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Bekka E, Christen SE, Hermann L, Exadaktylos AK, Haschke M, Liakoni E. Residents' Knowledge regarding Recreational Drug Screening Immunoassays at a Swiss Hospital Group. Int J Anal Chem 2024; 2024:4400606. [PMID: 38938263 PMCID: PMC11208805 DOI: 10.1155/2024/4400606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction In case of suspected acute recreational drug toxicity, immunoassays are commonly used as diagnostic tools. Although easy to handle, understanding of their limitations is necessary for a correct interpretation of the results. The aim of this project was to investigate residents' knowledge regarding drug screening immunoassays at a Swiss hospital group. Methods All residents of a large hospital group in Switzerland were invited by e-mail to participate in an anonymous survey. Following ten multiple choice questions on drug screening tests, the participants were also asked about their demographics, whether they used drug screening tests on a regular basis, and how confident they felt in their ability to interpret test results. Results The ten knowledge questions were answered by 110 of the 1026 residents (11%). Among the 108 participants with available demographics, 90% were 25-35 years old, 63% were female, and 70% were at least in their 4th year of residency. The median score of correct answers was 4 out of 10 (range 0-7) and in 50% of the questions, the correct answer was the most frequently selected response. No significant differences in the knowledge scores were found based on the training, confidence level, or the frequency of drug tests used in daily work. Conclusion This survey revealed widespread knowledge gaps among residents regarding the interpretation of immunoassay-based drug test results. These findings can be used to implement educational measures on this topic and might provide a basis for targeted information on common pitfalls to be included in laboratory reports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias Bekka
- Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of General Internal Medicine, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Samuel E. Christen
- Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of General Internal Medicine, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Health Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Laura Hermann
- Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of General Internal Medicine, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Aristomenis K. Exadaktylos
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Inselspital, University Hospital Bern, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Haschke
- Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of General Internal Medicine, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Evangelia Liakoni
- Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of General Internal Medicine, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Shukla S, Khanna S, Gani Mir TU, Dalal J, Sankhyan D, Khanna K. Emerging global trends and development in forensic toxicology: A review. J Forensic Leg Med 2024; 103:102675. [PMID: 38522117 DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2024.102675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
This study conducts a comprehensive analysis of forensic toxicology research trends, publication patterns, author's contributions, and collaboration. Utilizing the Scopus database, we scrutinized 3259 articles across 348 journals spanning from 1975 to 2023. Analysis employed diverse software tools such as VOSviewer, RStudio, MS Excel, and MS Access to dissect various publication aspects. We observed a notable surge in publications post-2007, indicating heightened research interest. Leading contributors included the United States, Germany, and Italy, with Logan B.K. emerging as the most prolific author. Forensic Science International stood out as the primary journal, publishing 888 articles and accruing significant citations. Keyword co-occurrences such as "forensic toxicology," "forensic science," and "toxicology" underscored core thematic areas in the field. Moreover, extensive research collaboration, especially among Western nations in Europe, was evident. This study underscores the imperative for enhanced collaboration between developing and developed nations to foster further advancements in forensic science. Strengthened partnerships can catalyze innovation, facilitate knowledge dissemination, and address emerging challenges, thereby propelling the field of forensic toxicology toward new frontiers of discovery and application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saurabh Shukla
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, 144411, Punjab, India.
| | | | - Tahir Ul Gani Mir
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, 144411, Punjab, India
| | - Jyoti Dalal
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, 144411, Punjab, India
| | - Deeksha Sankhyan
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, 144411, Punjab, India
| | - Kushagra Khanna
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, 56000, Malaysia
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Tamama K. Dilute and shoot approach for toxicology testing. Front Chem 2023; 11:1278313. [PMID: 38146427 PMCID: PMC10749341 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2023.1278313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxicology testing is performed in clinical settings, forensic settings, and for controlling doping. Drug screening is a toxicology test to determine if drugs are present in biological samples. The most common specimen type for drug testing is urine, as drugs and/or their metabolites are often more concentrated in the urine, extending the detection window of drugs. The dilute-and-shoot method is a simple procedure used in toxicology testing, where a sample is diluted before being directly injected into the liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) system. This method is easy, quick, and cost-saving, and can be used for protein-poor liquid specimens such as urine. Thus, it is reasonable and attractive for busy toxicology laboratories to combine the dilute-and-shoot method with high-resolution hyphenated-MS for urine drug screening. This method has several disadvantages, including a suboptimal detection capability for certain analytes, as well as interference from co-eluting matrix components called matrix effects, in which co-eluting matrix molecules alter the ionization efficiency of the analyte molecules at the ionization source in LC-MS, altering (mostly reducing) the analyte detection capability. The matrix effect testing is essential for the validation of LC-MS-based assays. A reasonable approach to addressing these undesirable effects would be to minimize these components. The most straightforward approach is to reduce the amounts of matrix components by using a higher dilution of the specimen and a lower volume for specimen injection. Optimization of the chromatographic separation is another reasonable approach for reducing co-eluting matrix components with the analyte.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenichi Tamama
- Clinical Laboratories, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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Peters FT, Wissenbach D. Current state-of-the-art approaches for mass spectrometry in clinical toxicology: an overview. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2023; 19:487-500. [PMID: 37615282 DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2023.2252324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hyphenated mass spectrometry (MS) has evolved into a very powerful analytical technique of high sensitivity and specificity. It is used to analyze a very wide spectrum of analytes in classical and alternative matrices. The presented paper will provide an overview of the current state-of-the-art of hyphenated MS applications in clinical toxicology primarily based on review articles indexed in PubMed (1990 to April 2023). AREAS COVERED A general overview of matrices, sample preparation, analytical systems, detection modes, and validation and quality control is given. Moreover, selected applications are discussed. EXPERT OPINION A more widespread use of hyphenated MS techniques, especially in systematic toxicological analysis and drugs of abuse testing, would help overcome limitations of immunoassay-based screening strategies. This is currently hampered by high instrument cost, qualification requirements for personnel, and less favorable turnaround times, which could be overcome by more user-friendly, ideally fully automated MS instruments. This would help making hyphenated MS-based analysis available in more laboratories and expanding analysis to a large number of organic drugs, poisons, and/or metabolites. Even the most recent novel psychoactive substances (NPS) could be presumptively identified by high-resolution MS methods, their likely presence be communicated to treating physicians, and be confirmed later on.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank T Peters
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Daniela Wissenbach
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
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Feliu C, Konecki C, Cazaubon Y, Binet L, Vautier D, Fouley A, Gozalo C, Djerada Z. Development and Validation of a Non-Targeted Screening Method for Most Psychoactive, Analgesic, Anaesthetic, Anti-Diabetic, Anti-Coagulant and Anti-Hypertensive Drugs in Human Whole Blood and Plasma Using High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:ph16010076. [PMID: 36678573 PMCID: PMC9865759 DOI: 10.3390/ph16010076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: In toxicological laboratories, various screening methods can be used to identify compounds involved in intoxication. High-resolution mass spectrometry has been increasingly used in this context for the last years, because of its sensitivity and reliability. Here, we present the development and validation of a screening method that uses liquid chromatography coupled with a high-resolution mass spectrometer. (2) Methods: This method required only 100 µL of whole blood or plasma sample. Pretreatment consisted of a rapid and simple deproteinisation with methanol/acetonitrile and zinc sulphate. This new assay was validated according to international guidelines. (3) Results: To perform the method validation, 53 compounds were selected. The selection criteria were as follows: various chemical structures and therapeutic families (>15), large m/z distribution, positive or negative ionisation mode, and various elution times. The assays showed high selectivity and specificity, with optimal process efficiency. The identification limits, determined using predefined criteria, were established at sub-therapeutic or therapeutic concentrations. Applicability was evaluated using spiked plasma controls and external quality controls. (4) Conclusions: The new method was then successfully applied to routine clinical and forensic samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Feliu
- Department of Pharmacology, EA 3801, SFR CAP-Santé, Reims University Hospital, 51 Rue Cognacq-Jay, CEDEX, 51095 Reims, France
- Correspondence: (C.F.); (Z.D.)
| | - Celine Konecki
- Department of Pharmacology, EA 3801, SFR CAP-Santé, Reims University Hospital, 51 Rue Cognacq-Jay, CEDEX, 51095 Reims, France
| | - Yoann Cazaubon
- Institute Desbrest of Epidemiology and Public Health, INSERM, Montpellier University, Department of Pharmacology, Montpellier University Hospital, Avenue du Doyen Gaston Giraud, 34090 Montpellier, France
| | - Laurent Binet
- Department of Pharmacology, EA 3801, SFR CAP-Santé, Reims University Hospital, 51 Rue Cognacq-Jay, CEDEX, 51095 Reims, France
| | - Damien Vautier
- Department of Pharmacology, EA 3801, SFR CAP-Santé, Reims University Hospital, 51 Rue Cognacq-Jay, CEDEX, 51095 Reims, France
| | - Aurélie Fouley
- Department of Pharmacology, EA 3801, SFR CAP-Santé, Reims University Hospital, 51 Rue Cognacq-Jay, CEDEX, 51095 Reims, France
| | - Claire Gozalo
- Department of Pharmacology, EA 3801, SFR CAP-Santé, Reims University Hospital, 51 Rue Cognacq-Jay, CEDEX, 51095 Reims, France
| | - Zoubir Djerada
- Department of Pharmacology, EA 3801, SFR CAP-Santé, Reims University Hospital, 51 Rue Cognacq-Jay, CEDEX, 51095 Reims, France
- Correspondence: (C.F.); (Z.D.)
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Qualitative and quantitative determination of butanol in latex paint by fast gas chromatography proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1676:463210. [PMID: 35700573 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Butanol is a common organic solvent used in latex paint, and one of its isomers, tert-butanol, is toxic and can cause potential harm to the human body. Therefore, it is of great significance to develop a qualitative and quantitative detection method for butanol isomers. In this study, we combined the advantages of rapid detection of proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) with the separation and qualitative capabilities of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to achieve the detection of isomers, building a fast gas chromatography proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (FastGC-PTR-MS) equipment. Firstly, the developed technology was optimized using standard samples of several common volatile organic compounds. The retention times of acetonitrile, acetone, and alcohols were less than 50 s, and the retention times of the benzene series were less than 110 s, on the premise that these isomers could be basically separated (resolution R > 1.0). Compared with a commercial GC-MS equipment, the detection times were shortened by 5-6 times and 2-4 times, respectively. Then the FastGC-PTR-MS was applied to detect the isomers of butanol in latex paint. The results showed that the headspace of brand D latex paint mainly contained five substances: tert-butanol, n-butanol, acetaldehyde, methanol, and acetone. Tert-butanol and n-butanol could be completely separated (R > 1.5). The concentration of tert-butanol was 4.41 ppmv, far below the 100 ppmv maximum allowable workplace concentration. The developed FastGC-PTR-MS can be used for rapid qualitative and quantitative detection of butanol isomers in latex paint. The new equipment has the potential to play an important role in indoor environmental safety applications.
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Brinca AT, Ramalhinho AC, Sousa Â, Oliani AH, Breitenfeld L, Passarinha LA, Gallardo E. Follicular Fluid: A Powerful Tool for the Understanding and Diagnosis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Biomedicines 2022; 10:1254. [PMID: 35740276 PMCID: PMC9219683 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10061254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) represents one of the leading causes of anovulatory infertility and affects 5% to 20% of women worldwide. Until today, both the subsequent etiology and pathophysiology of PCOS remain unclear, and patients with PCOS that undergo assisted reproductive techniques (ART) might present a poor to exaggerated response, low oocyte quality, ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, as well as changes in the follicular fluid metabolites pattern. These abnormalities originate a decrease of Metaphase II (MII) oocytes and decreased rates for fertilization, cleavage, implantation, blastocyst conversion, poor egg to follicle ratio, and increased miscarriages. Focus on obtaining high-quality embryos has been taken into more consideration over the years. Nowadays, the use of metabolomic analysis in the quantification of proteins and peptides in biological matrices might predict, with more accuracy, the success in assisted reproductive technology. In this article, we review the use of human follicular fluid as the matrix in metabolomic analysis for diagnostic and ART predictor of success for PCOS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Teresa Brinca
- Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.T.B.); (Â.S.); (L.B.)
| | - Ana Cristina Ramalhinho
- Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.T.B.); (Â.S.); (L.B.)
- Assisted Reproduction Laboratory of Academic Hospital of Cova da Beira, 6200-251 Covilhã, Portugal;
- C4-Cloud Computing Competence Centre, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Ângela Sousa
- Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.T.B.); (Â.S.); (L.B.)
| | - António Hélio Oliani
- Assisted Reproduction Laboratory of Academic Hospital of Cova da Beira, 6200-251 Covilhã, Portugal;
- São José do Rio Preto School of Medicine, Gynaecology and Obstetrics, São José do Rio Preto 15090-000, Brazil
| | - Luiza Breitenfeld
- Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.T.B.); (Â.S.); (L.B.)
- C4-Cloud Computing Competence Centre, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Luís A. Passarinha
- Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.T.B.); (Â.S.); (L.B.)
- UCIBIO–Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Departament of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2819-516 Caparica, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, University of Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.T.B.); (Â.S.); (L.B.)
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, University of Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilhã, Portugal
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Welz A, Koba M, Kośliński P, Siódmiak J. Comparison of LC-MS and LC-DAD Methods of Detecting Abused Piperazine Designer Drugs. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11071758. [PMID: 35407366 PMCID: PMC8999770 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11071758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Recreational use of piperazine designer drugs is a serious threat to human health. These compounds act on the body in a similar fashion to illegal drugs. They induce psychostimulatory effects as well as visual and auditory hallucinations to varying degrees. In many cases of poisoning and deaths, the presence of two or even several psychoactive substances have been demonstrated. Piperazine derivatives are often found in such mixtures and pose a great analytical problem during their identification. Additionally, some piperazine derivatives can be detected in biological material as a result of metabolic changes to related drugs. Therefore, it is necessary to correctly identify these compounds and ensure repeatability of determinations. This article presents a comparison of the methods used to detect abused piperazine designer drugs using liquid chromatography in combination with a diode-array detector (LC-DAD) or mass spectrometer (LC-MS). Each of methods can be used independently for determinations, obtaining reliable results in a short time of analysis. These methods can also complement each other, providing qualitative and quantitative confirmation of results. The proposed methods provide analytical confirmation of poisoning and may be helpful in toxicological diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Welz
- Department of Toxicology and Bromatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum Nicolaus Copernicus University, 85-089 Bydgoszcz, Poland; (M.K.); (P.K.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Marcin Koba
- Department of Toxicology and Bromatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum Nicolaus Copernicus University, 85-089 Bydgoszcz, Poland; (M.K.); (P.K.)
| | - Piotr Kośliński
- Department of Toxicology and Bromatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum Nicolaus Copernicus University, 85-089 Bydgoszcz, Poland; (M.K.); (P.K.)
| | - Joanna Siódmiak
- Department of Laboratory Diagnostics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum Nicolaus Copernicus University, 85-094 Bydgoszcz, Poland;
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Rapid Targeted Method of Detecting Abused Piperazine Designer Drugs. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10245813. [PMID: 34945109 PMCID: PMC8704057 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10245813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Piperazine derivatives belong to the popular psychostimulating compounds from the group of designer drugs. They are an alternative to illegal drugs such as ecstasy and amphetamines. They are being searched by consumers for recreational use due to their stimulating and hallucinogenic effects. Many NPS-related poisonings and deaths have been reported where piperazines have been found. However, a major problem is the potential lack of laboratory confirmation of the involvement of piperazine derivatives in the occurrence of poisoning. Although many methods have been published, piperazine derivatives are not always included in a routine analytical approach or targeted toxicological analysis. There is an increasing need to provide qualitative evidence for the presence of piperazine derivatives and to ensure reproducible quantification. This article describes a new rapid method of detecting piperazine derivatives in biological material, using LC-MS. All target analytes were separated in a 15 min run time and identified based on the precursor ion, at least two product ions, and the retention time. Stable isotopically labeled (SIL) internal standards: BZP-D7, mCPP-D8 and TFMPP-D4 were used for analysis, obtaining the highest level of confidence in the results. The proposed detection method provides the analytical confirmation of poisoning with piperazine designer drugs.
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Shimko KM, Piatkowski T, Thomas KV, Speers N, Brooker L, Tscharke BJ, O'Brien JW. Performance- and image-enhancing drug use in the community: use prevalence, user demographics and the potential role of wastewater-based epidemiology. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 419:126340. [PMID: 34171672 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Performance- and image-enhancing drug (PIED) misuse is a significant public health issue. Currently, seizure data, surveys, anti-doping testing, and needle service provider data are used to estimate PIED use in populations. These methods are time consuming, single point-in-time measurements that often consist of small sample sizes and do not truly capture PIED prevalence. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been used globally to assess and monitor licit and illicit drug consumption within the general community. This method can objectively cover large populations as well as specific subpopulations (gyms, music festivals, prisons), and has potential as a complementary monitoring method for PIED use. Information obtained through WBE could be used to aid public health authorities in developing targeted prevention and education programmes. Research on PIED analysis in wastewater is limited and presents a significant gap in the literature. The focus is on anabolic steroids, and one steroid alternative currently growing in popularity; selective androgenic receptor modulators. This encompasses medical uses, addiction, prevalence, user typology, and associated public health implications. An overview of WBE is described including its benefits, limitations and potential as a monitoring method for PIED use. A summary of previous work in this field is presented. Finally, we summarise gaps in the literature, future perspectives, and recommendations for monitoring PIEDs in wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja M Shimko
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia.
| | - Timothy Piatkowski
- School of Psychology and Counselling and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Australia; Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
| | - Kevin V Thomas
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Naomi Speers
- Sport Integrity Australia (SIA), Unit 14, 5 Tennant Street, Fyshwick, ACT 2609, Australia
| | - Lance Brooker
- Australian Sports Drug Testing Laboratory (ASDTL), National Measurement Institute (NMI), 105 Delhi Road, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
| | - Ben J Tscharke
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Jake W O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
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Abstract
Synthetic drugs of abuse contain various psychoactive substances. These substances have recently emerged as novel drugs of abuse in public; thus, they are known as novel psychoactive substances (NPS). As these compounds are artificially synthesized in a laboratory, they are also called designer drugs. Synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones are the two primary classes of NPS or designer drugs. Synthetic cannabinoids, also known as "K2" or "Spice," are potent agonists of the cannabinoid receptors. Synthetic cathinones, known as "Bath salts," are beta-keto amphetamine derivatives. These compounds can cause severe intoxication, including overdose deaths. NPS are accessible locally and online. NPS are scheduled in the US and other countries, but the underground chemists keep modifying the chemical structure of these compounds to avoid legal regulation; thus, these compounds have been evolving rapidly. These drugs are not detectable by traditional drug screening, and thus, these substances are mainly abused by young individuals and others who wish to avoid drug detection. These compounds are analyzed primarily by mass spectrometry.
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Maurer HH. Hyphenated high-resolution mass spectrometry-the "all-in-one" device in analytical toxicology? Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 413:2303-2309. [PMID: 33247339 PMCID: PMC7987635 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-03064-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
This trend article reviews papers with hyphenated high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) approaches applied in analytical toxicology, particularly in clinical and forensic toxicology published since 2016 and referenced in PubMed. The article focuses on the question of whether HRMS has or will become the all-in-one device in these fields as supposed by the increasing number of HRMS presentations at scientific meetings, corresponding original papers, and review articles. Typical examples for the different application fields are discussed such as targeted or untargeted drug screening, quantification, drug metabolism studies, and metabolomics approaches. Considering the reviewed papers, HRMS is currently the only technique that fulfills the criteria of an all-in-one device for the various applications needed in analytical toxicology. Graphical abstract![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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Maurer HH. Pitfalls in drug testing by hyphenated low- and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:172-179. [PMID: 31804756 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This paper reviews various pitfalls observed during developing, validation, application, and interpretation of drug testing approaches using GC-MS and low- and high-resolution LC-MS. They include sampling and storage of body samples, sample adulteration and contamination, analyte stability, sample preparation without or with cleavage of conjugates, extraction, derivatization, internal standardization, false negative and positive results by GC-MS or LC-MS screening and/or confirmation procedures including artifact formation, ion suppression or enhancement by electrospray ionization, and finally pitfalls in data interpretation. Conclusions and prospects close the Tutorial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421, Homburg, Germany
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15
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Reisinger A, Rabensteiner J, Hackl G. Diagnosis of acute intoxications in critically ill patients: focus on biomarkers - part 1: epidemiology, methodology and general overview. Biomarkers 2019; 25:9-19. [PMID: 31735069 DOI: 10.1080/1354750x.2019.1694994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Acute intoxications account for a significant proportion of the patient population in intensive care units and sedative medications, ethanol, illicit drugs, inhalable poisons and mixed intoxications are the most common causes. The aim of this article is to describe biomarkers for screening and diagnosis of acute intoxications in critically ill patients. For this purpose, a survey of the relevant literature was conducted, and guidelines, case reports, expert assessments, and scientific publications were reviewed. In critical care, it should always be attempted to identify and quantify the poison or toxin with the assistance of enzyme immunoassay (EIA), chromatography, and mass spectrometry techniques and this section is critically appraised in this publication. The principles for anion gap, osmol gap and lactate gap and their usage in intoxications is shown. Basic rules in test methodology and pre-analytics are reviewed. Biomarkers in general are presented in part one and biomarkers for specific intoxications including ethanol, paracetamol, cardiovascular drugs and many others are presented in part two of these publications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Reisinger
- Intensive Care Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Jasmin Rabensteiner
- Clinical Institute of Medical and Chemical Laboratory Diagnostics, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Gerald Hackl
- Intensive Care Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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16
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Development and application of a forensic toxicological library for identification of 56 natural toxic substances by liquid chromatography–quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Forensic Toxicol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-019-00506-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Purpose
The present study aims to develop a forensic toxicological library to identify 56 natural toxic substances by liquid chromatography–quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (LC–QTOF-MS/MS).
Methods
For setting up the library of product ion spectra, individual substances (31 plant toxins, 7 mushroom toxins, 5 marine toxins, 5 frog venoms, 4 mycotoxins, and 4 substances derived from plants) were analyzed by LC–QTOF-MS/MS with positive and negative ionization. The product ion spectra were acquired at the collision energies (CEs) of 20, 35, and 50 eV in single enhanced product ion mode and then in collision energy spread mode in which the CE ramp range was set to 35 ± 15 eV.
Results
To test the performance of the library, human blood plasma samples were spiked with a mixture of lycorine and domoic acid, extracted by acetonitrile deproteinization and analyzed by LC–QTOF-MS/MS. Identification by our library search could be achieved for these toxins at the purity scores of 79.1 and 67.2, respectively. The method was also applied to postmortem blood from a death case with an aconite intake, and showed that four toxins in an aconite could be identified in the blood sample at the purity scores of 54.6–60.3.
Conclusions
This library will be more effective for the screening of natural toxic substances in routine forensic toxicological analysis. To our knowledge, there are no reports dealing with development of library for natural toxic substances by LC–QTOF-MS/MS.
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17
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Shimko KM, O'Brien JW, Barron L, Kayalar H, Mueller JF, Tscharke BJ, Choi PM, Jiang H, Eaglesham G, Thomas KV. A pilot wastewater‐based epidemiology assessment of anabolic steroid use in Queensland, Australia. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:937-949. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Katja M. Shimko
- King's Forensics, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & MedicineKing's College London London UK
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Jake W. O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Leon Barron
- King's Forensics, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & MedicineKing's College London London UK
| | - Hasan Kayalar
- King's Forensics, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & MedicineKing's College London London UK
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Jochen F. Mueller
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Ben J. Tscharke
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Phil M. Choi
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Hui Jiang
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Geoff Eaglesham
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Kevin V. Thomas
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland Woolloongabba QLD Australia
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18
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[Acute intoxications: markers for screening, diagnosis and therapy monitoring]. Med Klin Intensivmed Notfmed 2019; 114:302-312. [PMID: 30944942 DOI: 10.1007/s00063-019-0566-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Acute poisonings account for a significant proportion of the patient population presenting to intensive care units, whereby mixed drug overdoses and prescription drug overdoses predominate. The aim of this article was to describe indications for screening, diagnosis and therapy monitoring in acute overdoses in the intensive care unit. To conduct this work, a literature search was carried out and a review was written based on guidelines, case reports, expert opinions and scientific publications. Toxidromes are a useful tool for classification of clinical characteristics when the causative agent is initially unknown. Especially in critical care medicine, identifying and quantifying of the causative toxin by enzyme immunoassays, chromatography and mass spectrometry should be attempted. Intensive care treatment of patients with acute overdoses includes not only monitoring and support of vital functions but also methods for primary and secondary elimination of toxins. The indication for the use of extracorporeal procedures should be carefully evaluated and the method should be chosen based on protein binding and molecular size. Lipid emulsion therapy, high-dose insulin euglycaemia therapy and hyperbaric oxygenation are also increasingly used.
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19
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Fagiola M. Current and future directions of high resolution and tandem mass spectrometry in postmortem and human performance toxicology. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2019; 37:86-94. [PMID: 30797132 DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Fagiola
- Nassau County Medical Examiner - Department of Forensic Toxicology, 2251 Hempstead Turnpike - Building R, East Meadow, NY 11554, United States.
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20
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Wang S, Li F, Liu Y, Zhao H, Chen H. High-throughput screening of toxic substances by extractive electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and their identification via databank construction. Anal Bioanal Chem 2019; 411:4049-4054. [PMID: 30635664 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-1520-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Revised: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
More than 200 toxic substances (including narcotic drugs, psychotropic drugs, organic phosphorus compounds, carbamates, pyrethroids and other pesticides, veterinary drugs, rodenticides, natural toxins, and other drugs) were identified and quantified using an ion-trap mass spectrometer. The advantages of this technique-its selectivity, accuracy, precision, utilization of only small amounts of the sample, and short analysis time for a single sample (less than 30s)-render it a rapid and accurate methodology for toxin screening. Subsequently, an extractive electrospray ionization (EESI) mass spectrometry database was established by combining the Xcalibur data processing system with NIST database software. This allowed unknown toxicants in urine and blood samples, stomach contents, and liver samples, as provided by the Jiangxi Provincial Public Security Department, to be analyzed and identified. This EESI methodology and databank has the potential for widespread application to the large-scale analysis of practical samples. Graphical abstract ᅟ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuanglong Wang
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry and Instrumentation, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, 330013, Jiangxi, China
| | - Faliang Li
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry and Instrumentation, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, 330013, Jiangxi, China
| | - YongZi Liu
- Institute of Forensic Science, Jiangxi Provincial Public Security Bureau, Nanchang, 330038, Jiangxi, China
| | - Huian Zhao
- Institute of Forensic Science, Jiangxi Provincial Public Security Bureau, Nanchang, 330038, Jiangxi, China
| | - Huanwen Chen
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry and Instrumentation, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, 330013, Jiangxi, China.
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21
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Pan M, Xiang P, Yu Z, Zhao Y, Yan H. Development of a high-throughput screening analysis for 288 drugs and poisons in human blood using Orbitrap technology with gas chromatography-high resolution accurate mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1587:209-226. [PMID: 30595433 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2018.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The screening analysis for drugs and poisons always symbolizes the capabilities of a forensic laboratory. Due to the rapid emergence of new compounds in clinical and forensic intoxication cases, sensitive and specific methods are necessary for the screening of wide range of target compounds. A novel high-throughput screening method has been developed for the toxicological analysis of 288 drugs and poisons in human blood using Orbitrap technology with gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS). This method allows for the fast detection and identification of high-throughput forensically important drugs and poisons, e.g., drugs of abuse (cocaine, amphetamines, synthetic cannabinoids, opiates, hallucinogen), sedative-hypnotics, antidepressants, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, pesticides (acaricides, fungicides, insecticides, nematicides), and cardiovascular agents in one single GC-Q Exactive run. After a simple extraction with ethyl ether and buffer, following centrifugation, the supernatant was injected into the system. For detection, spiked blood samples were analyzed by Orbitrap-GC-HRMS using an electrospray ionization in full scan mode with a scan range from 40 to 650 (m/z). The identification of drugs and poisons in the samples was carried out by searching the accurate molecular mass of characteristic fragment ions, ion rations and retention time (RT) against the in-house library that we developed with 70 ev electron energy. The limit of detection (LOD) for most compounds (249 in a total of 288 compounds) was below 100 ng/mL. For selectivity, no substances have been identified in drug-free blood samples from six different sources, and the method was suitable for the recovery and the carryover. The coefficient of variation (CV) of the RTs was below 0.99% in all reproducibility experiments. Mass accuracy was always better than 3 ppm, corresponding to a maximum mass error of 1.04 millimass units (mmu). The developed method was applied to 136 real samples from forensic cases, demonstrating its suitability for the sensitive and fast screening of high-throughput drugs in human blood samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiru Pan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang, 110016, China; Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key laboratory of Forensic Medicine, 1347 West Guangfu Road, Shanghai, 20063, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key laboratory of Forensic Medicine, 1347 West Guangfu Road, Shanghai, 20063, China
| | - Zhiguo Yu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Yunli Zhao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang, 110016, China.
| | - Hui Yan
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key laboratory of Forensic Medicine, 1347 West Guangfu Road, Shanghai, 20063, China.
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22
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The impacts of paper properties on matrix effects during paper spray mass spectrometry analysis of prescription drugs, fentanyl and synthetic cannabinoids. Forensic Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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23
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Soichot M, Julliand S, Filatriau J, Hurbain A, Bourgogne E, Mihoubi A, Gourlain H, Delhotal-Landes B. Diagnosis of Heroin Overdose in an 8-Year-Old Boy: Reliable Contribution of Toxicological Investigations. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 42:255-264. [PMID: 29301012 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkx111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxicological investigations are often required by clinicians in comatose patients with suspected poisoning. However, the usefulness of toxicological analyses to support a diagnosis of acute poisoning is debated among clinicians and the interpretation of laboratory tests is challenging given the wide diversity of analytical techniques available. We report the case of an 8-year-old boy who was admitted to an intensive care unit with severe respiratory depression and neurological impairment. In order to formulate appropriate hypothesizes about the diagnosis and circumstances of intoxication, clinicians consulted toxicologists for a comprehensive toxicological screening. Routine blood immunoassays were negative for common toxicants but urine tests were positive for opiates. A general unknown screening using liquid and gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry detection confirmed the presence of morphine, codeine and related glucuronides metabolites in plasma and urine. Subsequently, morphine and codeine were quantified in plasma samples by online-SPE-LC-MS-MS. In addition, analyses performed with GC-MS and LC-MSn identified compounds used as markers when profiling illicit heroin, namely noscapine, dextromethorphan and codeine. In conjunction with the patient's history, clinical picture and circumstances of intoxication, toxicological findings strongly suggested an acute pediatric opioid overdose as a collateral damage of parental heroin abuse in the home. This case highlights the significant contribution of toxicological investigations in sensitive legal cases and the critical role of communications between clinicians and toxicologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Soichot
- Service de Toxicologie, Hôpital Lariboisière, AP-HP, 2 Rue Ambroise Paré, Paris 75010, France
| | - S Julliand
- Service Mobile d'Urgence et de Réanimation (SMUR), Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, 48 Boulevard Sérurier, Paris 75019, France
| | - J Filatriau
- Service de Réanimation Pédiatrique, Hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, 48 Boulevard Sérurier, Paris 75019, France
| | - A Hurbain
- Bruker Daltonics, 34 Rue de l'Industrie, Wissembourg 67160, France
| | - E Bourgogne
- Service de Toxicologie, Hôpital Lariboisière, AP-HP, 2 Rue Ambroise Paré, Paris 75010, France.,UMR 8638, Université Paris Descartes, 4 Avenue de l'Observatoire, Paris 75006, France
| | - A Mihoubi
- Service de Toxicologie, Hôpital Lariboisière, AP-HP, 2 Rue Ambroise Paré, Paris 75010, France
| | - H Gourlain
- Service de Toxicologie, Hôpital Lariboisière, AP-HP, 2 Rue Ambroise Paré, Paris 75010, France
| | - B Delhotal-Landes
- Service de Toxicologie, Hôpital Lariboisière, AP-HP, 2 Rue Ambroise Paré, Paris 75010, France
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24
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Dziadosz M, Teske J, Henning K, Klintschar M, Nordmeier F. LC–MS/MS screening strategy for cannabinoids, opiates, amphetamines, cocaine, benzodiazepines and methadone in human serum, urine and post-mortem blood as an effective alternative to immunoassay based methods applied in forensic toxicology for preliminary examination. Forensic Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2017.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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25
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McKenna J, Jett R, Shanks K, Manicke NE. Toxicological Drug Screening using Paper Spray High-Resolution Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HR-MS/MS). J Anal Toxicol 2018; 42:300-310. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Josiah McKenna
- Forensic and Investigative Sciences Program, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 N Blackford St, Indianapolis, IN 46202
| | - Rachel Jett
- Forensic and Investigative Sciences Program, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 N Blackford St, Indianapolis, IN 46202
| | - Kevin Shanks
- AXIS Forensic Toxicology, 5780 W 71st St, Indianapolis, IN 46278
| | - Nicholas E Manicke
- Forensic and Investigative Sciences Program, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 N Blackford St, Indianapolis, IN 46202
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, IUPUI, 402 N Blackford St, Indianapolis, IN 46202
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26
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Zhang YV, Wei B, Zhu Y, Zhang Y, Bluth MH. Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry: An Emerging Technology in the Toxicology Laboratory. Clin Lab Med 2016; 36:635-661. [PMID: 27842783 DOI: 10.1016/j.cll.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In the last decade, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has seen enormous growth in routine toxicology laboratories. LC-MS/MS offers significant advantages over other traditional testing, such as immunoassay and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry methodologies. Major strengths of LC-MS/MS include improvement in specificity, flexibility, and sample throughput when compared with other technologies. Here, the basic principles of LC-MS/MS technology are reviewed, followed by advantages and disadvantages of this technology compared with other traditional techniques. In addition, toxicology applications of LC-MS/MS for simultaneous detection of large panels of analytes are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Victoria Zhang
- University of Rochester Medical Center, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 608, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Bin Wei
- Toxicology Laboratory, Michigan Surgical Hospital, 21230 Dequindre Road, Warren, MI 48091, USA
| | - Yu Zhu
- Consolidated Laboratory Management Systems, LLC, 24555 Southfield Road, Southfield, MI 48075, USA.
| | - Yanhua Zhang
- Total Toxicology Labs, LLC, 24525 Southfield Road Suite 100, Southfield, MI 48075, USA
| | - Martin H Bluth
- Consolidated Laboratory Management Systems, LLC, 24555 Southfield Road, Southfield, MI 48075, USA; Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 540 East Canfield, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
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27
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Mercolini L, Protti M. Biosampling strategies for emerging drugs of abuse: towards the future of toxicological and forensic analysis. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 130:202-219. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.06.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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28
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Microwave-assisted on-spot derivatization for gas chromatography–mass spectrometry based determination of polar low molecular weight compounds in dried blood spots. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1465:175-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.08.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Revised: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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29
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Remane D, Wissenbach DK, Peters FT. Recent advances of liquid chromatography–(tandem) mass spectrometry in clinical and forensic toxicology — An update. Clin Biochem 2016; 49:1051-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2016.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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30
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Fels H, Dame T, Sachs H, Musshoff F. Liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry screening procedure for urine samples in forensic casework compared to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:824-830. [PMID: 27373549 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This work represents the development, validation, and application of a liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) screening method for the detection of pharmaceutical substances and illicit drugs (acidic, basic, and neutral organic drugs) in urine samples. Time-of-flight mass spectrometry was performed using an LC-Triple TOF 5600 system with electrospray ionization operated in both positive and negative mode, respectively. The limits of detection (LODs), determined for 34 substances, were < 10 ng/mL for 91% of the compounds. The limits of quantitation (LOQs) were < 20 ng/mL for 91% of the substances. The identification of the compounds was based on exact mass (< ± 5 ppm), retention time (<2%) if available, isotopic pattern fit (<10%) and library hit (>70%). These four parameters served as identification criteria and are discussed according to their role in identifying compounds even without reference substances. In routine casework, two in-house XIC (extracted ion chromatogram) lists, consisting of 456 protonated and 26 deprotonated compounds were used and retention times for 365 compounds were available. Compared to the results found with the established gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) procedure, the findings with the LC-QTOF-MS screening method showed a good comparability. Results that were not detected by LC-QTOF-MS because of a missing entry in the targeted XIC list could retrospectively be confirmed by simply entering the elemental formula of the relevant substance into the software and reprocessing the sample. LC-QTOF-MS offers an attractive technique for the fast and specific identification of illicit drugs and toxic compounds in urine samples. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Fels
- Forensic Toxicological Centre, Bayerstraße 53, 80335, Munich, Germany
| | - Torsten Dame
- Forensic Toxicological Centre, Bayerstraße 53, 80335, Munich, Germany
| | - Hans Sachs
- Forensic Toxicological Centre, Bayerstraße 53, 80335, Munich, Germany
| | - Frank Musshoff
- Forensic Toxicological Centre, Bayerstraße 53, 80335, Munich, Germany
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31
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Woldegebriel M, Gonsalves J, van Asten A, Vivó-Truyols G. Robust Bayesian Algorithm for Targeted Compound Screening in Forensic Toxicology. Anal Chem 2016; 88:2421-30. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Woldegebriel
- Analytical
Chemistry, Van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular
Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94720, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John Gonsalves
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Arian van Asten
- Analytical
Chemistry, Van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular
Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94720, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands
- CLHC,
Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94720, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gabriel Vivó-Truyols
- Analytical
Chemistry, Van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular
Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94720, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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32
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Woldegebriel M. Novel Method for Calculating a Nonsubjective Informative Prior for a Bayesian Model in Toxicology Screening: A Theoretical Framework. Anal Chem 2015; 87:11398-406. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b02916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Woldegebriel
- Analytical Chemistry, Van’t
Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam P.O. Box 94720, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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33
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Ondra P, Válka I, Knob R, Ginterová P, Maier V. Analysis of Amphetamine-Derived Designer Drugs by Gas Chromatography with Mass Spectrometry. J Anal Toxicol 2015; 40:78-85. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkv113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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34
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Melnikov ES, Belova MV, Ramenskaya GV. Detection of acute overdose states by some antihypertensive drugs using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2014. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934814140068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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35
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Recent developments in urinalysis of metabolites of new psychoactive substances using LC–MS. Bioanalysis 2014; 6:2083-107. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.14.168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, an ever-increasing number of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) have appeared on the recreational drug market. To account for this development, analytical toxicologists have to continuously adapt their methods to encompass the latest NPSs. Urine is the preferred biological matrix for screening analysis in different areas of analytical toxicology. However, the development of urinalysis procedures for NPSs is complicated by the fact that generally little or no information on urinary excretion patterns of such drugs exists when they first appear on the market. Metabolism studies are therefore a prerequisite in the development of urinalysis methods for NPSs. In this article, the literature on the urinalysis of NPS metabolites will be reviewed, focusing on articles published after 2008.
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36
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Huestis MA, Smith ML. Modern analytical technologies for the detection of drug abuse and doping. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2014; 3:49-57. [PMID: 24980101 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2006.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Consequences to individuals convicted of abusing prohibited drugs or doping agents can be severe, including loss of employment, child custody, driving privileges, right to compete in international sports and ultimately freedom, when mandatory confinement occurs. In view of these penalties, laboratories charged with providing evidence must maximize testing accuracy. False positive and false negative tests are prevented by combining sensitive immunoassays and specific chromatographic-mass spectrometric detection. In addition, testing different biological matrices offers unique information about the drug-use history of an individual.:
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Michael L Smith
- Division of Forensic Toxicology, Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
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37
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Screening and confirmation methods for GHB determination in biological fluids. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:3553-77. [PMID: 24500753 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7586-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Revised: 12/09/2013] [Accepted: 12/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of reported methods for screening and confirmation of the low-molecular-weight compound and drug of abuse gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) in biological fluids. The polarity of the compound, its endogenous presence, its rapid metabolism after ingestion, and its instability during storage (de novo formation and interconversion between GHB and its lactone form gamma-butyrolactone) are challenges for the analyst and for interpretation of a positive result. First, possible screening procedures for GHB are discussed, including colorimetric, enzymatic, and chromatography-based procedures. Confirmation methods for clinical and forensic cases mostly involve gas chromatography (coupled to mass spectrometry), although liquid chromatography and capillary zone electrophoresis have also been used. Before injection, sample-preparation techniques include (a combination of) liquid-liquid, solid-phase, or headspace extraction, and chemical modification of the polar compound. Also simple "dilute-and-shoot" may be sufficient for urine or serum. Advantages, limitations, and trends are discussed.
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Lauer E, Widmer C, Versace F, Staub C, Mangin P, Sabatasso S, Augsburger M, Déglon J. Body fluid and tissue analysis using filter paper sampling support prior to LC-MS/MS: Application to fatal overdose with colchicine. Drug Test Anal 2013; 5:763-72. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Revised: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Estelle Lauer
- Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry Unit; University Center of Legal Medicine; Lausanne-Geneva; Switzerland
| | - Christèle Widmer
- Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry Unit; University Center of Legal Medicine; Lausanne-Geneva; Switzerland
| | - François Versace
- Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry Unit; University Center of Legal Medicine; Lausanne-Geneva; Switzerland
| | - Christian Staub
- Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry Unit; University Center of Legal Medicine; Lausanne-Geneva; Switzerland
| | | | - Sara Sabatasso
- Forensic Medicine Unit; University Center of Legal Medicine; Lausanne-Geneva; Switzerland
| | - Marc Augsburger
- Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry Unit; University Center of Legal Medicine; Lausanne-Geneva; Switzerland
| | - Julien Déglon
- Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry Unit; University Center of Legal Medicine; Lausanne-Geneva; Switzerland
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Kohler I, Schappler J, Rudaz S. Highly sensitive capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry for rapid screening and accurate quantitation of drugs of abuse in urine. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 780:101-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.03.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Revised: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/31/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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40
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Roman M, Ström L, Tell H, Josefsson M. Liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry analysis of postmortem blood samples for targeted toxicological screening. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:4107-25. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6798-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2012] [Revised: 01/26/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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41
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Drummer OH, Kennedy B, Bugeja L, Ibrahim JE, Ozanne-Smith J. Interpretation of postmortem forensic toxicology results for injury prevention research. Inj Prev 2012. [DOI: 10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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42
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Maurer HH. How Can Analytical Diagnostics in Clinical Toxicology Be Successfully Performed Today? Ther Drug Monit 2012. [DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0b013e31826a622d.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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43
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Versace F, Sporkert F, Mangin P, Staub C. Rapid sample pre-treatment prior to GC-MS and GC-MS/MS urinary toxicological screening. Talanta 2012; 101:299-306. [PMID: 23158326 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2012.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Revised: 09/10/2012] [Accepted: 09/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Drug screening is an important issue in clinical and forensic toxicology. Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) remains the gold standard technique for the screening of unknown compounds in urine samples. However, this technique requires substantial sample preparation, which is time consuming. Moreover, some common drugs such as cannabis cannot be easily detected in urine using general procedures. In this work, a sample preparation protocol for treating 200 μL of urine in less than 30 min is described. The enzymatic hydrolysis of glucuro-conjugates was performed in 5 min thanks to the use of microwaves. The use of a deconvolution software allowed reducing the GC-MS run to 10 min, without impairing the quality of the compound identifications. Comparing the results from 139 authentic urine samples to those obtained using the current routine analysis indicated this method performed well. Moreover, additional 5-min GC-MS/MS programs are described, enabling a very sensitive target screening of 54 drugs, including THC-COOH or buprenorphine, without further sample preparation. These methods appeared as an interesting alternative to immuno-assays based screening. The analytical strategy presented in this article proved to be a promising approach for systematic toxicological analysis (STA) of drugs in urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Versace
- Unit of Toxicology, University Center of Legal Medicine, Geneva and Lausanne, Switzerland
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44
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Abstract
This article discusses current strategies for efficient analytical diagnostics in clinical toxicology. The tasks for such diagnostics, different analytical strategies and various methods were reviewed. They cover mainly gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry procedures for target or comprehensive screening for drugs (of abuse) and poisons, and for quantification in blood. Quality control aspects and strategies for competent interpretation of the analytical result in correlation with the clinical signs presented by the patient are discussed.
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45
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Pellegrini M, Rotolo MC, Di Giovannadrea R, Pacifici R, Pichini S. A simple toxicological analysis of anabolic steroid preparations from the black market. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1051/ata/2012011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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46
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Peters FT, Remane D. Aspects of matrix effects in applications of liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry to forensic and clinical toxicology—a review. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:2155-72. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-6035-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2011] [Revised: 02/22/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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47
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Rapid detection and quantification of 35 benzodiazepines in urine by GC-TOF-MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:755-68. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-5877-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2011] [Revised: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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48
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Meyer MR, Vollmar C, Schwaninger AE, Wolf E, Maurer HH. New cathinone-derived designer drugs 3-bromomethcathinone and 3-fluoromethcathinone: studies on their metabolism in rat urine and human liver microsomes using GC-MS and LC-high-resolution MS and their detectability in urine. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2012; 47:253-262. [PMID: 22359337 DOI: 10.1002/jms.2960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
3-Bromomethcathinone (3-BMC) and 3-Fluoromethcathinone (3-FMC) are two new designer drugs, which were seized in Israel during 2009 and had also appeared on the illicit drug market in Germany. These two compounds were sold via the Internet as so-called "bath salts" or "plant feeders." The aim of the present study was to identify for the first time the 3-BMC and 3-FMC Phase I and II metabolites in rat urine and human liver microsomes using GC-MS and LC-high-resolution MS (HR-MS) and to test for their detectability by established urine screening approaches using GC-MS or LC-MS. Furthermore, the human cytochrome-P450 (CYP) isoenzymes responsible for the main metabolic steps were studied to highlight possible risks of consumption due to drug-drug interaction or genetic variations. For the first aim, rat urine samples were extracted after and without enzymatic cleavage of conjugates. The metabolites were separated and identified by GC-MS and by LC-HR-MS. The main metabolic steps were N-demethylation, reduction of the keto group to the corresponding alcohol, hydroxylation of the aromatic system and combinations of these steps. The elemental composition of the metabolites identified by GC-MS could be confirmed by LC-HR-MS. Furthermore, corresponding Phase II metabolites were identified using the LC-HR-MS approach. For both compounds, detection in rat urine was possible within the authors' systematic toxicological analysis using both GC-MS and LC-MS(n) after a suspected recreational users dose. Following CYP enzyme kinetic studies, CYP2B6 was the most relevant enzyme for both the N-demethylation of 3-BMC and 3-FMC after in vitro-in vivo extrapolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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Recent developments in MS for small molecules: application to human doping control analysis. Bioanalysis 2012; 4:197-212. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.11.305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent developments in MS for the detection of small molecules in the context of doping control analysis are reviewed. Doping control analysis is evolving together with MS, which is the technique of choice in order to accomplish the analytical requirements in this field. Since these analytical requirements for the detection of a doping agent depend on the substance, in the first section we review the different scenarios. The commonly established approaches, together with their achievements and drawbacks are described. New developments in hyphenated MS techniques (both GC–MS/MS and LC–MS/MS) concerning interfaces and analyzers are mentioned. The use (or potential use) of these developments in order to minimize the limitations of the commonly established approaches in the doping control field is discussed. Finally, a brief discussion about trends and remaining limitations is presented.
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50
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Mandrioli R, Mercolini L, Raggi MA. Chiral analysis of amphetamines, methadone and metabolites in biological samples by electrodriven methods. Electrophoresis 2011; 32:2629-39. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201000687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2011] [Revised: 03/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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