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Oliphant MUJ, Akshinthala D, Muthuswamy SK. Establishing conditions for the generation and maintenance of estrogen receptor-positive organoid models of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2024; 26:56. [PMID: 38553763 PMCID: PMC10979603 DOI: 10.1186/s13058-024-01798-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Patient-derived organoid models of estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer would provide a much-needed tool to understand drug resistance and disease progression better. However, the establishment and long-term maintenance of ER expression, function, and response in vitro remains a significant challenge. Here, we report the development of an ER+ breast tumor organoid medium (BTOM-ER) that conserves ER expression, estrogen responsiveness, and dependence, as well as sensitivity to endocrine therapy of ER+ patient-derived xenograft organoids (PDXO). Our findings demonstrate the utility of subtype-specific culture conditions that better mimic the characteristics of the breast epithelial biology and microenvironment, providing a powerful platform for investigating therapy response and disease progression of ER+ breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael U J Oliphant
- Department of Cell Biology and Ludwig Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Dipikaa Akshinthala
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center For Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Senthil K Muthuswamy
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center For Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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2
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Szukiewicz D. Current Insights in Prolactin Signaling and Ovulatory Function. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1976. [PMID: 38396659 PMCID: PMC10889014 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25041976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) is a pleiotropic hormone released from lactotrophic cells of the anterior pituitary gland that also originates from extrapituitary sources and plays an important role in regulating lactation in mammals, as well as other actions. Acting in an endocrine and paracrine/autocrine manner, PRL regulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, thus influencing the maturation of ovarian follicles and ovulation. This review provides a detailed discussion of the current knowledge on the role of PRL in the context of ovulation and ovulatory disorders, particularly with regard to hyperprolactinemia, which is one of the most common causes of infertility in women. Much attention has been given to the PRL structure and the PRL receptor (PRLR), as well as the diverse functions of PRLR signaling under normal and pathological conditions. The hormonal regulation of the menstrual cycle in connection with folliculogenesis and ovulation, as well as the current classifications of ovulation disorders, are also described. Finally, the state of knowledge regarding the importance of TIDA (tuberoinfundibular dopamine), KNDγ (kisspeptin/neurokinin B/dynorphin), and GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) neurons in PRL- and kisspeptin (KP)-dependent regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis in women is reviewed. Based on this review, a rationale for influencing PRL signaling pathways in therapeutic activities accompanying ovulation disorders is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dariusz Szukiewicz
- Department of Biophysics, Physiology & Pathophysiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-004 Warsaw, Poland
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3
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Oliphant MU, Akshinthala D, Muthuswamy SK. Establishing conditions for the generation and maintenance of estrogen receptor-positive organoid models of breast cancer. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3341539. [PMID: 37886440 PMCID: PMC10602055 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3341539/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Patient-derived organoid models of estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer would provide a much-needed tool to understand drug resistance and disease progression better. However, the establishment and long-term maintenance of ER expression, function, and response in vitro remains a significant challenge. Here, we report the development of an ER+ breast tumor organoid medium (BTOM-ER) that conserves ER expression, estrogen responsiveness, and dependence, as well as sensitivity to endocrine therapy of ER+ patient-derived xenograft organoids (PDXO). Our findings demonstrate the utility of subtype-specific culture conditions that better mimic the characteristics of the breast epithelial biology and microenvironment, providing a powerful platform for investigating therapy response and disease progression of ER+ breast cancer.
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4
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Wang X, Chen H, Bühler K, Chen Y, Liu W, Hu J. Proteomics analysis reveals promotion effect of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 on mammary gland development and lactation of primiparous sows during gestation. J Proteomics 2022; 268:104716. [PMID: 36070816 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2022.104716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
1α,25(OH)2VD3 is the most active form of vitamin D3 in animals, and it plays an important role in regulating mineral metabolism and reproduction. In this study, 140 crossbred gilts (Landrace × Yorkshire) were selected, randomly divided into four groups, and fed with a commercial diet supplemented with 0, 1, 2, and 4 μg/kg of 1α,25(OH)2VD3 in the form of 1α,25(OH)2VD3-glycosides. The mammary gland tissues were sampled from sows on day 114 of gestation. The production data of sows in each group were analyzed, and the colostrum quality was evaluated. Differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) in the mammary tissues were identified by tandem mass tag (TMT) technique and were verified by Western blot and parallel reaction monitoring (PRM). The results showed that 4 μg/kg 1α,25(OH)2VD3-glycosides significantly promoted the piglet birth weight, weaning weight, colostrum quality, and lactation ability of primiparous sows. The proteomics analysis showed that of the identified 53,118 peptides, 48,868 were unique peptides. A total of 5029 DAPs were identified, of which 4292 DAPs contained quantitative information. Our data indicated that 1α,25(OH)2VD3 was involved in the regulation of the mammary gland development and lactation in a dose-dependent manner through multiple pathways during gestation of primiparous sows. SIGNIFICANCE: The mammary gland is an important lactation organ of female mammals. Our research aims to reveal the effect of dietary supplementation with 1α,25(OH)2VD3 on mammary gland development and lactation of primiparous sow. This study identified potential signaling pathways and DAPs involved in regulating the mammary gland development and lactation in sows. Our findings provides theoretical basis for improving the fecundity of sows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyao Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Hongshan District, No.1 Shizishan Road, Wuhan 430070, China; National Engineering and Technology Research Center for Livestock, Wuhan 430070, China; The Breeding Swine Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Haodong Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Hongshan District, No.1 Shizishan Road, Wuhan 430070, China; National Engineering and Technology Research Center for Livestock, Wuhan 430070, China; The Breeding Swine Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Kathrin Bühler
- Herbonis Animal Health GmbH, Rheinstrasse 30, CH-4302 Augst BL, Switzerland
| | - Yajing Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Hongshan District, No.1 Shizishan Road, Wuhan 430070, China; National Engineering and Technology Research Center for Livestock, Wuhan 430070, China; The Breeding Swine Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Wanghong Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Hongshan District, No.1 Shizishan Road, Wuhan 430070, China; National Engineering and Technology Research Center for Livestock, Wuhan 430070, China; The Breeding Swine Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Junyong Hu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Hongshan District, No.1 Shizishan Road, Wuhan 430070, China; National Engineering and Technology Research Center for Livestock, Wuhan 430070, China; The Breeding Swine Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430070, China
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5
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Menendez JA, Peirce SK, Papadimitropoulou A, Cuyàs E, Steen TV, Verdura S, Vellon L, Chen WY, Lupu R. Progesterone receptor isoform-dependent cross-talk between prolactin and fatty acid synthase in breast cancer. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:24671-24692. [PMID: 33335078 PMCID: PMC7803566 DOI: 10.18632/aging.202289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
Progesterone receptor (PR) isoforms can drive unique phenotypes in luminal breast cancer (BC). Here, we hypothesized that PR-B and PR-A isoforms differentially modify the cross-talk between prolactin and fatty acid synthase (FASN) in BC. We profiled the responsiveness of the FASN gene promoter to prolactin in T47Dco BC cells constitutively expressing PR-A and PR-B, in the PR-null variant T47D-Y cell line, and in PR-null T47D-Y cells engineered to stably re-express PR-A (T47D-YA) or PR-B (T47D-YB). The capacity of prolactin to up-regulate FASN gene promoter activity in T47Dco cells was lost in T47D-Y and TD47-YA cells. Constitutively up-regulated FASN gene expression in T47-YB cells and its further stimulation by prolactin were both suppressed by the prolactin receptor antagonist hPRL-G129R. The ability of the FASN inhibitor C75 to decrease prolactin secretion was more conspicuous in T47-YB cells. In T47D-Y cells, which secreted notably less prolactin and downregulated prolactin receptor expression relative to T47Dco cells, FASN blockade resulted in an augmented secretion of prolactin and up-regulation of prolactin receptor expression. Our data reveal unforeseen PR-B isoform-specific regulatory actions in the cross-talk between prolactin and FASN signaling in BC. These findings might provide new PR-B/FASN-centered predictive and therapeutic modalities in luminal intrinsic BC subtypes.
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MESH Headings
- 4-Butyrolactone/analogs & derivatives
- 4-Butyrolactone/pharmacology
- Breast Neoplasms/genetics
- Breast Neoplasms/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/genetics
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Databases, Genetic
- Fatty Acid Synthase, Type I/antagonists & inhibitors
- Fatty Acid Synthase, Type I/genetics
- Fatty Acid Synthase, Type I/metabolism
- Humans
- Interleukin-6/metabolism
- Prolactin/metabolism
- Prolactin/pharmacology
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- Protein Isoforms
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptor Cross-Talk
- Receptors, Progesterone/genetics
- Receptors, Progesterone/metabolism
- Receptors, Prolactin/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Prolactin/genetics
- Receptors, Prolactin/metabolism
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier A. Menendez
- Program Against Cancer Therapeutic Resistance (ProCURE), Metabolism and Cancer Group, Catalan Institute of Oncology, Girona, Spain
- Girona Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBGI), Girona, Spain
| | | | | | - Elisabet Cuyàs
- Program Against Cancer Therapeutic Resistance (ProCURE), Metabolism and Cancer Group, Catalan Institute of Oncology, Girona, Spain
- Girona Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBGI), Girona, Spain
| | - Travis Vander Steen
- Mayo Clinic, Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Sara Verdura
- Program Against Cancer Therapeutic Resistance (ProCURE), Metabolism and Cancer Group, Catalan Institute of Oncology, Girona, Spain
- Girona Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBGI), Girona, Spain
| | - Luciano Vellon
- Stem Cells Laboratory, Institute of Biology and Experimental Medicine (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Wen Y. Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Greenville, SC 29634, USA
| | - Ruth Lupu
- Mayo Clinic, Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
- Mayo Clinic Minnesota, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
- Mayo Clinic Cancer Center, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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Prolactin: A hormone with diverse functions from mammary gland development to cancer metastasis. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2020; 114:159-170. [PMID: 33109441 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Prolactin has a rich mechanistic set of actions and signaling in order to elicit developmental effects in mammals. Historically, prolactin has been appreciated as an endocrine peptide hormone that is responsible for final, functional mammary gland development and lactation. Multiple signaling pathways impacted upon by the microenvironment contribute to cell function and differentiation. Endocrine, autocrine and paracrine signaling are now apparent in not only mammary development, but also in cancer, and involve multiple cell types including those of the immune system. Multiple ligands agonists are capable of binding to the prolactin receptor, potentially expanding receptor function. Prolactin has an important role not only in tumorigenesis of the breast, but also in a number of hormonally responsive cancers such as prostate, ovarian and endometrial cancer, as well as pancreatic and lung cancer. Although pituitary and extra-pituitary sources of prolactin such as the epithelium are important, stromal sourced prolactin is now also being recognized as an important factor in tumor progression, all of which potentially signal to multiple cell types in the tumor microenvironment. While prolactin has important roles in milk production including calcium and bone homeostasis, in the disease state it can also affect bone homeostasis. Prolactin also impacts metastatic cancer of the breast to modulate the bone microenvironment and promote bone damage. Prolactin has a fascinating contribution in both physiologic and pathologic settings of mammals.
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Corso MC, Cortasa SA, Schmidt AR, Proietto S, Inserra PIF, Fernández MO, Di Giorgio N, Lux-Lantos V, Vitullo AD, Dorfman VB, Halperin J. Mammary gland-specific regulation of GNRH and GNRH-receptor gene expression is likely part of a local autoregulatory system in female vizcachas (Rodentia: Chinchillidae). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2020; 296:113518. [PMID: 32474048 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2020.113518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
In addition to key mammotrophic hormones such as the pituitary prolactin (PRL) and the ovarian steroids progesterone and estradiol, there are local factors that modulate the tissue dynamics of the mammary glands during pregnancy and lactation. By immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR, we found local transcription and translation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GNRH), GNRH receptor (GNRHR), PRL and PRL receptor (PRLR) in mammary glands of adult vizcachas during pregnancy and lactation. Both GNRH and GNRHR showed a lag between protein expression and gene transcription throughout the gestational period: while the highest transcription levels of these genes were recorded at early-pregnancy, the epithelial immunoexpressions of both showed their maximum during lactation. RIA results corroborated the presence of GNRH in mammary glands at all the analyzed stages and confirmed the maximum amount of this peptide in the lactating group. Significant amounts of GNRH were detected in milk samples as well. Conversely, PRL and PRLR shared similar protein and gene expression profiles, all exhibiting maximum values during lactation. GNRH peptide content in mammary glands of females with sulpiride-induced hyperprolactinemia (HP) was significantly lower than that of control females (CT). Although PRL mRNA levels remained unchanged, there was a marked increase in theα-lactalbumin (LALBA) transcription in mammary glands of HP- vs CT-females. These results suggest that after targeting mammary glands, PRL stimulates the expression of milk protein genes, but also, tempers the local expression of GNRH. Mammary gland-explantssupplemented with a GNRH analogue (GN-explants) had no differences in terms of PRLR orLALBA transcription levels compared to CT-explants, so the mammary PRLR signaling would not appear to be modulated by GNRH. Yet, mRNA expression levels of both GNRH and the GNRHR-downstream factor, EGR1, were significantly higher in GN-explants compared to that of CT which would point to a GNRH-positive feedback mechanism. In summary, the local coupled expression of GNRH, GNRHR and EGR1 in the mammary gland throughout pregnancy of vizcachas, the PRL-dependent mammary GNRH secretion as well as the GNRH positive feedback on its own transcription suggest an autocrine-paracrine regulatory mechanism and propose an active role for GNRH in mammary gland tissue remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Clara Corso
- Centro de Estudios Biomédicos Básicos, Aplicados y Desarrollo (CEBBAD), Universidad Maimónides, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina(2); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Santiago Andrés Cortasa
- Centro de Estudios Biomédicos Básicos, Aplicados y Desarrollo (CEBBAD), Universidad Maimónides, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina(2); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Alejandro Raúl Schmidt
- Centro de Estudios Biomédicos Básicos, Aplicados y Desarrollo (CEBBAD), Universidad Maimónides, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina(2); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Sofía Proietto
- Centro de Estudios Biomédicos Básicos, Aplicados y Desarrollo (CEBBAD), Universidad Maimónides, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina(2); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Pablo Ignacio Felipe Inserra
- Centro de Estudios Biomédicos Básicos, Aplicados y Desarrollo (CEBBAD), Universidad Maimónides, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina(2); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Marina Olga Fernández
- Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IByME)-CONICET, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Noelia Di Giorgio
- Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IByME)-CONICET, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Victoria Lux-Lantos
- Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IByME)-CONICET, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Alfredo Daniel Vitullo
- Centro de Estudios Biomédicos Básicos, Aplicados y Desarrollo (CEBBAD), Universidad Maimónides, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina(2); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Verónica Berta Dorfman
- Centro de Estudios Biomédicos Básicos, Aplicados y Desarrollo (CEBBAD), Universidad Maimónides, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina(2); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Julia Halperin
- Centro de Estudios Biomédicos Básicos, Aplicados y Desarrollo (CEBBAD), Universidad Maimónides, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina(2); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina.
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8
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Shin HY, Hennighausen L, Yoo KH. STAT5-Driven Enhancers Tightly Control Temporal Expression of Mammary-Specific Genes. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2019; 24:61-71. [PMID: 30328555 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-018-9418-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The de novo formation of milk-secreting mammary epithelium during pregnancy is regulated by prolactin through activation of the transcription factor STAT5, which stimulates the expression of several hundred mammary-specific genes. In addition to its key role in activating gene expression in mammary tissue, STAT5, which is ubiquitously expressed in most cell types, implements T cell-specific programs controlled by interleukins. However, the mechanisms by which STAT5 controls cell-specific genetic programs activated by distinct cytokines remain relatively unknown. Integration of data from genome-wide surveys of chromatin markers and transcription factor binding at regulatory elements may shed light on the mechanisms that drive cell-specific programs. Here, we have illustrated how STAT5 controls cell-specific gene expression through its concentration and an auto-regulatory enhancer supporting its high levels in mammary tissue. The unique genomic features of STAT5-driven enhancers or super-enhancers that regulate mammary-specific genes and their dynamic remodeling in response to pregnancy hormone levels are described. We have further provided biological evidence supporting the in vivo function of a STAT5-driven super-enhancer with the aid of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing. Finally, we discuss how the functions of mammary-specific super-enhancers are confined by the zinc finger protein, CTCF, to allow exclusive activation of mammary-specific genes without affecting common neighboring genes. This review comprehensively summarizes the molecular pathways underlying differential control of cell-specific gene sets by STAT5 and provides novel insights into STAT5-dependent mammary physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ha Youn Shin
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Lothar Hennighausen
- Laboratory of Genetics and Physiology, National Institutes of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
- BK21 PLUS Project, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, 04310, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Hyun Yoo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, 04310, Republic of Korea.
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9
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Gabrielson M, Ubhayasekera K, Ek B, Andersson Franko M, Eriksson M, Czene K, Bergquist J, Hall P. Inclusion of Plasma Prolactin Levels in Current Risk Prediction Models of Premenopausal and Postmenopausal Breast Cancer. JNCI Cancer Spectr 2018; 2:pky055. [PMID: 31360875 PMCID: PMC6649752 DOI: 10.1093/jncics/pky055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Circulating plasma prolactin is associated with breast cancer risk and may improve our ability to identify high-risk women. Mammographic density is a strong risk factor for breast cancer, but the association with prolactin is unclear. We studied the association between breast cancer, established breast cancer risk factors and plasma prolactin, and improvement of risk prediction by adding prolactin. Methods We conducted a nested case-control study including 721 breast cancer patients and 1400 age-matched controls. Plasma prolactin levels were assayed using immunoassay and mammographic density measured by STRATUS. Odds ratios (ORs) were calculated by multivariable adjusted logistic regression, and improvement in the area under the curve for the risk of breast cancer by adding prolactin to established risk models. Statistical tests were two-sided. Results In multivariable adjusted analyses, prolactin was associated with risk of premenopausal (OR, top vs bottom quintile = 1.9; 1.88 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.08 to 3.26) but not with postmenopausal breast cancer. In postmenopausal cases prolactin increased by 10.6% per cBIRADS category (Ptrend = .03). In combined analyses of prolactin and mammographic density, ORs for women in the highest vs lowest tertile of both was 3.2 (95% CI = 1.3 to 7.7) for premenopausal women and 2.44 (95% CI = 1.44 to 4.14) for postmenopausal women. Adding prolactin to current risk models improved the area under the curve of the Gail model (+2.4 units, P = .02), Tyrer-Cuzick model (+3.8, P = .02), and the CAD2Y model (+1.7, P = .008) in premenopausal women. Conclusion Circulating plasma prolactin and mammographic density appear independently associated with breast cancer risk among premenopausal women, and prolactin may improve risk prediction by current risk models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marike Gabrielson
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kumari Ubhayasekera
- Analytical Chemistry and Neurochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Bo Ek
- Analytical Chemistry and Neurochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mikael Andersson Franko
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mikael Eriksson
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kamila Czene
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jonas Bergquist
- Analytical Chemistry and Neurochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Per Hall
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Oncology, South General Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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10
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Mapes J, Li Q, Kannan A, Anandan L, Laws M, Lydon JP, Bagchi IC, Bagchi MK. CUZD1 is a critical mediator of the JAK/STAT5 signaling pathway that controls mammary gland development during pregnancy. PLoS Genet 2017; 13:e1006654. [PMID: 28278176 PMCID: PMC5363987 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In the mammary gland, genetic circuits controlled by estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin, act in concert with pathways regulated by members of the epidermal growth factor family to orchestrate growth and morphogenesis during puberty, pregnancy and lactation. However, the precise mechanisms underlying the crosstalk between the hormonal and growth factor pathways remain poorly understood. We have identified the CUB and zona pellucida-like domain-containing protein 1 (CUZD1), expressed in mammary ductal and alveolar epithelium, as a novel mediator of mammary gland proliferation and differentiation during pregnancy and lactation. Cuzd1-null mice exhibited a striking impairment in mammary ductal branching and alveolar development during pregnancy, resulting in a subsequent defect in lactation. Gene expression profiling of mammary epithelium revealed that CUZD1 regulates the expression of a subset of the EGF family growth factors, epiregulin, neuregulin-1, and epigen, which act in an autocrine fashion to activate ErbB1 and ErbB4 receptors. Proteomic studies further revealed that CUZD1 interacts with a complex containing JAK1/JAK2 and STAT5, downstream transducers of prolactin signaling in the mammary gland. In the absence of CUZD1, STAT5 phosphorylation in the mammary epithelium during alveologenesis was abolished. Conversely, elevated expression of Cuzd1 in mammary epithelial cells stimulated prolactin-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT5. Chromatin immunoprecipitation confirmed co-occupancy of phosphorylated STAT5 and CUZD1 in the regulatory regions of epiregulin, a potential regulator of epithelial proliferation, and whey acidic protein, a marker of epithelial differentiation. Collectively, these findings suggest that CUZD1 plays a critical role in prolactin-induced JAK/STAT5 signaling that controls the expression of key STAT5 target genes involved in mammary epithelial proliferation and differentiation during alveolar development. In the mammary gland, genetic circuits controlled by the hormones, estrogen, progesterone and prolactin, act in concert with pathways regulated by members of the epidermal growth factor family to orchestrate growth and morphogenesis during puberty, pregnancy and lactation. We have identified CUZD1 as a novel mediator of prolactin signaling in the steroid hormone-primed mouse mammary gland during pregnancy and lactation. Cuzd1-null mice exhibited a striking impairment in ductal branching and alveolar development during pregnancy, resulting in a subsequent defect in lactation. Administration of prolactin failed to induce proliferation of the mammary epithelium in Cuzd1-null mice. Protein binding studies revealed that CUZD1 interacts with downstream transducers of prolactin signaling, JAK1/JAK2 and STAT5. Additionally, elevated expression of Cuzd1 in mammary epithelial cells stimulated phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT5. CUZD1, therefore, is a critical mediator of prolactin that controls mammary alveolar development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janelle Mapes
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Quanxi Li
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Athilakshmi Kannan
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Lavanya Anandan
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Mary Laws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - John P. Lydon
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Indrani C. Bagchi
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
- * E-mail: (ICB); (MKB)
| | - Milan K. Bagchi
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
- * E-mail: (ICB); (MKB)
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11
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Harvey S, Martínez-Moreno CG, Luna M, Arámburo C. Autocrine/paracrine roles of extrapituitary growth hormone and prolactin in health and disease: An overview. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2015; 220:103-11. [PMID: 25448258 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL) are both endocrines that are synthesized and released from the pituitary gland into systemic circulation. Both are therefore hormones and both have numerous physiological roles mediated through a myriad of target sites and both have pathophysiological consequences when present in excess or deficiency. GH or PRL gene expression is not, however, confined to the anterior pituitary gland and it occurs widely in many of their central and peripheral sites of action. This may reflect "leaky gene" phenomena and the fact that all cells have the potential to express every gene that is present in their genome. However, the presence of GH or PRL receptors in these extrapituitary sites of GH and PRL production suggests that they are autocrine or paracrine sites of GH and PRL action. These local actions often occur prior to the ontogeny of pituitary somatotrophs and lactotrophs and they may complement or differ from the roles of their pituitary counterparts. Many of these local actions are also of physiological significance, since they are impaired by a blockade of local GH or PRL production or by an antagonism of local GH or PRL action. These local actions may also be of pathophysiological significance, since autocrine or paracrine actions of GH and PRL are thought to be causally involved in a number of disease states, particularly in cancer. Autocrine GH for instance, is thought to be more oncogenic than pituitary GH and selective targeting of the autocrine moiety may provide a therapeutic approach to prevent tumor progression. In summary, GH and PRL are not just endocrine hormones, as they have autocrine and/or paracrine roles in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Harvey
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 2H7, Canada.
| | | | - Maricela Luna
- Departamento de Neurobiología, Celular y Molecular Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Qro. 76230, Mexico
| | - Carlos Arámburo
- Departamento de Neurobiología, Celular y Molecular Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Qro. 76230, Mexico
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12
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Ji Z, Dong F, Wang G, Hou L, Liu Z, Chao T, Wang J. miR-135a Targets and Regulates Prolactin Receptor Gene in Goat Mammary Epithelial Cells. DNA Cell Biol 2015; 34:534-40. [PMID: 26102062 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2015.2904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammary gland development and lactation are typical traits controlled by multiple genes, hormones, and regulatory factors. Prolactin receptor (PRLR), a specific receptor of prolactin, has been reported to have important physiological functions in regulating mammogenesis and lactogenesis. However, the post-transcriptional regulation mechanisms of PRLR expression have not yet been shown in detail. In this study, the expression of miR-135a and PRLR at different development stages of Laoshan dairy goat mammary gland tissues was investigated. After overexpression and silencing expression of miR-135a in cultured primary mammary epithelial cells, the regulatory relationship between miR-135a and PRLR was examined through dual-luciferase reporter assay, and the expression of PRLR at both mRNA and protein levels was examined by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot. Collectively, our results suggested that PRLR is a direct target gene of miR-135a, miR-135a is a novel regulator of PRLR, and it might play an essential role in the regulation of animal mammary gland development and lactation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhibin Ji
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University , Taian, China
| | - Fei Dong
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University , Taian, China
| | - Guizhi Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University , Taian, China
| | - Lei Hou
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University , Taian, China
| | - Zhaohua Liu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University , Taian, China
| | - Tianle Chao
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University , Taian, China
| | - Jianmin Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University , Taian, China
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13
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Boulanger CA, Rosenfield SM, George AL, Smith GH. Hormone signaling requirements for the conversion of non-mammary mouse cells to mammary cell fate(s) in vivo. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2015; 20:93-101. [PMID: 26362796 PMCID: PMC4595519 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-015-9343-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammotropic hormones and growth factors play a very important role in mammary growth and differentiation. Here, hormones including Estrogen, Progesterone, Prolactin, their cognate receptors, and the growth factor Amphiregulin, are tested with respect to their roles in signaling non-mammary cells from the mouse to redirect to mammary epithelial cell fate(s). This was done in the context of glandular regeneration in pubertal athymic female mice. Our previous studies demonstrated that mammary stem cell niches are recapitulated during gland regeneration in vivo. During this process, cells of exogenous origin cooperate with mammary epithelial cells to form mammary stem cell niches and thus respond to normal developmental signals. In all cases tested with the possible exception of estrogen receptor alpha (ER-α), hormone signaling is dispensable for non-mammary cells to undertake mammary epithelial cell fate(s), proliferate, and contribute progeny to chimeric mammary outgrowths. Importantly, redirected non-mammary cell progeny, regardless of their source, have the ability to self-renew and contribute offspring to secondary mammary outgrowths derived from transplanted chimeric mammary fragments; thus suggesting that some of these cells are capable of mammary stem cell/progenitor functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne A Boulanger
- Mammary Stem Cell Biology Section, BRL, CCR, NCI, Bldg. 37 Rm. 1122A, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Sonia M Rosenfield
- Mammary Stem Cell Biology Section, BRL, CCR, NCI, Bldg. 37 Rm. 1122A, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Andrea L George
- Mammary Stem Cell Biology Section, BRL, CCR, NCI, Bldg. 37 Rm. 1122A, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Gilbert H Smith
- Mammary Stem Cell Biology Section, BRL, CCR, NCI, Bldg. 37 Rm. 1122A, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
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14
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Epithelial Xbp1 is required for cellular proliferation and differentiation during mammary gland development. Mol Cell Biol 2015; 35:1543-56. [PMID: 25713103 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00136-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Xbp1, a key mediator of the unfolded protein response (UPR), is activated by IRE1α-mediated splicing, which results in a frameshift to encode a protein with transcriptional activity. However, the direct function of Xbp1 in epithelial cells during mammary gland development is unknown. Here we report that the loss of Xbp1 in the mammary epithelium through targeted deletion leads to poor branching morphogenesis, impaired terminal end bud formation, and spontaneous stromal fibrosis during the adult virgin period. Additionally, epithelial Xbp1 deletion induces endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the epithelium and dramatically inhibits epithelial proliferation and differentiation during lactation. The synthesis of milk and its major components, α/β-casein and whey acidic protein (WAP), is significantly reduced due to decreased prolactin receptor (Prlr) and ErbB4 expression in Xbp1-deficient mammary epithelium. Reduction of Prlr and ErbB4 expression and their diminished availability at the cell surface lead to reduced phosphorylated Stat5, an essential regulator of cell proliferation and differentiation during lactation. As a result, lactating mammary glands in these mice produce less milk protein, leading to poor pup growth and postnatal death. These findings suggest that the loss of Xbp1 induces a terminal UPR which blocks proliferation and differentiation during mammary gland development.
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15
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Brisken C, Ataca D. Endocrine hormones and local signals during the development of the mouse mammary gland. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2015; 4:181-95. [PMID: 25645332 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Most of mammary gland development occurs postnatally under the control of female reproductive hormones, which in turn interact with other endocrine factors. While hormones impinge on many tissues and trigger very complex biological responses, tissue recombination experiments with hormone receptor-deficient mammary epithelia revealed eminent roles for estrogens, progesterone, and prolactin receptor (PrlR) signaling that are intrinsic to the mammary epithelium. A subset of the luminal mammary epithelial cells expresses the estrogen receptor α (ERα), the progesterone receptor (PR), and the PrlR and act as sensor cells. These cells convert the detected systemic signals into local signals that are developmental stage-dependent and may be direct, juxtacrine, or paracrine. This setup ensures that the original input is amplified and that the biological responses of multiple cell types can be coordinated. Some key mediators of hormone action have been identified such as Wnt, EGFR, IGFR, and RANK signaling. Multiple signaling pathways such as FGF, Hedgehog, and Notch signaling participate in driving different aspects of mammary gland development locally but how they link to the hormonal control remains to be elucidated. An increasing number of endocrine factors are appearing to have a role in mammary gland development, the adipose tissue is increasingly recognized to play a role in endocrine regulation, and a complex role of the immune system with multiple different cell types is being revealed. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathrin Brisken
- ISREC - Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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16
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O'Leary KA, Shea MP, Schuler LA. Modeling prolactin actions in breast cancer in vivo: insights from the NRL-PRL mouse. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2015; 846:201-20. [PMID: 25472540 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-12114-7_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Elevated exposure to prolactin (PRL) is epidemiologically associated with an increased risk of aggressive ER+ breast cancer. To understand the underlying mechanisms and crosstalk with other oncogenic factors, we developed the NRL-PRL mouse. In this model, mammary expression of a rat prolactin transgene raises local exposure to PRL without altering estrous cycling. Nulliparous females develop metastatic, histotypically diverse mammary carcinomas independent from ovarian steroids, and most are ER+. These characteristics resemble the human clinical disease, facilitating study of tumorigenesis, and identification of novel preventive and therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen A O'Leary
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA,
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17
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Hsieh DJY, Huang CY, Pai P, Wang SGP, Tsai YL, Li CN, Kuo WW, Huang CY. Prolactin protects cardiomyocytes against intermittent hypoxia-induced cell damage by the modulation of signaling pathways related to cardiac hypertrophy and proliferation. Int J Cardiol 2014; 181:255-66. [PMID: 25531577 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.11.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/22/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Prolactin (PRL) is a multifunctional hormone that influences multiple physiological processes. It has been shown to have a protective effect on the cardiovascular system; however, the mechanisms of this effect are poorly understood. The purpose of the study was to elucidate the role of PRL in intermittent hypoxia (IH)-induced apoptosis in the cardiovascular system. METHOD AND RESULTS We established a hyperprolactinemic rat model by implanting two anterior pituitary (AP) glands into the renal capsule of male Sprague-Dawley rats. The rats were kept under normoxic conditions for 4weeks after implantation in order to reach the expression plateau of PRL in the plasma, and then treated with IH for 7 or 14days. Their hearts were then removed for histological and protein expression analyses. Cerebral cortex (CX)-grafted control rats challenged with IH displayed unique phenotypes such as a thicker heart wall, an abnormal myocardial architecture and an increased interstitial space of the left ventricle. They exhibited reduced expressions of p-JAK2, p-STAT5, cell cycle-dependent proteins (cyclin D1, cyclin E and cyclin A), IGF-IRα, PI3Kα, p-AKT and p-ERK1/2 in cardiomyocytes at 7days. CONCLUSIONS Our comprehensive analysis suggested that high plasma PRL can protect rat cardiomyocytes against IH through (1) the p-JAK2 and p-STAT5 pathways for transient cell proliferation, (2) the PI3Kα/AKT and MAPK survival pathways through IGF-I, and (3) the downregulation of IGF-II and ERK5, which inhibit cell hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Jine-Yuan Hsieh
- School of Medical Laboratory and Biotechnology, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Clinical Laboratory, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Yang Huang
- Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Peiying Pai
- Division of Cardiology, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Shyi-Gang P Wang
- Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Physiology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ying-Lan Tsai
- Athletic Training and Health Department, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Ning Li
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Wen Kuo
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Yang Huang
- Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Chinese Medical Science, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Health and Nutrition Biotechnology, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan.
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18
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Abstract
While it has been known for decades that androgen hormones influence normal breast development and breast carcinogenesis, the underlying mechanisms have only been recently elucidated. To date, most studies have focused on androgen action in breast cancer cell lines, yet these studies represent artificial systems that often do not faithfully replicate/recapitulate the cellular, molecular and hormonal environments of breast tumours in vivo. It is critical to have a better understanding of how androgens act in the normal mammary gland as well as in in vivo systems that maintain a relevant tumour microenvironment to gain insights into the role of androgens in the modulation of breast cancer development. This in turn will facilitate application of androgen-modulation therapy in breast cancer. This is particularly relevant as current clinical trials focus on inhibiting androgen action as breast cancer therapy but, depending on the steroid receptor profile of the tumour, certain individuals may be better served by selectively stimulating androgen action. Androgen receptor (AR) protein is primarily expressed by the hormone-sensing compartment of normal breast epithelium, commonly referred to as oestrogen receptor alpha (ERa (ESR1))-positive breast epithelial cells, which also express progesterone receptors (PRs) and prolactin receptors and exert powerful developmental influences on adjacent breast epithelial cells. Recent lineage-tracing studies, particularly those focussed on NOTCH signalling, and genetic analysis of cancer risk in the normal breast highlight how signalling via the hormone-sensing compartment can influence normal breast development and breast cancer susceptibility. This provides an impetus to focus on the relationship between androgens, AR and NOTCH signalling and the crosstalk between ERa and PR signalling in the hormone-sensing component of breast epithelium in order to unravel the mechanisms behind the ability of androgens to modulate breast cancer initiation and growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard A Tarulli
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories (DRMCRL)Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Lisa M Butler
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories (DRMCRL)Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Wayne D Tilley
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories (DRMCRL)Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Theresa E Hickey
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories (DRMCRL)Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
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19
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Bostanci Z, Mack RP, Lee S, Soybel DI, Kelleher SL. Paradoxical zinc toxicity and oxidative stress in the mammary gland during marginal dietary zinc deficiency. Reprod Toxicol 2014; 54:84-92. [PMID: 25088245 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2014.07.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Zinc (Zn) regulates numerous cellular functions. Zn deficiency is common in females; ∼80% of women and 40% of adolescent girls consume inadequate Zn. Zn deficiency enhances oxidative stress, inflammation and DNA damage. Oxidative stress and inflammation is associated with breast disease. We hypothesized that Zn deficiency increases oxidative stress in the mammary gland, altering the microenvironment and architecture. Zn accumulated in the mammary glands of Zn deficient mice and this was associated with macrophage infiltration, enhanced oxidative stress and over-expression of estrogen receptor α. Ductal and stromal hypercellularity was associated with aberrant collagen deposition and disorganized e-cadherin. Importantly, these microenvironmental alterations were associated with substantial impairments in ductal expansion and mammary gland development. This is the first study to show that marginal Zn deficiency creates a toxic microenvironment in the mammary gland impairing breast development. These changes are consistent with hallmarks of potential increased risk for breast disease and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeynep Bostanci
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, United States; Department of Surgery, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, United States
| | - Ronald P Mack
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, United States; Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, United States
| | - Sooyeon Lee
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, United States; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Physiology, The Pennsylvania State University, United States
| | - David I Soybel
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, United States; Department of Surgery, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, United States; Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, United States
| | - Shannon L Kelleher
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, United States; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Physiology, The Pennsylvania State University, United States; Department of Surgery, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, United States; Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, United States.
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20
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Abstract
Molecular genetics and other contemporary approaches have contributed to a better understanding of prolactin (PRL) actions at the cellular and organismal levels. In this review, several advances in knowledge of PRL actions are highlighted. Special emphasis is paid to areas of progress with consequences for understanding of human PRL actions. The impacts of these advances on future research priorities are analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson D Horseman
- Program in Systems Biology and Physiology, Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45067-0476, USA
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21
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Macias H, Hinck L. Mammary gland development. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2014; 1:533-57. [PMID: 22844349 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 484] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The mammary gland develops through several distinct stages. The first transpires in the embryo as the ectoderm forms a mammary line that resolves into placodes. Regulated by epithelial–mesenchymal interactions, the placodes descend into the underlying mesenchyme and produce the rudimentary ductal structure of the gland present at birth. Subsequent stages of development—pubertal growth, pregnancy, lactation, and involution—occur postnatally under the regulation of hormones. Puberty initiates branching morphogenesis, which requires growth hormone (GH) and estrogen, as well as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), to create a ductal tree that fills the fat pad. Upon pregnancy, the combined actions of progesterone and prolactin generate alveoli, which secrete milk during lactation. Lack of demand for milk at weaning initiates the process of involution whereby the gland is remodeled back to its prepregnancy state. These processes require numerous signaling pathways that have distinct regulatory functions at different stages of gland development. Signaling pathways also regulate a specialized subpopulation of mammary stem cells that fuel the dramatic changes in the gland occurring with each pregnancy. Our knowledge of mammary gland development and mammary stem cell biology has significantly contributed to our understanding of breast cancer and has advanced the discovery of therapies to treat this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector Macias
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
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22
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Muthuswamy SK. Autocrine prolactin: an emerging market for homegrown (prolactin) despite the imports. Genes Dev 2012; 26:2253-8. [PMID: 23070811 DOI: 10.1101/gad.204636.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) is a peptide hormone that is produced by the pituitary gland and is known to regulate lactogenic differentiation. There is a significant body of evidence that points to autocrine production of prolactin and activation of an autocrine/paracrine signaling pathway to regulate cell proliferation and migration and inhibition of cell death. This perspective highlights the recent study in the October 1, 2012, issue of Genes & Development by Chen and colleagues (pp. 2154-2168) that describes a mechanism for autocrine prolactin production and places the finding in the context of a role for prolactin in breast development and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Senthil K Muthuswamy
- Ontario Cancer Institute, Princess Margaret Hospital, Campbell Family Institute for Breast Cancer Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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23
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Chen CC, Stairs DB, Boxer RB, Belka GK, Horseman ND, Alvarez JV, Chodosh LA. Autocrine prolactin induced by the Pten-Akt pathway is required for lactation initiation and provides a direct link between the Akt and Stat5 pathways. Genes Dev 2012; 26:2154-68. [PMID: 23028142 DOI: 10.1101/gad.197343.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Extrapituitary prolactin (Prl) is produced in humans and rodents; however, little is known about its in vivo regulation or physiological function. We now report that autocrine prolactin is required for terminal mammary epithelial differentiation during pregnancy and that its production is regulated by the Pten-PI3K-Akt pathway. Conditional activation of the PI3K-Akt pathway in the mammary glands of virgin mice by either Akt1 expression or Pten deletion rapidly induced terminal mammary epithelial differentiation accompanied by the synthesis of milk despite the absence of lobuloalveolar development. Surprisingly, we found that mammary differentiation was due to the PI3K-Akt-dependent synthesis and secretion of autocrine prolactin and downstream activation of the prolactin receptor (Prlr)-Jak-Stat5 pathway. Consistent with this, Akt-induced mammary differentiation was abrogated in Prl(-/-), Prlr(-/-), and Stat5(-/-) mice. Furthermore, cells treated with conditioned medium from mammary glands in which Akt had been activated underwent rapid Stat5 phosphorylation in a manner that was blocked by inhibition of Jak2, treatment with an anti-Prl antibody, or deletion of the prolactin gene. Demonstrating a physiological requirement for autocrine prolactin, mammary glands from lactation-defective Akt1(-/-);Akt2(+/-) mice failed to express autocrine prolactin or activate Stat5 during late pregnancy despite normal levels of circulating serum prolactin and pituitary prolactin production. Our findings reveal that PI3K-Akt pathway activation is necessary and sufficient to induce autocrine prolactin production in the mammary gland, Stat5 activation, and terminal mammary epithelial differentiation, even in the absence of the normal developmental program that prepares the mammary gland for lactation. Together, these findings identify a function for autocrine prolactin during normal development and demonstrate its endogenous regulation by the PI3K-Akt pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Chung Chen
- Department of Cancer Biology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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Lee HJ, Ormandy CJ. Interplay between progesterone and prolactin in mammary development and implications for breast cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 357:101-7. [PMID: 21945475 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Revised: 08/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Progesterone and prolactin remodel mammary morphology during pregnancy by acting on the mammary epithelial cell hierarchy. The roles of each hormone in mammary development have been well studied, but evidence of signalling cross-talk between progesterone and prolactin is still emerging. Factors such as receptor activator of NFkB ligand (RANKL) may integrate signals from both hormones to orchestrate their joint actions on the epithelial cell hierarchy. Common targets of progesterone and prolactin signalling are also likely to integrate their pro-proliferative actions in breast cancer. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the interplay between progesterone and prolactin in mammary development may reveal therapeutic targets for breast cancer. This review summarises our understanding of Pg and PRL action in mammary gland development before focusing on molecular mechanisms of signalling cross-talk and the implications for breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather J Lee
- Cancer Research Program, Garvan Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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25
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Ueda EK, Huang K, Nguyen V, Ferreira M, Andre S, Walker AM. Distribution of prolactin receptors suggests an intraductal role for prolactin in the mouse and human mammary gland, a finding supported by analysis of signaling in polarized monolayer cultures. Cell Tissue Res 2011; 346:175-89. [PMID: 22081226 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-011-1253-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2011] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Despite the important role of prolactin (PRL) in mammary gland development and function, little is known about the distribution of the different forms of the prolactin receptor (PRLR) under various physiological circumstances. Here, the distribution of the long (LF) and the short (S3 in mouse) receptor common to both mice and rats was determined by immunofluorescence on frozen sections of virgin, pregnant and lactating mouse mammary gland. Myoepithelial cells were consistently and intensely stained for both receptors. For luminal cells at all stages (ducts and alveoli), a large proportion of PRLR staining was unexpectedly present on the apical face. In the non-lactating state, no basal staining of luminal cells was detectable. During lactation, a proportion of both receptors moved to the basolateral surface. In vitro, HC11 cells showed constitutive expression of LF but expression of S3 only upon the formation of adherent junctions. Tight junction formation was accelerated by incubation in pseudo-phosphorylated PRL, as measured by transepithelial resistance and the expression and placement of the tight junction protein, zonula occludens-1. Once an intact monolayer had formed, all LF and S3 receptors were apical (akin to the non-lactating state) and only apical application of PRL activated the Jak2-STAT5 and ERK pathways. By contrast, basolateral application of PRL resulted in a reduction in basal ERK phosphorylation, suggesting an involvement of a dual specificity protein phosphatase. Normal human breast samples also showed apical PRLRs. These results demonstrate important contextual aspects of PRL-PRLR interactions with implications for the analysis of the role of PRL in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric K Ueda
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Role of extracellular matrix and prolactin in functional differentiation of bovine BME-UV1 mammary epithelial cells. Pol J Vet Sci 2011; 14:433-42. [PMID: 21957738 DOI: 10.2478/v10181-011-0064-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Interactions between extracellular matrix (ECM) and epithelial cells are necessary for proper organisation and function of the epithelium. In the present study we show that bovine mammary epithelial cell line BME-UV1 cultured on ECM components, commercially available as Matrigel, constitutes a good model for studying mechanisms controlling functional differentiation of the bovine mammary gland. In contact with Matrigel BME-UV1 cells induce apicobasal polarity, and within 16 days form three dimensional (3D) acinar structures with a centrally localized hollow lumen, which structurally resemble mammary alveoli present in the functionally active mammary gland. We have shown that the 3D culture system enables a high expression and proper localisation of integrin receptors and tight junction proteins in BME-UV1 cells to be induced. This effect was not obtained in cells grown in the classical 2D culture system on plastic. Moreover, ECM highly stimulated the synthesis of one of the major milk proteins, beta-casein, even in the absence of prolactin. Our results show that contact with ECM plays an important role in the lactogenic activity of bovine MECs, however, prolactin is necessary for the efficient secretion of milk proteins.
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Shi BM, Shan AS. DietarySemen Vaccariaeenhances mammary development and lactation potential in rats. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2011.588402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Lim JH, Kim TY, Kim WH, Park JW. CAML promotes prolactin-dependent proliferation of breast cancer cells by facilitating prolactin receptor signaling pathways. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2010; 130:19-27. [DOI: 10.1007/s10549-010-1274-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 11/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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29
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Abstract
A woman's breast cancer risk is affected by her reproductive history. The hormonal milieu also influences the course of the disease. The female reproductive hormones, estrogens, progesterone, and prolactin, have a major impact on breast cancer and control postnatal mammary gland development. Analysis of hormone receptor mutant mouse strains combined with tissue recombination techniques and proteomics revealed that sequential activation of hormone signaling in the mammary epithelium is required for progression of morphogenesis. Hormones impinge on a subset of luminal mammary epithelial cells (MECs) that express hormone receptors and act as sensor cells translating and amplifying systemic signals into local stimuli. Proliferation is induced by paracrine mechanisms mediated by distinct factors at different stages. Tissue and stage specificity of hormonal signaling is achieved at the molecular level by different chromatin contexts and differential recruitment of coactivators and corepressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathrin Brisken
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), ISREC - Swiss institute for experimental cancer research, NCCR Molecular Oncology, SV2.832 Station 19, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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30
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The influence of extracellular matrix and prolactin on global gene expression profiles of primary bovine mammary epithelial cells in vitro. Anim Genet 2009; 41:55-63. [PMID: 19793270 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2052.2009.01964.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
An in vitro bovine mammosphere model was characterized for use in lactational biology studies using a functional genomics approach. Primary bovine mammary epithelial cells cultured on a basement membrane, Matrigel, formed three-dimensional alveoli-like structures or mammospheres. Gene expression profiling during mammosphere formation by high-density microarray analysis indicated that mammospheres underwent similar molecular and cellular processes to developing alveoli in the mammary gland. Gene expression profiles indicated that genes involved in milk protein and fat biosynthesis were expressed, however, lactose biosynthesis may have been compromised. Investigation of factors influencing mammosphere formation revealed that extracellular matrix (ECM) was responsible for the initiation of this process and that prolactin (Prl) was necessary for high levels of milk protein expression. CSN3 (encoding kappa-casein) was the most highly expressed casein gene, followed by CSN1S1 (encoding alphaS1-casein) and CSN2 (encoding beta-casein). Eighteen Prl-responsive genes were identified, including CSN1S1, SOCS2 and CSN2, however, expression of CSN3 was not significantly increased by Prl and CSN1S2 was not expressed at detectable levels in mammospheres. A number of novel Prl responsive genes were identified, including ECM components and genes involved in differentiation and apoptosis. This mammosphere model is a useful model system for functional genomics studies of certain aspects of dairy cattle lactation.
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Prolactin prevents chronic stress-induced decrease of adult hippocampal neurogenesis and promotes neuronal fate. J Neurosci 2009; 29:1826-33. [PMID: 19211889 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3178-08.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic exposure to stress results in a reduction of hippocampal neurogenesis and of hippocampal volume. We examined whether prolactin (PRL), a regulator of the stress response and stimulator of neurogenesis in the subventricular zone, influences neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) of chronically stressed adult C57BL/6 male mice. Chronically stressed (4 h daily immobilization for 21 d) or nonstressed mice were treated with either ovine PRL or vehicle between days 1-14. BrdU was injected daily between days 1-7 to evaluate cell survival and fate, or twice on day 21 to evaluate cell proliferation. Hippocampal cell proliferation was unchanged by either stress exposure or PRL at the end of the treatments. In contrast, the number of cells in the DG that incorporated BrdU during the first phase of the experiment and survived to the end of the experiment was decreased in vehicle-treated stressed mice compared with PRL- or vehicle-treated nonstressed control mice. Stressed animals receiving PRL had significantly more BrdU-labeled cells than vehicle-treated stressed mice at this time point. Cell fate analysis revealed a higher percentage of neurons in PRL- compared with vehicle-treated stressed mice. The results demonstrate that PRL protects neurogenesis in the DG of chronically stressed mice and promotes neuronal fate.
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Marshall AM, Pai VP, Sartor MA, Horseman ND. In vitro multipotent differentiation and barrier function of a human mammary epithelium. Cell Tissue Res 2008; 335:383-95. [PMID: 19005683 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-008-0719-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2008] [Accepted: 10/06/2008] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
As demonstrated by a variety of animal studies, barrier function in the mammary epithelium is essential for a fully functioning and differentiated gland. However, there is a paucity of information on barrier function in human mammary epithelium. Here, we have established characteristics of a polarizing differentiating model of human mammary epithelial cells capable of forming a high-resistance/low-conductance barrier in a predictable manner, viz., by using MCF10A cells on permeable membranes. Inulin flux decreased and transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) increased over the course of several days after seeding MCF10A cells on permeable membranes. MCF10A cells exhibited multipotent phenotypic differentiation into layers expressing basal and lumenal markers when placed on permeable membranes, with at least two distinct cell phenotypes. A clonal subline of MCF10A, generated by culturing stem-like cells under non-adherent conditions, also generated a barrier-forming epithelial membrane with cells expressing markers of both basal and lumenal differentiation (CD10 and MUC1, respectively). Progressive changes associated with differentiation, including wholesale inhibition of cell-cycle genes and stimulation of cell and tissue morphogenic genes, were observed by gene expression profiling. Clustering and gene ontology categorization of significantly altered genes revealed a pattern of lumenal epithelial-cell-specific differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M Marshall
- Systems Biology and Physiology Program, Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0576, USA
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33
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Arendt LM, Schuler LA. Transgenic models to study actions of prolactin in mammary neoplasia. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2008; 13:29-40. [PMID: 18219562 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-008-9073-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2007] [Accepted: 01/04/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Transgenic models to explore the role of prolactin and its interactions with other factors in mammary oncogenesis have begun to reveal the dynamic contributions of prolactin to the development and progression of this disease. Targeting prolactin to mammary epithelial cells mimics the local production of this hormone that is prominent in women, and permits studies in the absence of effects on the ovarian steroid milieu. These models have demonstrated that local production of prolactin is sufficient to induce mammary tumors after a long latency. Prolactin also can potentiate actions of other oncogenic stimuli, decreasing tumor latency and increasing incidence in several models. Augmented proliferation, without alteration of apoptosis, is a consistent feature. Pathways in addition to the well-characterized Jak2-Stat5 pathway, including ERK1/2 and Akt1/2, are implicated in these actions. These studies have also revealed a complex relationship with estrogen; while prolactin increases ERalpha expression, it does not require estrogenic ligand for lesion development, and indeed, in combination with the EGFR ligand, TGFalpha, prolactin can contribute to estrogen insensitivity. These studies highlight the utility of these models to decipher the interplay between prolactin and other oncogenic factors in breast cancer, with implications for preventative and therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Arendt
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, 2015 Linden Dr., Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Oakes SR, Rogers RL, Naylor MJ, Ormandy CJ. Prolactin regulation of mammary gland development. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2008; 13:13-28. [PMID: 18219564 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-008-9069-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2007] [Accepted: 01/02/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammary morphogenesis is orchestrated with other reproductive events by pituitary-driven changes to the systemic hormone environment, initiating the formation of a mammary ductal network during puberty and the addition of secretory alveoli during pregnancy. Prolactin is the major driver of development during pregnancy via regulation of ovarian progesterone production (in many species) and direct effects on mammary epithelial cells (in all species). Together these hormones regulate two aspects of development that are the subject of intense interest: (1) a genomic regulatory network that integrates many additional spatial and temporal cues to control gene expression and (2), the activity of a stem and progenitor cell hierarchy. Amalgamation of these two aspects will increase our understanding of cell proliferation and differentiation within the mammary gland, with clear application to our attempts to control breast cancer. Here we focus on providing an over-view of prolactin action during development of the model murine mammary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha R Oakes
- Development group, Cancer Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, 384 Victoria Street, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia
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35
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Trott JF, Vonderhaar BK, Hovey RC. Historical perspectives of prolactin and growth hormone as mammogens, lactogens and galactagogues--agog for the future! J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2008; 13:3-11. [PMID: 18204889 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-008-9064-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2007] [Accepted: 01/02/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Around 80 years ago researchers first established that the pituitary gland regulates mammary gland function as demonstrated by the ability of its extracts to promote both mammogenesis and lactogenesis in animal models. Little did they realize that in fact two hormones, prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (GH), were contributing to these effects. By the mid 1930s PRL had been purified as a distinct lactogen, while the galactopoietic effect of GH was confirmed after its purification in the 1940s. Interest in these hormones initially centered about their potential for increasing milk production, while in the latter half of the twentieth century it became obvious that these hormones also had the potential to influence mammary cancer development. During the past 50 years large strides have been made into understanding how these hormones signal to, and within, cells of the mammary gland, paralleling rapid developments in the fields of cellular and molecular biology. In compiling this review we have summarized the progress that has been made to date regarding roles for these hormones in the mammary gland, with a goal of ensuring that some of the seminal literature is not diluted or forgotten. In doing so it is clear that there are lessons to be learned from past experiences, where new methods and technologies will continue to present exciting new opportunities to revisit lingering questions regarding these fascinating hormones and this fascinating organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephine F Trott
- Lactation and Mammary Gland Biology Group, Department of Animal Science, The University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05401, USA
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36
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Exogenous prolactin stimulates mammary development and alters expression of prolactin-related genes in prepubertal gilts. J Anim Sci 2007; 83:825-32. [PMID: 15753337 DOI: 10.2527/2005.834825x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The goal of this project was to determine whether recombinant porcine (rp) prolactin (PRL) can enhance mammary development when given to pre-pubertal gilts and/or modify the expression of PRL-related genes. Crossbred gilts were injected s.c. twice daily with saline (CTRL; n = 13), 2 mg of rpPRL (4PRL; n = 13), or 4 mg of rpPRL (8PRL; n = 13) in a 2.0-mL volume for a period of 29 d, starting at 75.1 +/- 0.5 kg BW. Jugular blood samples were collected before the first injection, as well as 14 and 28 d later, and were assayed for PRL, IGF-I, and leptin. Gilts were slaughtered on d 29 of treatment, and mammary glands were collected for dissection of parenchymal and extraparenchymal tissues, and for determination of parenchymal DNA, DM, protein, and fat contents. Levels of mRNA for PRL, PRL receptor (PRL-R), and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT5A and STAT5B) were determined via real-time PCR in the mammary parenchyma, as well as levels for PRL and PRL-R in the pituitaries. Treatments did not alter plasma (P = 0.48) IGF-I. Serum concentrations of PRL at slaughter were greater (P < 0.01) in both 4PRL and 8PRL compared with CTRL, whereas at mid-treatment, they were greater (P < 0.05) only in 8PRL gilts. Parenchymal tissue weight and parenchymal DNA concentrations increased with exogenous rpPRL (P < 0.001). The percentage of protein in parenchyma increased (P < 0.001), whereas that of DM (P < 0.001), fat (P < 0.001), and the protein:DNA ratio (P < 0.05) decreased with exogenous rpPRL. Treatment differences were always observed between the 4 mg dose and CTRL, and no further differences were noted when the dose was increased to 8 mg daily. Expression levels of PRL, but not PRL-R, were decreased (P < 0.05) in anterior pituitary glands and mammary glands of treated gilts. The mRNA levels of STAT5A and STAT5B increased (P < 0.05) with exogenous rpPRL. It is evident from these data that rpPRL can stimulate mammogenesis in prepubertal gilts through hyperplasia and increased expression of PRL-related genes.
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Eyal O, Jomain JB, Kessler C, Goffin V, Handwerger S. Autocrine prolactin inhibits human uterine decidualization: a novel role for prolactin. Biol Reprod 2007; 76:777-83. [PMID: 17267700 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.106.053058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Human prolactin (PRL) and its receptor (PRLR) are markedly induced during human uterine decidualization, and large amounts of PRL are released by decidual cells as differentiation progresses. However, the role of PRL in decidualization is unknown. In order to determine whether PRL plays an autocrine role in decidualization, human uterine fibroblast cells that were decidualized in vitro with medroxyprogestrerone acetate (1 microM), estradiol (10 nM), and prostaglandin E(2) (1 microM) were exposed to exogenous PRL and/or the pure PRLR antagonist delta1-9-G129R-PRL. As measured by quantitative PCR, cells that were decidualized in the presence of exogenous PRL (0.25-2 microg/ml) expressed significantly lower levels of mRNA for the genes that encode insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1 (IGFBP1), left-right determination factor 2 (LEFTY2), PRL, decorin (DCN), and laminin alpha 1 (LAMA1), all of which are known to be induced during decidualization. These effects were blocked when the cells were exposed simultaneously to PRL and the PRLR antagonist, which confirms the specific inhibitory action of PRL on the expression of decidualization markers. In addition, cells exposed to the PRLR antagonist alone expressed higher levels of the marker gene mRNAs than cells that were decidualized in control media. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that PRL acts via an autocrine mechanism to regulate negatively the extent of differentiation (decidualization) of human uterine cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ori Eyal
- Division of Endocrinology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati School of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio 45229-3039, USA
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Howlin J, McBryan J, Martin F. Pubertal mammary gland development: insights from mouse models. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2006; 11:283-97. [PMID: 17089203 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-006-9024-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
During puberty the mammary gland develops from a rudimentary tree to a branched epithelial network of ducts which can support alveolar development and subsequent milk production during pregnancy and lactation. This process involves growth, proliferation, migration, branching, invasion, apoptosis and above all, tight regulation which allows these processes to take place simultaneously during the course of just a few weeks to create an adult gland. The process is under hormonal control and is thus coordinated with reproductive development. Mouse models, with overexpressed or knocked-out genes, have highlighted a number of pubertal mammary gland phenotypes and given significant insight into the regulatory mechanisms controlling this period of development. Here we review the published findings of the wide range of gene-manipulated mammary mouse models, documenting the common pubertal mammary gland phenotypes observed, and summarizing their contribution to our current understanding of how pubertal mammary gland development occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian Howlin
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland, and Department of Laboratory Medicine, Malmo University Hospital, Sweden
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Oakes SR, Robertson FG, Kench JG, Gardiner-Garden M, Wand MP, Green JE, Ormandy CJ. Loss of mammary epithelial prolactin receptor delays tumor formation by reducing cell proliferation in low-grade preinvasive lesions. Oncogene 2006; 26:543-53. [PMID: 16862169 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1209838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Top quartile serum prolactin levels confer a twofold increase in the relative risk of developing breast cancer. Prolactin exerts this effect at an ill defined point in the carcinogenic process, via mechanisms involving direct action via prolactin receptors within mammary epithelium and/or indirect action through regulation of other hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. We have addressed these questions by examining mammary carcinogenesis in transplants of mouse mammary epithelium expressing the SV40T oncogene, with or without the prolactin receptor, using host animals with a normal endocrine system. In prolactin receptor knockout transplants the area of neoplasia was significantly smaller (7 versus 17%; P < 0.001 at 22 weeks and 7 versus 14%; P = 0.009 at 32 weeks). Low-grade neoplastic lesions displayed reduced BrdU incorporation rate (11.3 versus 17% P = 0.003) but no change in apoptosis rate. Tumor latency increased (289 days versus 236 days, P < 0.001). Tumor frequency, growth rate, morphology, cell proliferation and apoptosis were not altered. Thus, prolactin acts directly on the mammary epithelial cells to increase cell proliferation in preinvasive lesions, resulting in more neoplasia and acceleration of the transition to invasive carcinoma. Targeting of mammary prolactin signaling thus provides a strategy to prevent the early progression of neoplasia to invasive carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- S R Oakes
- Cancer Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Abstract
Unique developmental features during puberty, pregnancy, lactation and post-lactation make the mammary gland a prime object to explore genetic circuits that control the specification, proliferation, differentiation, survival and death of cells. Steroids and simple peptide hormones initiate and carry out complex developmental programmes, and reverse genetics has been used to define the underlying mechanistic connections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lothar Hennighausen
- Laboratory of Genetics and Physiology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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Goffin V, Bernichtein S, Touraine P, Kelly PA. Development and potential clinical uses of human prolactin receptor antagonists. Endocr Rev 2005; 26:400-22. [PMID: 15814850 DOI: 10.1210/er.2004-0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
There is a large body of literature showing that prolactin (PRL) exerts growth-promoting activities in breast cancer, and possibly in prostate cancer and prostate hyperplasia. In addition, increasing evidence argues for the involvement of locally produced (autocrine) PRL, perhaps even more than pituitary-secreted (endocrine) PRL, in tumor growth. Because dopamine analogs are unable to inhibit PRL production in extrapituitary sites, alternative strategies need investigation. To that end, several PRL receptor antagonists have been developed by introducing various mutations into its natural ligands. For all but one of these analogs, the mechanism of action involves a competition with endogenous PRL for receptor binding. Such compounds are thus candidates to counteract the undesired actions of PRL, not only in tumors, but also in dopamine-resistant prolactinomas. In this review, we describe the different versions of antagonists that have been developed, with emphasis on the controversies regarding their characterization, and the limits for their potential development as a drug. The most recently developed antagonist, Delta1-9-G129R-hPRL, is the only one that is totally devoid of residual agonistic activity, meaning it acts as pure antagonist. We discuss to what extent this new molecule could be considered as a lead compound for inhibiting the actions of human PRL in the above-mentioned diseases. We also speculate on the multiple questions that could be addressed with respect to the therapeutic use of PRL receptor antagonists in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Goffin
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale Unit 584, Faculté de Médecine Necker, 156, rue de Vaugirard, 75730 Paris Cedex 15, France.
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Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) is one of a family of related hormones including growth hormone (GH) and placental lactogen (PL) that are hypothesized to have arisen from a common ancestral gene about 500 million years ago. Over 300 different functions of PRL have been reported, highlighting the importance of this pituitary hormone. PRL is also synthesized by a number of extra-pituitary tissues including the mammary gland and the uterus. Most of PRL's actions are mediated by the unmodified 23 kDa peptide, however, PRL may be modified post-translation, thereby altering its biological effects. PRL exerts these effects by binding to its receptor, a member of the class I cytokine receptor super-family. This activates a number of signaling pathways resulting in the transcription of genes necessary for the tissue specific changes induced by PRL. Mouse knockout models of the major forms of the PRL receptor have confirmed the importance of PRLs role in reproduction. Further knockout models have provided insight into the importance of PRL signaling intermediates and the advent of transcript profiling has allowed the elucidation of a number of PRL target genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Harris
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia.
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Gass S, Harris J, Ormandy C, Brisken C. Using gene expression arrays to elucidate transcriptional profiles underlying prolactin function. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2003; 8:269-85. [PMID: 14973373 DOI: 10.1023/b:jomg.0000010029.85796.63] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Prolactin is an ancient hormone, with different functions in many species. The binding of prolactin to its receptor, a member of the cytokine receptor superfamily, results in the activation of different intracellular signaling pathways, such as JAK2/STAT5, MAP kinase, and PI3K/AKT. How prolactin elicits so many different biological responses remains unclear. Recently, microarray technology has been applied to identify prolactin target genes in different systems. Here, we attempt to summarize and compare the available data. Our comparison of the genes reported to be transcriptionally regulated by prolactin indicates that there are few genes in common between the different tissues. Among the organs studied, mammary and prostate glands displayed the largest number of overlaps in putative prolactin target genes. Some of the candidates have been implicated in tumorigenesis. The relevance and validation of microarray data, as well as comparison of the results obtained by different groups, will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Gass
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, National Center of Competence in Research Molecular Oncology, Epalinges s/Lausanne, Switzerland
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