsy. Surgery, specifically diaphragm plication, is indicated for patients with significant symptoms and persistent paralysis. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) has evolved from open operations to smaller incisions, offering improved lung function, postoperative pain, hospital stay, morbidity, and mortality.

CONCLUSION

Single port diaphragmatic plication is a novel approach to the treatment of bilateral phrenic nerve palsy. We make the case for indication of the technique for treatment of diaphragmatic paralysis.

Effectiveness of diaphragmatic ultrasound as a predictor of successful weaning from mechanical ventilation: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Several measurements have been used to predict the success of weaning from mechanical ventilation; however, their efficacy varies in different studies. In recent years, diaphragmatic ultrasound has been used for this purpose. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of diaphragmatic ultrasound in predicting the success of weaning from mechanical ventilation.

METHODS

Two investigators independently searched PUBMED, TRIP, EMBASE, COCHRANE, SCIENCE DIRECT, and LILACS for articles published between January 2016 and July 2022. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed using the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies-2 tool; additionally, the certainty of the evidence is evaluated using the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) methodology. Sensitivity and specificity analysis was performed for diaphragmatic excursion and diaphragmatic thickening fraction; positive and negative likelihood ratios and diagnostic odds ratios (DOR) with their confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated by random effects analysis, summary receiver operating characteristic curve was estimated. Sources of heterogeneity were explored by subgroup analysis and bivariate meta-regression.

RESULTS

Twenty-six studies were included, of which 19 were included in the meta-analysis (1204 patients). For diaphragmatic excursion, sensitivity was 0.80 (95% CI 0.77-0.83), specificity 0.80 (95% CI 0.75-0.84), area under the summary receiver operating characteristic curve 0.87 and DOR 17.1 (95% CI 10.2-28.6). For the thickening fraction, sensitivity was 0.85 (95% CI 0.82-0.87), specificity 0.75 (95% CI 0.69-0.80), area under the summary receiver operating characteristic curve 0.87 and DOR 17.2 (95% CI 9.16-32.3). There was heterogeneity among the included studies. When performing a subgroup analysis and excluding studies with atypical cutoff values, sensitivity and specificity increased for diaphragmatic thickening fraction; sensitivity increased and specificity decreased for diaphragmatic excursion; when comparing studies using pressure support (PS) versus T-tube, there was no significant difference in sensitivity and specificity; bivariate meta-regression analysis shows that patient position at the time of testing was a factor of heterogeneity in the included studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Measurement of diaphragmatic excursion and diaphragmatic thickening fraction predict the probability of successful weaning from mechanical ventilation with satisfactory diagnostic accuracy; however, significant heterogeneity was evident in the different included studies. Studies of high methodological quality in specific subgroups of patients in intensive care units are needed to evaluate the role of diaphragmatic ultrasound as a predictor of weaning from mechanical ventilation.

Respiratory muscle ultrasonography evaluation and its clinical application in stroke patients: A review

Background

Respiratory muscle ultrasound is a widely available, highly feasible technique that can be used to study the contribution of the individual respiratory muscles related to respiratory dysfunction. Stroke disrupts multiple functions, and the respiratory function is often significantly decreased in stroke patients.

Method

A search of the MEDLINE, Web of Science, and PubMed databases was conducted. We identified studies measuring respiratory muscles in healthy and patients by ultrasonography. Two reviewers independently extracted and documented data regarding to the criteria. Data were extracted including participant demographics, ultrasonography evaluation protocol, subject population, reference values, etc.

Result

A total of 1954 participants from 39 studies were included. Among them, there were 1,135 participants from 19 studies on diaphragm, 259 participants from 6 studies on extra-diaphragmatic inspiratory muscles, and 560 participants from 14 studies on abdominal expiratory muscles. The ultrasonic evaluation of diaphragm and abdominal expiratory muscle thickness had a relatively typically approach, while, extra-diaphragmatic inspiratory muscles were mainly used in ICU that lack of a consistent paradigm.

Conclusion

Diaphragm and expiratory muscle ultrasound has been widely used in the assessment of respiratory muscle function. On the contrary, there is not enough evidence to assess extra-diaphragmatic inspiratory muscles by ultrasound. In addition, the thickness of the diaphragm on the hemiplegic side was lower than that on the non-hemiplegic side in stroke patients. For internal oblique muscle (IO), rectus abdominis muscle (RA), transversus abdominis muscle (TrA), and external oblique muscle (EO), most studies showed that the thickness on the hemiplegic side was lower than that on the non-hemiplegic side.Clinical Trial Registration: The protocol of this review was registered in the PROSPERO database (CRD42022352901).

Diaphragm Ultrasound in Critically Ill Patients on Mechanical Ventilation—Evolving Concepts

Mechanical ventilation (MV) is a life-saving respiratory support therapy, but MV can lead to diaphragm muscle injury (myotrauma) and induce diaphragmatic dysfunction (DD). DD is relevant because it is highly prevalent and associated with significant adverse outcomes, including prolonged ventilation, weaning failures, and mortality. The main mechanisms involved in the occurrence of myotrauma are associated with inadequate MV support in adapting to the patient’s respiratory effort (over- and under-assistance) and as a result of patient-ventilator asynchrony (PVA). The recognition of these mechanisms associated with myotrauma forced the development of myotrauma prevention strategies (MV with diaphragm protection), mainly based on titration of appropriate levels of inspiratory effort (to avoid over- and under-assistance) and to avoid PVA. Protecting the diaphragm during MV therefore requires the use of tools to monitor diaphragmatic effort and detect PVA. Diaphragm ultrasound is a non-invasive technique that can be used to monitor diaphragm function, to assess PVA, and potentially help to define diaphragmatic effort with protective ventilation. This review aims to provide clinicians with an overview of the relevance of DD and the main mechanisms underlying myotrauma, as well as the most current strategies aimed at minimizing the occurrence of myotrauma with special emphasis on the role of ultrasound in monitoring diaphragm function.

Diaphragm function in patients with sepsis and septic shock: A longitudinal ultrasound study

BACKGROUND

Previous literature on the determinants of diaphragm dysfunction in septic patients is limited. The goal of this study is to assess diaphragm dysfunction in terms of its prevalence and its potential associated factors in septic intensive care unit (ICU) patients.

METHODS

This prospective and observational study was conducted between June 2015 and July 2019. Ultrasound measures of diaphragm thickness were performed daily on septic patients. The primary outcome was the prevalence of diaphragm dysfunction at baseline and during the ICU stay. The secondary outcome was the diaphragm thickness. Possible associated factors were prospectively recorded.

RESULTS

Fifty patients were enrolled in the study. The prevalence of diaphragm dysfunction was 58%. No diaphragm atrophy was found during the ICU stay. Diaphragm dysfunction was associated with the alteration of consciousness, intra-abdominal sepsis, hypnotics and opioids, and mechanical ventilation. Administration of hypnotics, opioids, and steroids was associated with a decreased diaphragm thickening fraction. Diaphragm dysfunction had no impact on patient outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data reveal a high prevalence of diaphragm dysfunction in septic patients at the onset of sepsis. Administration of hypnotics, opioids, and steroids was associated with the alteration of diaphragm function as well as intra-abdominal sepsis.

New International Guidelines and Consensus on the Use of Lung Ultrasound

Following the innovations and new discoveries of the last 10 years in the field of lung ultrasound (LUS), a multidisciplinary panel of international LUS experts from six countries and from different fields (clinical and technical) reviewed and updated the original international consensus for point-of-care LUS, dated 2012. As a result, a total of 20 statements have been produced. Each statement is complemented by guidelines and future developments proposals. The statements are furthermore classified based on their nature as technical (5), clinical (11), educational (3), and safety (1) statements.

Conservative rehabilitation therapy for respiratory dysfunction due to phrenic nerve sacrifice during resection of massive mediastinal tumor.. [DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2423006/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0]

Background: Cases of respiratory dysfunction due to phrenic nerve sacrifice during resection of massive mediastinal tumor have rarely been studied in detail. Diaphragmatic dysfunction in such cases can lead to potentially fatal respiratory and circulatory disturbances. Therefore, timely diagnosis and intervention are important. Conservative rehabilitation therapy is the first choice for respiratory dysfunction due to diaphragmatic dysfunction. Case presentation: We present three patients with respiratory dysfunction due to phrenic nerve sacrifice during resection of massive mediastinal tumor. The diagnostic methods and therapeutic procedures for diaphragmatic dysfunction for each patient are described in detail. This study highlights the role of ventilator support combined with physical therapy in the treatment of respiratory dysfunction in such cases. The diagnosis of diaphragmatic dysfunction as well as the risk assessment of phrenic nerve involvement are also discussed. The modalities of ventilator support, including modes and parameters, are listed. Conclusions: This study provides experiences of diagnosis and treatment of respiratory dysfunction due to phrenic nerve sacrifice during resection of massive mediastinal tumor. Timely diagnosis of diaphragmatic dysfunction primarily relies on clinical manifestations and radiography. Conservative rehabilitation therapy can improve or restore diaphragmatic function in majority of patients, and avert or delay the need for surgical intervention. Preoperative assessment of the risk of phrenic nerve involvement is important in such cases.

The effect of steroid administration on fetal diaphragm function

Background

Antenatal steroid administrations lead to not only accelerated lung maturation, improved blood gas measurements but also lung dynamics and lung compliance. This study aimed to investigate structural and functional changes in diaphragm after antenatal steroid administration.

Methods

The 79 volunteers were divided into 2 groups according to presence of preterm delivery. Betamethasone (Celestone^R) 12 mg intramuscularly was routinely administered to pregnancies complicated with preterm delivery between 28th -34th weeks of gestation. Same dose was repeated 24 h later. In all patients, diaphragm thickness, diaphragmatic excursion and costophrenic angle were measured in both the inspirium and expirium stage of respiration. This is an observational cross-sectional study.

Results

Diaphragm thickness, diaphragmatic excursion and diaphragm thickening fraction parameters were improved but costophrenic angle was not different 7 days after steroid administration. Diaphragm thickness, diaphragmatic excursion and costophrenic angle changes during inspiration and expiration stage after 7 days of betamethasone treatment reflects the effect of steroid administration on diaphragm muscle. Comparisons of the differences that occur after steroid rescue protocol were done by subtracting the diaphragm thickness, diaphragmatic excursion and costophrenic angle parameters before the treatment from the diaphragm thickness, diaphragmatic excursion and costophrenic angle parameters 7 days after steroid treatment respectively.

Conclusion

Diaphragm became more mobile in patients with preterm labor, 7 days after steroid administration. This situation reflects positive effect of steroid administration on diaphragm function.

The role of diaphragmatic thickness measurement in weaning prediction and its comparison with rapid shallow breathing index: a single-center experience

Background: Acute respiratory failure (ARF) is commonly managed with invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV). The majority of the time that a patient spends on IMV is in the process of weaning. Prediction of the weaning outcome is of paramount importance, as untimely/delayed extubation is associated with a high risk of mortality. Diaphragmatic ultrasonography is a promising tool in the intensive care unit, and its utility in predicting the success of weaning remains understudied.Methods: In this prospective-observational study, we recruited 54 ARF patients on IMV, along with 50 healthy controls. During a spontaneous breathing trial, all subjects underwent diaphragmatic ultrasonography along with a rapid shallow breathing index (RSBI) assessment.Results: The mean age was 41.8±17.0 and 37.6±10.5 years among the cases and control group, respectively. Demographic variables were broadly similar in the two groups. The most common cause of ARF was obstructive airway disease. The average duration of IMV was 5.41±2.81 days. Out of 54 subjects, 45 were successfully weaned, while nine patients failed weaning. Age, body mass index, and severity of disease were similar in the successful and failed weaning patients. The sensitivity in predicting successful weaning of percent change in diaphragmatic thickness (Δtdi%) >29.71% was high (93.33%), while specificity was 66.67%. The sensitivity and specificity of mean diaphragmatic thickness (tdi) end-expiratory >0.178 cm was 60.00% and 77.78%, respectively. RSBI at 1 minute of <93.75 had an equally high sensitivity (93.33%) but a lower specificity (22.22%). Similar results were also found for RSBI measured at 5 minutes.Conclusions: During the weaning assessment, the purpose is to minimize both premature as well as delayed extubation. We found that diaphragmatic ultrasonography, in particular Δtdi%, is better than RSBI in predicting weaning outcomes.

Assessment of Diaphragm in Hemiplegic Patients after Stroke with Ultrasound and Its Correlation of Extremity Motor and Balance Function

Background: A variety of functional disorders can be caused after stroke, among which impairment of respiratory function is a frequent and serious complication of stroke patients. The aim of this study was to examine diaphragmatic function after stroke by diaphragm ultrasonography and then to apply to explore its correlation with extremity motor function and balance function of the hemiplegia patients. Methods: This cross-sectional observational study recruited 48 hemiplegic patients after stroke and 20 matched healthy participants. The data of demographic and ultrasonographic assessment of all healthy subjects were recorded, and 45 patients successfully underwent baseline data assessment in the first 48 h following admission, including post-stroke duration, stroke type, hemiplegia side, pipeline feeding, pulmonary infection, ultrasonographic assessment for diaphragm, Fugl−Meyer Motor Function Assessment Scale (FMA Scale), and Berg Balance Scale assessment. Ultrasonographic assessment parameters included diaphragm mobility under quiet and deep breathing, diaphragm thickness at end-inspiratory and end-expiratory, and calculated thickening fraction of the diaphragm. The aim was to analyze the diaphragm function of hemiplegic patients after stroke and to explore its correlation with extremity motor function and balance function. Results: The incidence of diaphragmatic dysfunction under deep breath was 46.67% in 45 hemiplegia patients after stroke at the convalescent phase. The paralyzed hemidiaphragm had major impairments, and the mobility of the hemiplegic diaphragm was significantly reduced during deep breathing (p < 0.05). Moreover, the thickness fraction of hemiplegic side was extremely diminished when contrasted with the healthy control and non-hemiplegic side (p < 0.05). We respectively compared the diaphragm mobility under deep breath on the hemiplegic and non-hemiplegic side of patients with left and right hemiplegia and found there was no significant difference between the hemiplegic side of right and left hemiplegia (p > 0.05), but the non-hemiplegic side of right hemiplegia was significantly weaker than that of left hemiplegia patients (p < 0.05). The diaphragm mobility of stroke patients under quiet breath was positively correlated with age and FMA Scale score (R2 = 0.296, p < 0.05), and significant positive correlations were found between the diaphragm mobility under deep breath and Berg Balance Scale score (R2 = 0.11, p < 0.05), diaphragm thickness at end-inspiratory and FMA Scale score (R2 = 0.152, p < 0.05), and end-expiratory thickness and FMA Scale score (R2 = 0.204, p < 0.05). Conclusions: The mobility and thickness fraction of the hemiplegic diaphragm after stroke by diaphragm ultrasonography were significantly reduced during deep breathing. Diaphragm mobility on bilateral sides of the right hemiplegia patients were reduced during deep breathing. Moreover, the hemiplegic diaphragmatic function was positively correlated with extremity motor and balance function of the hemiplegia patients.

Ultrasonography in Assessment of Respiratory Muscles Function: A Systematic Review

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential utility of respiratory muscles ultrasound (US) imaging for assessing respiratory function and identify US variables that best correlate with pulmonary parameters.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A search of 5 databases was conducted. Initially, there was no language, study design, or time frame restrictions. All studies assessing the relationship between pulmonary and US parameters were included. Two reviewers independently extracted and documented data regarding to examined population, age, gender, health condition, methodology, US, and pulmonary function measurements. All studies were qualitative synthesis.

RESULTS

A total of 1,272 participants from 31 studies were included. Diaphragm thickness, diaphragm thickening ratio, and diaphragm excursion amplitude were mainly used as US parameters. Forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume1sec, and maximal inspiratory pressure were mainly used as pulmonary parameters. The relationships between pulmonary and US parameters varied from negligible to strong (depend on examined population and methodology used). Data were not quantitatively synthesis due to high heterogeneity in terms of study design, population examined, and various pulmonary and US parameters.

CONCLUSION

A strong relationship between US measurements and pulmonary parameters was demonstrated in some studies but not others. This review confirmed that US measurements can complement spirometry, but the exact role of the US remains to be confirmed. Further studies using standardized methodology are needed to obtain more conclusive evidence on the usefulness of US for assessing respiratory function.

Minimally Invasive Diaphragm Plication for Acquired Unilateral Diaphragm Paralysis: A Systematic Review

Objective: Diaphragm paralysis is a relatively uncommon entity that can be both congenital and acquired in nature. While commonly asymptomatic, it can also cause a significant decrease in pulmonary function and reserve, particularly in patients with underlying pulmonary diseases. Our aim was to summarize the current literature regarding the minimally invasive techniques used in the surgical correction of acquired diaphragm paralysis via traditional and robotic minimally invasive approaches. Methods: We conducted a systematic review of available literature using the Cochrane methodology and reported findings according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) standards. Results: A total of 6,561 citations were identified through initial database and reference searches, of which 90 articles met the inclusion criteria for review. After further assessment, 33 appropriate full-text studies were selected for the review. Of the selected publications, the majority represented case reports and single-center retrospective studies with level of evidence 4. Only 1 level 2b study (individual cohort study) was identified, comparing minimally invasive and open approaches. Conclusions: Each of the minimally invasive approaches has its unique benefits and disadvantages, which are summarized and delineated in this article. Ultimately, no preferred method of diaphragm plication for diaphragm paralysis can be recommended at this time based on clinical data. The choice of procedure and surgical approach continues to be selected based on the surgeon's experience and preference.

COVID-19 associated phrenic nerve mononeuritis: a case series

This study characterised the hemidiaphragm elevation on 3-month interval chest X-rays (CXRs) of patients post COVID-19 pneumonia. 467 CXRs were screened; 19 (4.1%) had an elevated hemidiaphragm. There were 15 (3.2%) patients of interest with new hemidiaphragm elevation, persisting on average 7 months post COVID-19 diagnosis. Symptomatic patients underwent diaphragm ultrasound (n=12), pulmonary function test (n=10), muscle function test (n=6) and neurophysiology (n=5), investigating phrenic nerve function. Ultrasound demonstrated reduced/paradoxical diaphragmatic movements in eight; four of eight had reduced thickening fraction. Neurophysiology peripheral limb studies did not support the differential diagnoses of critical illness neuropathy/myopathy. We propose that, in selected patients, COVID-19 may cause phrenic nerve mononeuritis.

Affection of Respiratory Muscles in ALS and SMA

Respiratory dysfunction is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in motor neuron disease (MND). However, classical volitional measures of respiratory function in these patients are impeded by, e.g., bulbar paralysis or progressive disability. Diaphragm ultrasound imaging might be a valuable tool for assessing respiratory impairment, albeit different ultrasound measures have not been systematically investigated in adult MND patients and, in particular, have not yet been comparatively applied in adult patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). We hypothesized that in contrast to ALS patients, adult SMA patients show a relative sparing of diaphragm function. We retrospectively analyzed diaphragm ultrasound imaging data of 40 patients with ALS and 23 patients with SMA in comparison to a multitude of established parameters of respiratory function. Indeed, ALS patients showed more severe diaphragm dysfunction than adult SMA patients, however, diaphragm dysfunction was also common in adult SMA patients. Notably, dynamic measures of diaphragm function rather than thickness measures were impaired in ALS compared to SMA. Thus, diaphragm ultrasound imaging might be a useful tool to evaluate respiratory dysfunction in adult MND patients. Future larger and prospective studies are needed to validate our initial findings.

Myositis with prominent B-cell aggregates causing shrinking lung syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report

BACKGROUND

Shrinking lung syndrome (SLS) is a rare manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) characterized by decreased lung volumes and diaphragmatic weakness in a dyspneic patient. Chest wall dysfunction secondary to pleuritis is the most commonly proposed cause. In this case report, we highlight a new potential mechanism of SLS in SLE, namely diaphragmatic weakness associated with myositis with CD20 positive B-cell aggregates.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 51-year-old Caucasian woman was diagnosed with SLE and secondary Sjögren's syndrome based on a history of pleuritis, constrictive pericarditis, polyarthritis, photosensitivity, alopecia, oral ulcers, xerophthalmia and xerostomia. Serologies were significant for positive antinuclear antibodies, anti-SSA, lupus anticoagulant and anti-cardiolopin. Blood work revealed a low C3 and C4, lymphopenia and thrombocytopenia. She was treated with with low-dose prednisone and remained in remission with oral hydroxychloroquine. Seven years later, she developed mild proximal muscle weakness and exertional dyspnea. Pulmonary function testing revealed a restrictive pattern with small lung volumes. Pulmonary imaging showed elevation of the right hemidiaphragm without evidence of interstitial lung disease. Diaphragmatic ultrasound was suggestive of profound diaphragmatic weakness and dysfunction. Based on these findings, a diagnosis of SLS was made. Her proximal muscle weakness was investigated, and creatine kinase (CK) levels were normal. Electromyography revealed fibrillation potentials in the biceps, iliopsoas, cervical and thoracic paraspinal muscles, and complex repetitive discharges in cervical paraspinal muscles. Biceps muscle biopsy revealed dense endomysial lymphocytic aggregates rich in CD20 positive B cells, perimysial fragmentation with plasma cell-rich perivascular infiltrates, diffuse sarcolemmal upregulation of class I MHC, perifascicular upregulation of class II MHC, and focal sarcolemmal deposition of C5b-9. Treatment with prednisone 15 mg/day and oral mycophenolate mofetil 2 g/day was initiated. Shortness of breath and proximal muscle weakness improved significantly.

CONCLUSION

Diaphragmatic weakness was the inaugural manifestation of myositis in this patient with SLE. The spectrum of myologic manifestations of myositis with prominent CD20 positive B-cell aggregates in SLE now includes normal CK levels and diaphragmatic involvement, in association with SLS.

Prevalence and time-course of diaphragmatic dysfunction following lung resection: A repeated ultrasonic assessment

PURPOSE

Ultrasound (US) allows non-invasive repeated assessments of diaphragmatic excursion (DE) and thickening fraction (DTF) at the bedside, reflecting diaphragmatic dysfunction (DD). We aimed at determining the prevalence and time-course of DD following elective thoracic surgery and the association with postoperative complications.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Prospective, single-centre, observational study with consecutive patients undergoing thoracic surgery. DE/DTF were measured by two observers blinded to each other at 3 different time-points: prior to surgery, immediately after extubation and on postoperative day 3. The changes in DE/DTF of both hemi-diaphragms over time were compared according to the side (operated/non-operated) using a two-way-ANOVA. The association with postoperative complications was assessed using logistic regression.

RESULTS

Fifty patients, 60% males, aged 60 ± 15 years were included. Surgical procedures included lobectomy (n = 30), wedge-resection (n = 17) or pneumonectomy (n = 3). On the operated side, we observed a decrease in DE/DTF at D0 (-0.71 ± 0.12 mm, P < 0.05; -44 ± 30%, P < 0.05) and D3 (-0.82 ± 0.19 mm, P < 0.05; -39 ± 19%, P < 0.05) with respect to preoperative and non-operated side values over the study period. Persistent DD on the operated side was associated with an increased risk of lung infection (OR: 9.0, 95%CI [1.92-65.93], P = 0.001), ICU-admission (OR: 3.9, 95%CI [1.10-15.53], P = 0.04) according to univariate analysis and a prolonged length in hospital (OR: 1.3, 95%CI [1.1-1.7], P = 0.016) according to multivariate analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Thoracic surgery generates DD mainly observed on the operated side, which persists at least up to postoperative D3 and is associated with an increase in hospital stay.

Ultrasound evaluation of diaphragm motion in BAG-3 myofibrillar myopathy: A case report

RATIONALE

Mutations in Bcl-2-associated athanogene-3 (BAG-3) can cause a rare subtype of myofibrillar myopathies (MFMs), characterized by progressive muscle weakness, cardiomyopathy, and severe respiratory insufficiency in childhood. Little is known about diaphragmatic function in BAG-3 MFM. To our knowledge, this is the first case report of detailed evaluation of diaphragmatic function with ultrasound in BAG-3 MFM.

PATIENT CONCERN

We describe the case of a 15-year-old girl who complained of fever and shortness of breath. Diaphragmatic sonography revealed bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis. Shortness of breath progressed to respiratory failure approximately 3 months later.

DIAGNOSIS

A neurologist was consulted and genetic sequencing identified a p.Pro209Leu mutation in BAG-3, yielding diagnosis of BAG-3 MFM leading to bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis.

INTERVENTIONS

Respiratory muscle training and long-term mechanical ventilation.

OUTCOMES

It is quite unfortunate for this patient to have a poor prognosis due to the lack of effective treatment for this genetic disorder.

LESSONS

This case provides more clinical information for this rare disease which may cause severe diaphragm pathological damage leading to respiratory failure in BAG3 MFM and a future study with a systematic evaluation of a greater number of patients will be necessary to characterize this population.

Phrenic nerve paralysis and phrenic nerve reconstruction surgery

Phrenic nerve injury results in paralysis of the diaphragm muscle, the primary generator of an inspiratory effort, as well as a stabilizing muscle involved in postural control and spinal alignment. Unilateral deficits often result in exertional dyspnea, orthopnea, and sleep-disordered breathing, whereas oxygen or ventilator dependency can occur with bilateral paralysis. Common etiologies of phrenic injuries include cervical trauma, iatrogenic injury in the neck or chest, and neuralgic amyotrophy. Many patients have no identifiable etiology and are considered to have idiopathic paralysis. Diagnostic evaluation requires radiographic and pulmonary function testing, as well as electrodiagnostic assessment to quantitate the nerve deficit and determine the extent of denervation atrophy. Treatment for symptomatic diaphragm paralysis has traditionally been limited. Medical therapies and nocturnal positive airway pressure may provide some benefit. Surgical repair of the nerve injury to restore functional diaphragmatic activity, termed phrenic nerve reconstruction, is a safe and effective alternative to static repositioning of the diaphragm (diaphragm plication), in properly selected patients. Phrenic nerve reconstruction has increasingly become a standard surgical treatment for diaphragm paralysis due to phrenic nerve injury. A multidisciplinary approach at specialty referral centers combining diagnostic evaluation, surgical treatment, and rehabilitation is required to achieve optimal long-term outcomes.

Time course of the Bioelectrical Impedance Vector Analysis and muscular ultrasound in critically ill patients

PURPOSE

Several different tools have been developed to integrate the clinical and biochemical nutritional evaluations in critical care patients. Aims of this study were to evaluate the changes in the Bioelectrical Impedance Vector Analysis (BIVA) and ultrasonographic features of the diaphragm (DTee) and rectus femoris (RFCSA) during the first week of ICU stay.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ninety-six adult mechanically ventilated patients enrolled within 24 h after the admission to the ICU (T1). RFCSA and diaphragm end-expiratory thickness were measured, as well as BIVA parameters. Anthropometric data and biochemical parameters were collected. The measurements were repeated on the 3rd (T3) and 7th (T7) days of ICU stay.

RESULTS

During the study period, the phase angle significantly decreased by 21%, reactance by 27%, and resistance by 11%. Both RFCSA and DTee significantly decreased, while neither were correlated to any BIVA parameter. DTee was considerably higher in survivors vs. non-survivors.

CONCLUSIONS

Body composition is significantly modified after one week of ICU stay. BIVA may be useful in the definition of hydration state, while it does not seem to track muscle mass. Different temporal trends of specific BIVA and muscle ultrasound parameters were found in patients with high or low severity of illness.

Evaluation of diaphragm thickening by diaphragm ultrasonography: a reproducibility and a repeatability study

PURPOSE

We have focused on the two-dimensional (B-mode) and the time-motion (M-mode) analysis of the zone of apposition to determine the reliability of diaphragm ultrasonography in the clinical environment.

METHODS

Ten healthy volunteers were enrolled and studied by three operators with different skills in ultrasonography. For every volunteer, each operator acquired three images of the diaphragm for each side, both in B-mode and in M-mode. Then a fourth operator calculated the thickening fraction (TF), by means of the formula TF = (TEI - TEE)/TEE (TEI is the thickness at end inspiration and TEE the thickness at end expiration). Afterwards, intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were computed on TF to establish reproducibility and repeatability both in the B- and M-modes. A Coefficient of Repeatability or repeatability (CR) ≤ 0.3 was considered acceptable.

RESULTS

Both B-mode (CRs 0.16-0.26) and M-mode (CRs 0.10-0.15) were sufficiently repeatable to assess TF, except for the less experienced operator (CRs B-Mode 0.20-0.32). Reproducibility was moderate to good between operators with CRs much narrower for the M-Mode (0.13-0.14).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our study have shown that diaphragm ultrasound is repeatable and reproducible when carried out by a radiologist or an intensivist with a basic curriculum in ultrasonography. The method is more accurate when using the M-mode for less experienced operators, and in this case, repeatability and reproducibility are not sufficient to make clinical decisions. No TF value lower than 36% was obtained using both techniques. This suggests the existence of a cut-off value that could be used as an initial tool to discriminate healthy subjects from those affected by diaphragmatic dysfunction.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

EUDRACT 2015-004635-12.

Diaphragmatic Function Assessed by Bed Side Ultrasonography in Patients with Sepsis or Septic Shock Admitted to Intensive Care Unit

BACKGROUND: Sepsis and septic shock are major problems faced the healthcare systems all over the world every year. The ultrasound (US) is a simple, non-invasive, easily accessible technique, and showed great accuracy in diaphragm assessment. AIM: We evaluated the diaphragmatic function assessed by US in patients with sepsis and septic shock and correlated these assessments with different parameters. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A prospective observational study carried out on 30 patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) diagnosed with sepsis and/or septic shock. Both diaphragmatic excursion (DE) and thickness fraction (diaphragm thickening fraction [TDI] %) were assessed by US on admission and every 48 h along the patients’ ICU stay. RESULTS: In the current study, there was a statistically significant reverse relationship between mortality and the different diaphragmatic function parameters (DE on admission, average DE, on admission TDI%, average TDI%). On the other hand, the DE (on admission and average) showed a statistically significant reverse relation with the need and duration of mechanical ventilation (MV) while the TDI% showed a statistically significant reverse relation only with the duration of MV. Besides, there was a statistically significant direct relationship between successful weaning from MV and all the measured parameters. CONCLUSION: We proposed that the diaphragmatic function parameters (DE on admission, average DE, on admission TDI% and average TDI%) assessed by US of septic ICU patients could be used as a predictor of the need, duration, and successful weaning from MV and also as a predictor of mortality.

Ultrasound assessment of the diaphragm during the first days of mechanical ventilation compared to spontaneous respiration: a comparative study

INTRODUCTION

In critically ill patients, the diaphragm is subject to several aggressions mainly those induced by mechanical ventilation (MV). Currently, diaphragmatic ultrasound has become the most useful bedside for the clinician to evaluate diaphragm contractility.

AIM

  To examine the effects of MV on the diaphragm contractility during the first days of ventilation.

METHODS

Two groups of subjects were studied: a study group (n=30) of adults receiving MV versus a control group (n=30) of volunteers on spontaneous ventilation (SV). Using an ultrasound device, we compared the diaphragmatic thickening fraction (DTF). Secondly, we analysed the relationship between DTF and weaning.

RESULTS

comparatively to SV group, patients of MV group have a higher end expiratory diameter (EED) (2.09 ± 0.6 vs. 1.76 ± 0.32 mm, p=0.01) and a lower DTF (39.9 ± 12.5%  vs.  49.0 ± 20.5%, p=0.043). Fourteen among the 30 ventilated patients successfully weaned. No significant correlation was shown between DTF and weaning duration (Rho= - 0.464, p=0.09). A DTF value > 33% was near to be significantly associated with weaning success (OR=2; 95% CI= [1.07-3.7], p=0.05) with a sensitivity at 85.7%.

CONCLUSIONS

diaphragmatic contractility was altered from the first days of MV. A DTF value >32,7% was associated to the weaning success and that may be useful to predict successful weaning with sensitivity at 85.7%.

Diaphragmatic excursion is correlated with the improvement in exercise tolerance after pulmonary rehabilitation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

In patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), the maximum level of diaphragm excursion (DEmax) is correlated with dynamic lung hyperinflation and exercise tolerance. This study aimed to elucidate the utility of DEmax to predict the improvement in exercise tolerance after pulmonary rehabilitation (PR) in patients with COPD.

METHODS

This was a prospective cohort study. Of the 62 patients with stable COPD who participated in the outpatient PR programme from April 2018 to February 2021, 50 completed the programme. Six-minute walk distance (6MWD) was performed to evaluate exercise tolerance, and ultrasonography was performed to measure DEmax. Responders to PR in exercise capacity were defined as patients who demonstrated an increase of > 30 m in 6MWD. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was used to determine the cut-off point of DEmax to predict responses to PR.

RESULTS

Baseline levels of forced expiratory volume in 1 s, 6MWD, maximum inspiratory pressure, DEmax and quadriceps muscle strength were significantly higher, and peak dyspnoea of modified Borg (mBorg) scale score was lower in responders (n = 30) than in non-responders (n = 20) to PR (p < 0.01). In multivariate analysis, DEmax was significantly correlated with an increase of > 30 m in 6MWD. The area under the ROC curve of DEmax to predict responders was 0.915, with a sensitivity and specificity of 83% and 95%, respectively, at a cut-off value of 44.9 mm of DEmax.

CONCLUSION

DEmax could adequately predict the improvement in exercise tolerance after PR in patients with COPD.

Ultrasonographic evaluation of diaphragm thickness and excursion in patients with cervical spinal cord injury

Objective: To evaluate the diaphragm thickness and excursion in patients with cervical spinal cord injury and reliability of diaphragmatic ultrasonography.Design: A Pilot Case-Control Study.Setting: China Rehabilitation Research Center (CRRC) /Beijing BO AI Hospital.Participants: Sixty participants with cervical spinal cord injury and sixty control participants were eligible for inclusion in this study.Interventions: Ultrasonographic evaluation of the diaphragm.Outcome Measures: All demographic data were evaluated. Diaphragm thickness, thickening ratio, and diaphragm excursions were assessed at the end of quiet tidal breathing and maximal inspiration. The reliability of inter- and intra-ultrasonography operators were evaluated.Results: Diaphragm thickness was significantly higher in patients with cervical spinal cord injury than the control group (P < 0.001). Diaphragmatic excursion of the right hemidiaphragm was significantly greater in patients with cervical spinal cord injury than the control group (P < 0.001) at the end of quiet tidal breathing. No difference was found in diaphragmatic excursion between two groups (P = 0.32) at the end of maximal inspiration. No significant difference was shown between two groups in thickening ratio. Intraclass correlation coefficients of inter-and intra-ultrasonography operators for the thickness and excursions of the diaphragm were greater than 0.93.Conclusion: Compared with the control group the diaphragm in patients with cervical spinal cord injury is hypertrophied and the diaphragm excursion is greater. Ultrasound is a highly reliable tool for the evaluation of diaphragm thickness and excursion in patients with cervical spinal cord injury.Trial Registration: This trail was registered in Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (NO. ChiCTR-ROC-17010973).

Phrenic Nerve Reconstruction for Effective Surgical Treatment of Diaphragmatic Paralysis

ABSTRACT

Diaphragmatic paralysis due to phrenic nerve injury may cause orthopnea, exertional dyspnea, and sleep-disordered breathing. Phrenic nerve reconstruction may relieve symptoms and improve respiratory function. A retrospective review of 400 consecutive patients undergoing phrenic nerve reconstruction for diaphragmatic paralysis at 2 tertiary treatment centers was performed between 2007 and 2019. Symptomatic patients were identified, and the diagnosis was confirmed on radiographic evaluations. Assessment parameters included pulmonary spirometry (forced expiratory volume in 1 second and FVC), maximal inspiratory pressure, compound muscle action potentials, diaphragm thickness, chest fluoroscopy, and Short Form 36 Health Survey Questionnaire (SF-36) survey. There were 81 females and 319 males with an average age of 54 years (range, 19-79 years). The mean duration from diagnosis to surgery was 29 months (range, 1-320 months). The most common etiologies were acute or chronic injury (29%), interscalene nerve block (17%), and cardiothoracic surgery (15%). The mean improvements in forced expiratory volume in 1 second and FVC at 1 year were 10% (P < 0.01) and 8% (P < 0.05), respectively. At 2-year follow-up, the corresponding values were 22% (P < 0.05) and 18% (P < 0.05), respectively. Improvement on chest fluoroscopy was demonstrated in 63% and 71% of patients at 1 and 2-year follow-up, respectively. There was a 20% (P < 0.01) improvement in maximal inspiratory pressure, and compound muscle action potentials increased by 82% (P < 0.001). Diaphragm thickness demonstrated a 27% (P < 0.01) increase, and SF-36 revealed a 59% (P < 0.001) improvement in physical functioning. Symptomatic diaphragmatic paralysis should be considered for surgical treatment. Phrenic nerve reconstruction can achieve symptomatic relief and improve respiratory function. Increasing spirometry and improvements on Sniff from 1 to 2 years support incremental recovery with longer follow-up.

Ultrasound Evaluation of Diaphragm Force Reserve in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Rationale: Diaphragm function is a key determinant of dyspnea in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); however, it is rarely assessed in clinical practice. Lung hyperinflation can also impair diaphragm function. Ultrasound can assess the activity, function, and force reserve of the diaphragm.Objectives: To compare diaphragm activity, function, and force reserve among patients with COPD and healthy control subjects.Methods: Patients with stable COPD (n = 80) and healthy control subjects (n = 20) were enrolled (97% of them were men). Ultrasound was used to measure the thickening fraction of the diaphragm during tidal breathing and maximum volitional effort. Outcome measures were as follows: 1) the difference in diaphragm force reserve, activity, and function between patients with COPD and control subjects; 2) the correlation between lung volumes and diaphragm force reserve, activity, and function; and 3) the relationship between diaphragm force reserve and the rate of moderate to severe exacerbation of COPD.Results: The tidal thickening fraction of the diaphragm during resting breathing (TFdi-tidal) was higher in patients with COPD than in control subjects (P = 0.002); it was approximately twice as high in patients with severe COPD than in control subjects. Patients with COPD had poorer diaphragm function than control subjects as assessed by the maximal thickening fraction of the diaphragm during Muller maneuver (P < 0.01). Diaphragm force reserve ratio assessed by 1-(tidal thickening fraction of the diagphragm during resting breathing/maximal thickening fraction of the diaphragm) was lower in patients with COPD than in control subjects, and it fell with increasing Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease stages (P < 0.001); it correlated with inspiratory capacity (r = 0.46) and the body mass index, airflow obstruction, dyspnea, exercise capacity (BODE) index, a multidimensional scoring system (r = -0.49). Patients who developed exacerbation during the following 2 years had less force reserve than patients without exacerbation (P = 0.024).Conclusions: Male patients with COPD have increased diaphragm workload, impaired diaphragm function, and reduced force reserve compared with healthy subjects. Ultrasound assessment of the diaphragm in COPD provides important functional information.Clinical trial registered with the Thai Clinical Trials Registry (TCTR20160411001). Registered 31 April 5, 2016.

Diaphragm dysfunction: A comprehensive review from diagnosis to management

Although the diaphragm represents a critical component of the respiratory pump, the clinical presentations of diaphragm dysfunction are often non-specific and can be mistaken for other more common causes of dyspnoea. While acute bilateral diaphragm dysfunction typically presents dramatically, progressive diaphragm dysfunction associated with neuromuscular disorders and unilateral hemidiaphragm dysfunction may be identified incidentally or by recognising subtle associated symptoms. Diaphragm dysfunction should be considered in individuals with unexplained dyspnoea, restrictive respiratory function tests or abnormal diaphragm position on plain chest imaging. A higher index of suspicion should occur for individuals with profound orthopnoea, those who have undergone procedures in proximity to the phrenic nerve(s) or those with co-morbid conditions that are associated with diaphragm dysfunction, particularly neuromuscular disorders. A systematic approach to the evaluation of diaphragm function using non-invasive diagnostic techniques such as respiratory function testing and diaphragm imaging can often confirm a diagnosis. Neurophysiological assessment may confirm diaphragm dysfunction and assist in identifying an underlying cause. Identifying those with or at risk of respiratory failure can allow institution of respiratory support, while specific cases may also benefit from surgical plication or phrenic nerve pacing techniques. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Ultrasound diaphragmatic excursion during non-invasive ventilation in ICU: a prospective observational study

Background and Aim:

Diaphragmatic dysfunction is seen in up to 60% of critically ill patients with respiratory failure, and it is associated with worse outcomes. The functionality of the diaphragm can be studied with simple and codified bedside ultrasound evaluation. Diaphragm excursion is one of the most studied parameters. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of diaphragmatic dysfunction in critically ill non-intubated patients admitted to a general intensive care unit with acute respiratory failure.

Methods:

We collected data, including ultrasound diaphragm excursion, at 2 time points: at T0 (at the time of recruitment, just before starting NIV) and at T1 (after one hour of NIV).

Results:

A total of 47 patients were enrolled. The prevalence of diaphragm dysfunction was 42.5% (95% CI 28, 3 - 57,8). Surgical patients showed a higher incidence (relative risk of 1.97) than medical patients. Mean DE was not significantly different between NIV responders (1,35 ± 0.78 cm) and non-responders (1.21 ± 0.85 cm, p 0,6). Patients with diaphragmatic dysfunction responded positively to NIV in 60% (95% CI 36.0 - 80.9%) of cases, while patients without diaphragmatic dysfunction responded positively to the NIV trial in 70.4% (95% CI 49.8 - 86.2%) of cases (p = 0.54). Taking the use of ultrasound diaphragm excursion as a potential predictor of NIV response, the corresponding ROC curve had an area under the curve of 0.53; the best balance between sensitivity (58.1%) and specificity (62.5%) was obtained with a cut-off diaphragm excursion of 1.37 cm.

Conclusions:

Diaphragm dysfunction is particularly frequent in critically ill patients with respiratory failure. The functionality of the diaphragm can be effectively and easily tested by bedside ultrasound examination. Overall, our results point towards tentative evidence of a trend of a different response to NIV in patients with vs without diaphragmatic dysfunction. (www.actabiomedica.it)