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Amend P, Mester P, Schmid S, Müller M, Buechler C, Pavel V. Plasma Chemerin Is Induced in Critically Ill Patients with Gram-Positive Infections. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1779. [PMID: 37509420 PMCID: PMC10376393 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11071779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemerin is a chemoattractant protein abundantly expressed in hepatocytes. Chemerin exerts pro- and anti-inflammatory effects and acts as a pro-resolving protein. Chemerin levels are low in patients with liver cirrhosis and are increased in sepsis. The aim of this study was to identify associations between plasma chemerin levels and underlying diseases as well as causes of severe illness. The cohort included 32 patients with liver cirrhosis who had low systemic chemerin, and who were not considered for further evaluation. Plasma chemerin levels were similar between the 27 patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), the 34 patients with sepsis and the 63 patients with septic shock. Chemerin in plasma correlated with C-reactive protein and leukocyte count but not with procalcitonin, a clinical marker of bacterial infection. Plasma chemerin did not differ among patients with and without ventilation and patients with and without dialysis. Vasopressor therapy was not associated with altered plasma chemerin levels. Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 had no effect on plasma chemerin levels. Baseline levels of plasma chemerin could not discriminate between survivors and non-survivors. Notably, Gram-positive infection was associated with higher chemerin levels. In summary, the current study suggests that plasma chemerin might serve as an early biomarker for the diagnosis of Gram-positive infections in patients with sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Amend
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Patricia Mester
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Schmid
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Martina Müller
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Christa Buechler
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Vlad Pavel
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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2
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Deepika G, Subbarayadu S, Chaudhary A, Sarma PVGK. Dibenzyl (benzo [d] thiazol-2-yl (hydroxy) methyl) phosphonate (DBTMP) showing anti-S. aureus and anti-biofilm properties by elevating activities of serine protease (SspA) and cysteine protease staphopain B (SspB). Arch Microbiol 2022; 204:397. [PMID: 35708833 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-022-02974-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus biofilms are the pathogenic factor in the spread of infection and are more pronounced in multidrug-resistant strains of S. aureus, where high expression of proteases is observed. Among various proteases, Serine protease (SspA) and cysteine protease Staphopain B (SspB) are known to play a key role in the biofilm formation and removal of biofilms. In earlier studies, we have reported Dibenzyl (benzo [d] thiazol-2-yl (hydroxy) methyl) phosphonate (DBTMP) exhibits anti-S. aureus and anti-biofilm properties by elevating the expression of the protease. In this study, the effect of DBTMP on the activities of SspA, and SspB of S. aureus was evaluated. The SspA and SspB genes of S. aureus ATCC12600 were sequenced (Genbank accession numbers: MZ456982 and MW574006). In S. aureus active SspA is formed by proteolytic cleavage of immature SspA, to get this mature SspA (mSspA), we have PCR amplified the mSspA sequence from the SspA gene. The mSspA and SspB genes were cloned, expressed, and characterized. The pure recombinant proteins rSspB and rmSspA exhibited a single band in SDS-PAGE with a molecular weight of 40 and 30 KD, respectively. The activities of rmSspA and rSspB are 32.33 and 35.45 Units/mL correspondingly. DBTMP elevated the activities of rmSspA and rSspB by docking with respective enzymes. This compound disrupted the biofilms formed by the multidrug-resistant strains of S. aureus and further prevented biofilm formation. These findings explain that DBTMP possesses anti-S. aureus and anti-biofilm features.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Deepika
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Venkateswara Institute of Medical Sciences, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, 517507, India
| | - S Subbarayadu
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Venkateswara Institute of Medical Sciences, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, 517507, India
| | - Abhijit Chaudhary
- Department of Microbiology, Sri Padmavati Medical College (Women), SVIMS, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, 517507, India
| | - P V G K Sarma
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Venkateswara Institute of Medical Sciences, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, 517507, India.
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3
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Abstract
The human skin is our outermost layer and serves as a protective barrier against external insults. Advances in next generation sequencing have enabled the discoveries of a rich and diverse community of microbes - bacteria, fungi and viruses that are residents of this surface. The genomes of these microbes also revealed the presence of many secretory enzymes. In particular, proteases which are hydrolytic enzymes capable of protein cleavage and degradation are of special interest in the skin environment which is enriched in proteins and lipids. In this minireview, we will focus on the roles of these skin-relevant microbial secreted proteases, both in terms of their widely studied roles as pathogenic agents in tissue invasion and host immune inactivation, and their recently discovered roles in inter-microbial interactions and modulation of virulence factors. From these studies, it has become apparent that while microbial proteases are capable of a wide range of functions, their expression is tightly regulated and highly responsive to the environments the microbes are in. With the introduction of new biochemical and bioinformatics tools to study protease functions, it will be important to understand the roles played by skin microbial secretory proteases in cutaneous health, especially the less studied commensal microbes with an emphasis on contextual relevance.
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Hammers D, Carothers K, Lee S. The Role of Bacterial Proteases in Microbe and Host-microbe Interactions. Curr Drug Targets 2021; 23:222-239. [PMID: 34370632 DOI: 10.2174/1389450122666210809094100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Secreted proteases are an important class of factors used by bacterial to modulate their extracellular environment through the cleavage of peptides and proteins. These proteases can range from broad, general proteolytic activity to high degrees of substrate specificity. They are often involved in interactions between bacteria and other species, even across kingdoms, allowing bacteria to survive and compete within their niche. As a result, many bacterial proteases are of clinical importance. The immune system is a common target for these enzymes, and bacteria have evolved ways to use these proteases to alter immune responses for their benefit. In addition to the wide variety of human proteins that can be targeted by bacterial proteases, bacteria also use these secreted factors to disrupt competing microbes, ranging from outright antimicrobial activity to disrupting processes like biofilm formation. OBJECTIVE In this review, we address how bacterial proteases modulate host mechanisms of protection from infection and injury, including immune factors and cell barriers. We also discuss the contributions of bacterial proteases to microbe-microbe interactions, including antimicrobial and anti-biofilm dynamics. CONCLUSION Bacterial secreted proteases represent an incredibly diverse group of factors that bacteria use to shape and thrive in their microenvironment. Due to the range of activities and targets of these proteases, some have been noted for having potential as therapeutics. The vast array of bacterial proteases and their targets remains an expanding field of research, and this field has many important implications for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Hammers
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Galvin Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Katelyn Carothers
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Galvin Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Shaun Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Galvin Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
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Williams MR, Cau L, Wang Y, Kaul D, Sanford JA, Zaramela LS, Khalil S, Butcher AM, Zengler K, Horswill AR, Dupont CL, Hovnanian A, Gallo RL. Interplay of Staphylococcal and Host Proteases Promotes Skin Barrier Disruption in Netherton Syndrome. Cell Rep 2021; 30:2923-2933.e7. [PMID: 32130897 PMCID: PMC7183042 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Netherton syndrome (NS) is a monogenic skin disease resulting from loss of function of lymphoepithelial Kazal-type-related protease inhibitor (LEKTI-1). In this study we examine if bacteria residing on the skin are influenced by the loss of LEKTI-1 and if interaction between this human gene and resident bacteria contributes to skin disease. Shotgun sequencing of the skin microbiome demonstrates that lesional skin of NS subjects is dominated by Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis). Isolates of either species from NS subjects are able to induce skin inflammation and barrier damage on mice. These microbes promote skin inflammation in the setting of LEKTI-1 deficiency due to excess proteolytic activity promoted by S. aureus phenol-soluble modulin α as well as increased bacterial proteases staphopain A and B from S. aureus or EcpA from S. epidermidis. These findings demonstrate the critical need for maintaining homeostasis of host and microbial proteases to prevent a human skin disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Williams
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Laura Cau
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; SILAB, R&D Department, Brive, France.
| | - Yichen Wang
- INSERM, UMR 1163, Laboratory of Genetic Skin Diseases, Imagine Institute and Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Drishti Kaul
- J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - James A Sanford
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Livia S Zaramela
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Shadi Khalil
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Anna M Butcher
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Karsten Zengler
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; Center for Microbiome Innovation, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Alexander R Horswill
- Department of Veterans Affairs Denver Health Care System, Denver, CO, USA; Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora 80045, CO, USA
| | | | - Alain Hovnanian
- INSERM, UMR 1163, Laboratory of Genetic Skin Diseases, Imagine Institute and Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Richard L Gallo
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; Center for Microbiome Innovation, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA.
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6
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Cau L, Williams MR, Butcher AM, Nakatsuji T, Kavanaugh JS, Cheng JY, Shafiq F, Higbee K, Hata TR, Horswill AR, Gallo RL. Staphylococcus epidermidis protease EcpA can be a deleterious component of the skin microbiome in atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2021; 147:955-966.e16. [PMID: 32634452 PMCID: PMC8058862 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2020.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis are the most abundant bacteria found on the skin of patients with atopic dermatitis (AD). S aureus is known to exacerbate AD, whereas S epidermidis has been considered a beneficial commensal organism. OBJECTIVE In this study, we hypothesized that S epidermidis could promote skin damage in AD by the production of a protease that damages the epidermal barrier. METHODS The protease activity of S epidermidis isolates was compared with that of other staphylococcal species. The capacity of S epidermidis to degrade the barrier and induce inflammation was examined by using human keratinocyte tissue culture and mouse models. Skin swabs from atopic and healthy adult subjects were analyzed for the presence of S epidermidis genomic DNA and mRNA. RESULTS S epidermidis strains were observed to produce strong cysteine protease activity when grown at high density. The enzyme responsible for this activity was identified as EcpA, a cysteine protease under quorum sensing control. EcpA was shown to degrade desmoglein-1 and LL-37 in vitro, disrupt the physical barrier, and induce skin inflammation in mice. The abundance of S epidermidis and expression of ecpA mRNA were increased on the skin of some patients with AD, and this correlated with disease severity. Another commensal skin bacterial species, Staphylococcus hominis, can inhibit EcpA production by S epidermidis. CONCLUSION S epidermidis has commonly been regarded as a beneficial skin microbe, whereas S aureus has been considered deleterious. This study suggests that the overabundance of S epidermidis found on some atopic patients can act similarly to S aureus and damage the skin by expression of a cysteine protease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Cau
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif; R&D Department, SILAB, Brive, France
| | - Michael R Williams
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif
| | - Anna M Butcher
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif
| | - Teruaki Nakatsuji
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif
| | - Jeffrey S Kavanaugh
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz, Medical Campus, Aurora, Colo
| | - Joyce Y Cheng
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif
| | - Faiza Shafiq
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif
| | - Kyle Higbee
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif
| | - Tissa R Hata
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif
| | - Alexander R Horswill
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz, Medical Campus, Aurora, Colo; Department of Veterans Affairs Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Aurora, Colo
| | - Richard L Gallo
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif; Center for Microbiome Innovation, University of California San Diego, San Diego, Calif.
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7
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Minasyan H, Flachsbart F. Blood coagulation: a powerful bactericidal mechanism of human innate immunity. Int Rev Immunol 2019; 38:3-17. [DOI: 10.1080/08830185.2018.1533009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hayk Minasyan
- Private laboratory, Immunology Microbiology, Yerevan, Armenia
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8
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Martínez-García S, Rodríguez-Martínez S, Cancino-Diaz ME, Cancino-Diaz JC. Extracellular proteases of Staphylococcus epidermidis: roles as virulence factors and their participation in biofilm. APMIS 2018; 126:177-185. [PMID: 29399876 DOI: 10.1111/apm.12805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococci produce a large number of extracellular proteases, some of which are considered as potential virulence factors. Staphylococcus epidermidis is a causative agent of nosocomial infections in medical devices by the formation of biofilms. It has been proposed that proteases contribute to the different stages of biofilm formation. S. epidermidis secretes a small number of extracellular proteases, such as serine protease Esp, cysteine protease EcpA, and metalloprotease SepA that have a relatively low substrate specificity. Recent findings indicate a significant contribution of extracellular proteases in biofilm formation through the proteolytic inactivation of adhesion molecules. The objective of this work is to provide an overview of the current knowledge of S. epidermidis' extracellular proteases during pathogenicity, especially in the different stages of biofilm formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Martínez-García
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Sandra Rodríguez-Martínez
- Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Mario E Cancino-Diaz
- Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Juan C Cancino-Diaz
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
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9
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Lindsay S, Oates A, Bourdillon K. The detrimental impact of extracellular bacterial proteases on wound healing. Int Wound J 2017; 14:1237-1247. [PMID: 28745010 DOI: 10.1111/iwj.12790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Revised: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to clinical signs of infection (e.g. inflammation, purulence and pain), a microbial count of ≥105 colony-forming units/g has historically been used to define wound infection. However, it is increasingly recognised that, rather than a high bioburden level alone being detrimental to wound healing, it is the virulence of the invading microorganism and the host's immune status that can affect clinical outcomes. Bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, have developed a range of virulence factors to help them overcome host defences and proliferate within the underlying soft tissue. More specifically, bacterial proteases are one such virulence factor that has been implicated in promoting the invasion and destruction of the host tissue. Because of the complexities of microorganisms, the proteases can negatively impact the wound environment, leading to delayed wound healing. The aim of the present paper is to describe various extracellular bacterial proteases; review the impact they have on the wound environment, the host immune response and biofilms; and discuss potential wound management strategies against them. The evidence discussed suggests that proteases may play a profound role in wound infections, contribute to the development of an inflammatory response and impede wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Lindsay
- Research & Development Department, Systagenix, Gargrave, UK
| | - Angela Oates
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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10
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Paharik AE, Kotasinska M, Both A, Hoang TMN, Büttner H, Roy P, Fey PD, Horswill AR, Rohde H. The metalloprotease SepA governs processing of accumulation-associated protein and shapes intercellular adhesive surface properties in Staphylococcus epidermidis. Mol Microbiol 2017; 103:860-874. [PMID: 27997732 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The otherwise harmless skin inhabitant Staphylococcus epidermidis is a major cause of healthcare-associated medical device infections. The species' selective pathogenic potential depends on its production of surface adherent biofilms. The Cell wall-anchored protein Aap promotes biofilm formation in S. epidermidis, independently from the polysaccharide intercellular adhesin PIA. Aap requires proteolytic cleavage to act as an intercellular adhesin. Whether and which staphylococcal proteases account for Aap processing is yet unknown. Here, evidence is provided that in PIA-negative S. epidermidis 1457Δica, the metalloprotease SepA is required for Aap-dependent S. epidermidis biofilm formation in static and dynamic biofilm models. qRT-PCR and protease activity assays demonstrated that under standard growth conditions, sepA is repressed by the global regulator SarA. Inactivation of sarA increased SepA production, and in turn augmented biofilm formation. Genetic and biochemical analyses demonstrated that SepA-related induction of biofilm accumulation resulted from enhanced Aap processing. Studies using recombinant proteins demonstrated that SepA is able to cleave the A domain of Aap at residue 335 and between the A and B domains at residue 601. This study identifies the mechanism behind Aap-mediated biofilm maturation, and also demonstrates a novel role for a secreted staphylococcal protease as a requirement for the development of a biofilm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra E Paharik
- Department of Microbiology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Marta Kotasinska
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Virologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Anna Both
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Virologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tra-My N Hoang
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Henning Büttner
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Virologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Paroma Roy
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Paul D Fey
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Alexander R Horswill
- Department of Microbiology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Holger Rohde
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Virologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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11
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Seed CE, Tomkins JL. Flow Cytometric Methods for Indirect Analysis and Quantification of Gametogenesis in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Chlorophyceae). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161453. [PMID: 27676075 PMCID: PMC5038954 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Induction of sexual reproduction in the facultatively sexual Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is cued by depletion of nitrogen. We explore the capacity for indirect monitoring of population variation in the gametogenic process using flow cytometry. We describe a high-throughput method capable of identifying fluorescence, ploidy and scatter profiles that track vegetative cells entering and undergoing gametogenesis. We demonstrate for the first time, that very early and late growth phases reduce the capacity to distinguish putative gametes from vegetative cells based on scatter and fluorescence profiles, and that early/mid-logarithmic cultures show the optimal distinction between vegetative cells and gamete scatter profiles. We argue that early/mid logarithmic cultures are valuable in such high throughput comparative approaches when investigating optimisation or quantification of gametogenesis based on scatter and fluorescence profiles. This approach provides new insights into the impact of culture conditions on gametogenesis, while documenting novel scatter and fluorescence profile shifts which typify the process. This method has potential applications to; enabling quick high-throughput monitoring, uses in increasing efficiency in the quantification of gametogenesis, as a method of comparing the switch between vegetative and gametic states across treatments, and as criteria for enrichment of gametic phenotypes in cell sorting assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine E. Seed
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology (M092), The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Joseph L. Tomkins
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology (M092), The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
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12
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Abstract
The definition of the heterogeneous group of coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) is still based on diagnostic procedures that fulfill the clinical need to differentiate between Staphylococcus aureus and those staphylococci classified historically as being less or nonpathogenic. Due to patient- and procedure-related changes, CoNS now represent one of the major nosocomial pathogens, with S. epidermidis and S. haemolyticus being the most significant species. They account substantially for foreign body-related infections and infections in preterm newborns. While S. saprophyticus has been associated with acute urethritis, S. lugdunensis has a unique status, in some aspects resembling S. aureus in causing infectious endocarditis. In addition to CoNS found as food-associated saprophytes, many other CoNS species colonize the skin and mucous membranes of humans and animals and are less frequently involved in clinically manifested infections. This blurred gradation in terms of pathogenicity is reflected by species- and strain-specific virulence factors and the development of different host-defending strategies. Clearly, CoNS possess fewer virulence properties than S. aureus, with a respectively different disease spectrum. In this regard, host susceptibility is much more important. Therapeutically, CoNS are challenging due to the large proportion of methicillin-resistant strains and increasing numbers of isolates with less susceptibility to glycopeptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karsten Becker
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Christine Heilmann
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Georg Peters
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
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13
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Coates R, Moran J, Horsburgh MJ. Staphylococci: colonizers and pathogens of human skin. Future Microbiol 2014; 9:75-91. [PMID: 24328382 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.13.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococci are abundant bacteria of the human skin microbiome. Several species, particularly Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, are opportunistic pathogens and cause significant disease. The human skin serves many functions and here we review its role as an antimicrobial barrier and the staphylococcal mechanisms to colonize and counteract the various stresses present in this niche. Successful colonization is achieved using a diversity of adhesins, surface proteins and secreted enzymes to counteract the antimicrobial peptides, enzymes and lipid matrix components present in the acid mantle. Further mechanisms enable these bacteria to overcome osmotic and acid stresses and desiccation in order to survive the exacting demands of an ever-changing landscape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosanna Coates
- Microbiology Research Group, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, Merseyside, L69 7ZB, UK
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14
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Xu T, Li Y, He Z, Zhou J. Dockerin-containing protease inhibitor protects key cellulosomal cellulases from proteolysis inClostridium cellulolyticum. Mol Microbiol 2014; 91:694-705. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tao Xu
- Institute for Environmental Genomics; University of Oklahoma; Norman OK 73071 USA
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology; University of Oklahoma; Norman OK 73071 USA
| | - Yongchao Li
- Institute for Environmental Genomics; University of Oklahoma; Norman OK 73071 USA
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology; University of Oklahoma; Norman OK 73071 USA
| | - Zhili He
- Institute for Environmental Genomics; University of Oklahoma; Norman OK 73071 USA
- Virtual Institute for Microbial Stress and Survival; Berkeley USA
| | - Jizhong Zhou
- Institute for Environmental Genomics; University of Oklahoma; Norman OK 73071 USA
- Virtual Institute for Microbial Stress and Survival; Berkeley USA
- Earth Sciences Division; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley CA 94720 USA
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering; Tsinghua University; Beijing 100084 China
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Puri AW, Bogyo M. Applications of small molecule probes in dissecting mechanisms of bacterial virulence and host responses. Biochemistry 2013; 52:5985-96. [PMID: 23937332 DOI: 10.1021/bi400854d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Elucidating the molecular and biochemical details of bacterial infections can be challenging because of the many complex interactions that exist between a pathogen and its host. Consequently, many tools have been developed to aid the study of bacterial pathogenesis. Small molecules are a valuable complement to traditional genetic techniques because they can be used to rapidly perturb genetically intractable systems and to monitor post-translationally regulated processes. Activity-based probes are a subset of small molecules that covalently label an enzyme of interest based on its catalytic mechanism. These tools allow monitoring of enzyme activation within the context of a native biological system and can be used to dissect the biochemical details of enzyme function. This review describes the development and application of activity-based probes for examining aspects of bacterial infection on both sides of the host-pathogen interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron W Puri
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, ‡Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and §Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine , 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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Koziel J, Potempa J. Protease-armed bacteria in the skin. Cell Tissue Res 2012; 351:325-37. [PMID: 22358849 PMCID: PMC3560952 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-012-1355-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2012] [Accepted: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The skin constitutes a formidable barrier against commensal and pathogenic bacteria, which permanently and transiently colonise the skin, respectively. Commensal and pathogenic species inhabiting skin both express proteases. Whereas proteases secreted by commensals contribute to homeostatic bacterial coexistence on skin, proteases from pathogenic bacteria are used as virulence factors, helping them colonise skin with breached integrity of the epithelial layer. From these initial sites of colonisation, pathogens can disseminate into deeper layers of skin, possibly leading to the spread of infection. Secreted bacterial proteases probably play an important role in this process and in the deterrence of innate defence mechanisms. For example, Staphylococcus aureus proteases are essential for changing the bacterial phenotype from adhesive to invasive by degrading adhesins on the bacterial cell surface. Secreted staphylococcal proteases mediate pathogen penetration by degrading collagen and elastin, essential components of connective tissue in the dermis. The activation of the contact system and kinin generation by Streptococcus pyogenes and S. aureus proteases contributes to an inflammatory reaction manifested by oedema, redness and pain. Kinin-enhanced vascular leakage might help bacteria escape into the circulation thereby causing possible systemic dissemination of the infection. The inflammatory reaction can also be fueled by the activation of protease-activated receptors on keratinocytes. Concomitantly, bacterial proteases are involved in degrading antimicrobial peptides, disarming the complement system and neutrophils and preventing the infiltration of the infected sites with immune cells by inactivation of chemoattractants. Together, this provides protection for colonising and/or invading pathogens from attack by antibacterial forces of the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Koziel
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387, Kraków, Poland.
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Sousa C, Teixeira P, Oliveira R. The role of extracellular polymers onStaphylococcus epidermidisbiofilm biomass and metabolic activity. J Basic Microbiol 2009; 49:363-70. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.200800196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Karlsson C, Mörgelin M, Collin M, Lood R, Andersson ML, Schmidtchen A, Björck L, Frick IM. SufA - a bacterial enzyme that cleaves fibrinogen and blocks fibrin network formation. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2009; 155:238-248. [PMID: 19118364 PMCID: PMC2885652 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.021311-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Finegoldia magna is a member of the normal human bacterial flora on the skin and other non-sterile body surfaces, but this anaerobic coccus is also an important opportunistic pathogen. SufA was the first F. magna proteinase to be isolated and characterized. Many bacterial pathogens interfere with different steps of blood coagulation, and here we describe how purified SufA efficiently and specifically cleaves fibrinogen in human plasma. SufA is both secreted by F. magna and associated with the bacterial surface. Successful gene targeting has previously not been performed in anaerobic cocci, but in order to study the role of the SufA that is present at the bacterial surface, we constructed an F. magna mutant that expresses a truncated SufA lacking proteolytic activity. In contrast to wild-type bacteria that delayed the coagulation of human plasma, mutant bacteria had no such effect. Wild-type and mutant bacteria adhered to keratinocytes equally well, but in a plasma environment only wild-type bacteria blocked the formation of fibrin networks surrounding adherent bacteria. The effective cleavage of fibrinogen by SufA suggests that the interference with fibrin network formation represents an adaptive mechanism of F. magna with potential implications also for pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christofer Karlsson
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B14, 221 84 Lund, Sweden
| | - Matthias Mörgelin
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B14, 221 84 Lund, Sweden
| | - Mattias Collin
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B14, 221 84 Lund, Sweden
| | - Rolf Lood
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B14, 221 84 Lund, Sweden
| | - Marie-Louise Andersson
- Division of Dermatology and Venereology, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B14, 221 84 Lund, Sweden
| | - Artur Schmidtchen
- Division of Dermatology and Venereology, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B14, 221 84 Lund, Sweden
| | - Lars Björck
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B14, 221 84 Lund, Sweden
| | - Inga-Maria Frick
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B14, 221 84 Lund, Sweden
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Ohara-Nemoto Y, Ono T, Shimoyama Y, Kimura S, Nemoto TK. Homologous and heterologous expression and maturation processing of extracellular glutamyl endopeptidase of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Biol Chem 2008; 389:1209-17. [PMID: 18783343 DOI: 10.1515/bc.2008.137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular serine endopeptidase GluSE (EC 3.4.21.19) is considered to be one of the virulence factors of Staphylococcus epidermidis. The present study investigated maturation processing of native GluSE and that heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. In addition to the 28-kDa mature protease, small amounts of proenzymes with molecular masses of 32, 30, and 29 kDa were identified in the extracellular and cell wall-associated fractions. We defined the pre (M1-A27)- and pro (K28-S66)-segments, and found that processing at the E32-S33 and D48-I49 bonds was responsible for production of the 30- and 29-kDa intermediates, respectively. The full-length form of C-terminally His-tagged GluSE was purified as three proenzymes equivalent to the native ones. These molecules possessing an entire or a part of the pro-segment were proteolytically latent and converted to a mature 28-kDa form by thermolysin cleavage at the S66-V67 bond. Mutation of the essential amino acid S235 suggested auto-proteolytic production of the 30- and 29-kDa intermediates. Furthermore, an undecapeptide (I56-S66) of the truncated pro-segment not only functions as an inhibitor of the protease but also facilitates thermolysin processing. These findings could offer clues to the molecular mechanism involved in the regulation of proteolytic activity of pathogenic proteases secreted from S. epidermidis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Ohara-Nemoto
- Department of Oral Molecular Biology, Course of Medical and Dental Sciences, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8588, Japan.
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Hafez MM, Aboulwafa MM, Yassien MA, Hassouna NA. Role of different classes of mammalian cell surface molecules in adherence of coagulase positive and coagulase negative staphylococci. J Basic Microbiol 2008; 48:353-62. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.200700402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Golonka E, Filipek R, Sabat A, Sinczak A, Potempa J. Genetic characterization of staphopain genes in Staphylococcus aureus. Biol Chem 2005; 385:1059-67. [PMID: 15576326 DOI: 10.1515/bc.2004.137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus , a leading cause of bacterial infections in humans, is endowed with a wealth of virulence factors that contribute to the disease process. Several extracellular proteolytic enzymes, including cysteine proteinases referred to as the staphopains (staphopain A, encoded by the scpA gene, and staphopain B, encoded by sspB ), have proposed roles for staphylococcal virulence. Here we present data regarding the distribution, copy number and genetic variability of the genes encoding the staphopains in a large number of S. aureus strains. The polymorphism of the scpA and sspB genes in three laboratory strains and 126 clinical isolates was analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Both genes were detected in all isolates by PCR amplification and, based on the PCR-RFLP patterns, classified as four types for scpA and six types for sspB . Those with the most divergent patterns were subjected to DNA sequencing and compared with genomic sequence data for the seven available strains of S. aureus . Southern blot analysis of the scpA and sspB sequences indicates that they are strongly conserved as single-copy genes in the genome of each S. aureus strain investigated. Taken together, these data suggest that the staphopains have important housekeeping and/or virulence functions, and therefore may constitute an interesting target for the development of therapeutic inhibitors for the treatment of staphylococcal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Golonka
- Department of Microbiology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
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