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Bilal U, de Castro CP, Alfaro T, Barrientos-Gutierrez T, Barreto ML, Leveau CM, Martinez-Folgar K, Miranda JJ, Montes F, Mullachery P, Pina MF, Rodriguez DA, dos Santos GF, Andrade RFS, Diez Roux AV. Scaling of mortality in 742 metropolitan areas of the Americas. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabl6325. [PMID: 34878846 PMCID: PMC8654292 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abl6325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
We explored how mortality scales with city population size using vital registration and population data from 742 cities in 10 Latin American countries and the United States. We found that more populated cities had lower mortality (sublinear scaling), driven by a sublinear pattern in U.S. cities, while Latin American cities had similar mortality across city sizes. Sexually transmitted infections and homicides showed higher rates in larger cities (superlinear scaling). Tuberculosis mortality behaved sublinearly in U.S. and Mexican cities and superlinearly in other Latin American cities. Other communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional deaths, and deaths due to noncommunicable diseases were generally sublinear in the United States and linear or superlinear in Latin America. Our findings reveal distinct patterns across the Americas, suggesting no universal relation between city size and mortality, pointing to the importance of understanding the processes that explain heterogeneity in scaling behavior or mortality to further advance urban health policies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usama Bilal
- Urban Health Collaborative, Drexel Dornsife School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Drexel Dornsife School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Caio P. de Castro
- Center for Data and Knowledge Integration for Health (CIDACS), Fiocruz, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- Institute of Physics, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Tania Alfaro
- Escuela de Salud Pública, Universidad de Chile, Santiago de Chile, Chile
| | | | - Mauricio L. Barreto
- Center for Data and Knowledge Integration for Health (CIDACS), Fiocruz, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- Institute of Collective Health, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Carlos M. Leveau
- Instituto de Producción, Economía y Trabajo, Universidad Nacional de Lanús, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Kevin Martinez-Folgar
- Urban Health Collaborative, Drexel Dornsife School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Drexel Dornsife School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - J. Jaime Miranda
- CRONICAS Centre of Excellence in Chronic Diseases, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- School of Medicine, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Felipe Montes
- Department of Industrial Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Pricila Mullachery
- Urban Health Collaborative, Drexel Dornsife School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Maria Fatima Pina
- Institute for Information and Communication on Health—ICICT/FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- i3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Porto, Portugal
| | - Daniel A. Rodriguez
- Department of City and Regional Planning, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Gervasio F. dos Santos
- Center for Data and Knowledge Integration for Health (CIDACS), Fiocruz, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- Economics Faculty, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Roberto F. S. Andrade
- Center for Data and Knowledge Integration for Health (CIDACS), Fiocruz, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- Institute of Physics, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Ana V. Diez Roux
- Urban Health Collaborative, Drexel Dornsife School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Drexel Dornsife School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Woodruff RSY, Miner MC, Miramontes R. Development of a Surveillance Definition for United States-Mexico Binational Cases of Tuberculosis. Public Health Rep 2019; 133:155-162. [PMID: 29570435 DOI: 10.1177/0033354918760575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Consistently collected binational surveillance data are important in advocating for resources to manage and treat binational cases of tuberculosis (TB). The objective of this study was to develop a surveillance definition for binational (United States-Mexico) cases of TB to assess the burden on US TB program resources. METHODS We collaborated with state and local TB program staff members in the United States to identify characteristics associated with binational cases of TB. We collected data on all cases of TB from 9 pilot sites in 5 states (Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas) during January 1-June 30, 2014, that had at least 1 binational characteristic (eg, "crossed border while on TB treatment" and "received treatment in another country, coordinated by an established, US-funded, binational TB program"). A workgroup of US state, local, and federal partners reviewed results and used them to develop a practical surveillance definition. RESULTS The pilot sites reported 87 cases of TB with at least 1 binational characteristic during the project period. The workgroup drafted a proposed surveillance definition to include 2 binational characteristics: "crossed border while on TB treatment" (34 of 87 cases, 39%) and "received treatment in another country, coordinated by an established, US-funded, binational TB program" (26 of 87 cases, 30%). Applying the new proposed definition, 39 of 87 pilot cases of TB (45%) met the definition of binational. CONCLUSION Input from partners who were responsible for the care and treatment of patients who cross the United States-Mexico border was crucial in defining a binational case of TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel S Yelk Woodruff
- 1 Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mark C Miner
- 1 Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Roque Miramontes
- 1 Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Readhead A, Chang AH, Ghosh JK, Sorvillo F, Detels R, Higashi J. Challenges and solutions to estimating tuberculosis disease incidence by country of birth in Los Angeles County. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0209051. [PMID: 30562366 PMCID: PMC6298681 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Among U.S. residents, tuberculosis (TB) disease disproportionally affects non-U.S.-born persons and varies substantially by country of birth. Yet TB disease incidence rates by country of birth are not routinely reported despite these large, known health disparities. This is in part due to the technical challenges of using standard regression analysis with a communicable disease. Here, we estimate tuberculosis disease incidence rates by country of birth and demonstrate methods for overcoming these challenges using TB surveillance data from Los Angeles County which has more than 3.5 million non-U.S.-born residents. Methods Cross-sectional data on 5,447 cases of TB disease from Los Angeles County were combined with population estimates from the American Community Survey to calculate TB disease incidence rates for 2005 through 2011. Adjusted incidence rates were modelled using Poisson and negative binomial regressions. Bayesian models were used to account for the uncertainty in population estimates. Results The unadjusted incidence rate among non-U.S.-born persons was 15 per 100,000 person-years in contrast to the rate among U.S-born persons, 2 per 100,000. The unadjusted incidence rates were 44 and 12 per 100,000 person-years among persons born in the Philippines and Mexico, respectively. In adjusted analysis, persons born in the Philippines were 2.6 (95% CI: 2.3–3.1) times as likely to be reported as a TB case than persons born in Mexico. Bayesian models showed similar results. Conclusion This study confirms substantial disparities in TB disease by country of birth in Los Angeles County. Accounting for age, gender, years in residence and year of diagnosis, persons from the Philippines, Vietnam and several other countries had much higher rates of reported TB disease than other foreign countries. We demonstrated that incidence rates by country of birth can be estimated using available data despite technical challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Readhead
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Alicia H. Chang
- TB Control Program, Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Jo Kay Ghosh
- Independent Researcher, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Frank Sorvillo
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Roger Detels
- Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Julie Higashi
- TB Control Program, Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
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Nnadi CD, Anderson LF, Armstrong LR, Stagg HR, Pedrazzoli D, Pratt R, Heilig CM, Abubakar I, Moonan PK. Mind the gap: TB trends in the USA and the UK, 2000-2011. Thorax 2016; 71:356-63. [PMID: 26907187 DOI: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2015-207915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND TB remains a major public health concern, even in low-incidence countries like the USA and the UK. Over the last two decades, cases of TB reported in the USA have declined, while they have increased substantially in the UK. We examined factors associated with this divergence in TB trends between the two countries. METHODS We analysed all cases of TB reported to the US and UK national TB surveillance systems from 1 January 2000 through 31 December 2011. Negative binominal regression was used to assess potential demographic, clinical and risk factor variables associated with differences in observed trends. FINDINGS A total of 259,609 cases were reported. From 2000 to 2011, annual TB incidence rates declined from 5.8 to 3.4 cases per 100,000 in the USA, whereas in the UK, TB incidence increased from 11.4 to 14.4 cases per 100,000. The majority of cases in both the USA (56%) and the UK (64%) were among foreign-born persons. The number of foreign-born cases reported in the USA declined by 15% (7731 in 2000 to 6564 in 2011) while native-born cases fell by 54% (8442 in 2000 to 3883 in 2011). In contrast, the number of foreign-born cases reported in the UK increased by 80% (3380 in 2000 to 6088 in 2011), while the number of native-born cases remained largely unchanged (2158 in 2000 to 2137 in 2011). In an adjusted negative binomial regression model, significant differences in trend were associated with sex, age, race/ethnicity, site of disease, HIV status and previous history of TB (p<0.01). Among the foreign-born, significant differences in trend were also associated with time since UK or US entry (p<0.01). INTERPRETATION To achieve TB elimination in the UK, a re-evaluation of current TB control policies and practices with a focus on foreign-born are needed. In the USA, maintaining and strengthening control practices are necessary to sustain the progress made over the last 20 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chimeremma D Nnadi
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Lori R Armstrong
- Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Helen R Stagg
- Research Department of Infection and Population Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Debora Pedrazzoli
- TB Modelling Group, TB Centre and CMMID, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London, UK
| | - Robert Pratt
- Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Charles M Heilig
- Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Ibrahim Abubakar
- Tuberculosis Section, Public Health England, London, UK Research Department of Infection and Population Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Patrick K Moonan
- Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Baker BJ, Winston CA, Liu Y, France AM, Cain KP. Abrupt Decline in Tuberculosis among Foreign-Born Persons in the United States. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0147353. [PMID: 26863004 PMCID: PMC4749239 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
While the number of reported tuberculosis (TB) cases in the United States has declined over the past two decades, TB morbidity among foreign-born persons has remained persistently elevated. A recent unexpected decline in reported TB cases among foreign-born persons beginning in 2007 provided an opportunity to examine contributing factors and inform future TB control strategies. We investigated the relative influence of three factors on the decline: 1) changes in the size of the foreign-born population through immigration and emigration, 2) changes in distribution of country of origin among foreign-born persons, and 3) changes in the TB case rates among foreign-born subpopulations. Using data from the U.S. National Tuberculosis Surveillance System and the American Community Survey, we examined TB case counts, TB case rates, and population estimates, stratified by years since U.S. entry and country of origin. Regression modeling was used to assess statistically significant changes in trend. Among foreign-born recent entrants (<3 years since U.S. entry), we found a 39.5% decline (-1,013 cases) beginning in 2007 (P<0.05 compared to 2000–2007) and ending in 2011 (P<0.05 compared to 2011–2014). Among recent entrants from Mexico, 80.7% of the decline was attributable to a decrease in population, while the declines among recent entrants from the Philippines, India, Vietnam, and China were almost exclusively (95.5%–100%) the result of decreases in TB case rates. Among foreign-born non-recent entrants (≥3 years since U.S. entry), we found an 8.9% decline (-443 cases) that resulted entirely (100%) from a decrease in the TB case rate. Both recent and non-recent entrants contributed to the decline in TB cases; factors contributing to the decline among recent entrants varied by country of origin. Strategies that impact both recent and non-recent entrants (e.g., investment in overseas TB control) as well as those that focus on non-recent entrants (e.g., expanded targeted testing of high-risk subgroups among non-recent entrants) will be necessary to achieve further declines in TB morbidity among foreign-born persons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J. Baker
- Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Carla A. Winston
- Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Yecai Liu
- Division of Global Migration and Quarantine, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Anne Marie France
- Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Kevin P. Cain
- Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya
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Latent tuberculosis infection among foreign-born persons: a prioritized approach. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2015; 11:1335. [PMID: 25343203 DOI: 10.1513/annalsats.201406-291le] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Reply: Latent Tuberculosis Infection among Foreign-Born Persons: A Prioritized Approach. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2014; 11:1336. [DOI: 10.1513/annalsats.201408-382le] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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