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Prencipe N, Marinelli L, Varaldo E, Cuboni D, Berton AM, Bioletto F, Bona C, Gasco V, Grottoli S. Isolated anterior pituitary dysfunction in adulthood. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1100007. [PMID: 36967769 PMCID: PMC10032221 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1100007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypopituitarism is defined as a complete or partial deficiency in one or more pituitary hormones. Anterior hypopituitarism includes secondary adrenal insufficiency, central hypothyroidism, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, growth hormone deficiency and prolactin deficiency. Patients with hypopituitarism suffer from an increased disability and sick days, resulting in lower health status, higher cost of care and an increased mortality. In particular during adulthood, isolated pituitary deficits are not an uncommon finding; their clinical picture is represented by vague symptoms and unclear signs, which can be difficult to properly diagnose. This often becomes a challenge for the physician. Aim of this narrative review is to analyse, for each anterior pituitary deficit, the main related etiologies, the characteristic signs and symptoms, how to properly diagnose them (suggesting an easy and reproducible step-based approach), and eventually the treatment. In adulthood, the vast majority of isolated pituitary deficits are due to pituitary tumours, head trauma, pituitary surgery and brain radiotherapy. Immune-related dysfunctions represent a growing cause of isolated pituitary deficiencies, above all secondary to use of oncological drugs such as immune checkpoint inhibitors. The diagnosis of isolated pituitary deficiencies should be based on baseline hormonal assessments and/or dynamic tests. Establishing a proper diagnosis can be quite challenging: in fact, even if the diagnostic methods are becoming increasingly refined, a considerable proportion of isolated pituitary deficits still remains without a certain cause. While isolated ACTH and TSH deficiencies always require a prompt replacement treatment, gonadal replacement therapy requires a benefit-risk evaluation based on the presence of comorbidities, age and gender of the patient; finally, the need of growth hormone replacement therapies is still a matter of debate. On the other side, prolactin replacement therapy is still not available. In conclusion, our purpose is to offer a broad evaluation from causes to therapies of isolated anterior pituitary deficits in adulthood. This review will also include the evaluation of uncommon symptoms and main etiologies, the elements of suspicion of a genetic cause and protocols for diagnosis, follow-up and treatment.
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Drummond JB, Soares BS, Pedrosa W, Ribeiro-Oliveira A. Revisiting peak serum cortisol response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia in children. J Endocrinol Invest 2021; 44:1291-1299. [PMID: 32959333 DOI: 10.1007/s40618-020-01427-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate factors that could potentially affect the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia in children without history or symptoms of adrenal insufficiency and to propose a cut-off value to define a normal response in this population. METHODS Exploratory single-center study involving 78 children that prospectively underwent insulin tolerance test (ITT) for suspected growth hormone (GH) deficiency. METHODS Glucose, cortisol, GH, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), epinephrine and norepinephrine levels were measured at baseline and after insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Serum cortisol was measured using Access automated immunoassay. RESULTS Mean (range) basal morning serum cortisol of 8 (2.2-19.5) µg/dL/222 (61-542) nmol/L increased after hypoglycemia to 20.5 (14.6-29.5) µg/dL/570 nmol/L (405-819) nmol/L. Peak serum cortisol levels of 14.6 µg/dL (405 nmol/L) and 15.4 µg/dL (428 nmol/L) corresponded to the 2.5th and 5th percentiles, respectively. Peak serum cortisol correlated with peak plasma epinephrine (r = 0.367; P = 0.0014) but did not correlate with age, BMI-SD or peak serum GH. Children with intact and abnormal GH responses presented similar mean peak serum cortisol levels (20.0 vs. 20.6 µg/dL/555 vs. 572 nmol/L; P = 0.21). CONCLUSION Our data indicate that the current cut-off to define normal HPA axis response in children after insulin-induced hypoglycemia warrants reevaluation to avoid over-diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency. Our results suggest that peak serum cortisol levels ≥ 15.4 µg/dL (428 nmol/L) in children undergoing ITT might represent a normal cortisol response to stress, regardless of age, BMI or GH secretory capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Drummond
- Laboratory of Endocrinology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, 30130-100, Brazil
- Hermes Pardini Institute, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - B S Soares
- Laboratory of Endocrinology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, 30130-100, Brazil
| | - W Pedrosa
- Hermes Pardini Institute, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - A Ribeiro-Oliveira
- Laboratory of Endocrinology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, 30130-100, Brazil.
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Henry RK. When They're Done Growing, Don't Forget They May Still Need Growth Hormone. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2021; 19:257-263. [PMID: 33596132 DOI: 10.1089/met.2020.0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of the growth hormone (GH) in promoting linear growth is well known; however, less recognized by practitioners especially pediatric, are its metabolic properties. This may be because the deleterious effects of improperly treated or untreated growth hormone deficiency (GHD) can present beyond the pediatric years. In addition, clinicians may lack familiarity with the potential issues that can arise due to inadequately treated GHD. Considering information from both the basic sciences research and clinical medicine, pediatric practitioners should be cognizant about the metabolic effects of GH. They should also be equipped to provide anticipatory guidance to patients regarding the importance of adherence to therapy in GHD and be prepared to transition patients with permanent GHD from pediatric GH supplementation to adult GH dosing. With a lack of proper transitioning, adverse outcomes may present beyond childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan K Henry
- Section of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Nationwide Children's Hospital, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, USA
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Galazzi E, Improda N, Cerbone M, Soranna D, Moro M, Fatti LM, Zambon A, Bonomi M, Salerno M, Dattani M, Persani L. Clinical benefits of sex steroids given as a priming prior to GH provocative test or as a growth-promoting therapy in peripubertal growth delays: Results of a retrospective study among ENDO-ERN centres. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2021; 94:219-228. [PMID: 32969044 DOI: 10.1111/cen.14337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Sex steroids, administered as a priming before GH stimulation tests (GHST) to differentiate between growth hormone deficiency (GHD) and constitutional delay of growth and puberty (CDGP) or as growth-promoting therapy using low-dose sex steroids (LDSS) in CDGP, are much debated. We aimed to compare auxological outcomes of CDGP or GHD children undergoing primed or unprimed GHST and to evaluate LDSS treatment in CDGP. DESIGN Retrospective study among three paediatric University Hospitals in Italy and UK. METHODS 184 children (72 females) aged 12.4 ± 2.08 years underwent primed (/P+ ) or unprimed (/P- ) GHST and were followed up until final height (FH). CDGP patients were untreated (CDG P- ) or received LDSS (CDGP+ ). The cohort included 34 CDG P- /P+ , 12 CDGP+ /P+ , 51 GHD/P+ , 29 CDG P- /P- , 2 CDGP+ /P- and 56 GHD/P- . FH standard deviation score (SDS), Δ SDS FH-target height (TH) and degree of success (-1 ≤ Δ SDS FH-SDS TH ≤ +1) were outcomes of interest. RESULTS GHD/P+ had better FH-SDS (-0.87 vs -1.49; P = .023) and ΔSDS FH-TH (-0.35 vs -0.77; P = .002) than CDGP- /P+ . Overall, GHD/P+ showed the highest degree of success (90%, P = .006). Regardless of priming, both rhGH and LDSS improved degree of success compared to no treatment (89% and 86% vs 63%, P = .0009). GHD/P+ showed a trend towards a higher proportion of permanent GHD compared to GHD/P- (30.43% vs 15.09%; P = .067). CONCLUSION In peripubertal children, priming before GHST improves diagnostic accuracy of GHST for idiopathic GHD. LDSS treatment improves auxological outcomes in CDGP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Galazzi
- Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases &, Lab of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Nicola Improda
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Pediatric Endocrinology Unit, Federico II University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Manuela Cerbone
- London Centre for Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes at Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, UK
- Genetics and Genomic Medicine Programme, University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Davide Soranna
- Division of Statistics, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Mirella Moro
- Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases &, Lab of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Letizia Maria Fatti
- Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases &, Lab of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Zambon
- Department of Statistics and Quantitative Methods, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Bonomi
- Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases &, Lab of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Milan, Italy
- Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Mariacarolina Salerno
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Pediatric Endocrinology Unit, Federico II University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Mehul Dattani
- London Centre for Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes at Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, UK
- Genetics and Genomic Medicine Programme, University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Luca Persani
- Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases &, Lab of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Milan, Italy
- Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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Drummond JB, Soares BS, Pedrosa W, Vieira ELM, Teixeira AL, Christ-Crain M, Ribeiro-Oliveira A. Copeptin response to hypoglycemic stress is linked to prolactin activation in children. Pituitary 2020; 23:681-690. [PMID: 32851504 DOI: 10.1007/s11102-020-01076-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The physiological role of arginine vasopressin (AVP) in the acute stress response in humans and especially in children is unclear. The aim of this study was to explore the interaction between copeptin, a well-established surrogate marker of AVP release, and anterior pituitary hormone activation in response to acute hypoglycemic stress in children and adolescents. METHODS We conducted an exploratory single center study involving 77 children and adolescents undergoing insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Blood levels of copeptin, ACTH, cortisol, GH, prolactin, interleukin-6 (IL-6), adrenaline and noradrenaline were determined at baseline and after insulin-induced hypoglycemia. RESULTS Basal plasma levels of copeptin (median: 5.2 pmol/L) increased significantly after hypoglycemia (median 9.7 pmol/L; P < 0.0001). Subjects with insufficient HPA axis response or severe GH deficiency had lower hypoglycemia-induced copeptin increase (median: 2.3 pmol/L) compared with individuals with intact pituitary response (median: 5.2 pmol/L, P = 0.02). Copeptin increase correlated significantly with the maximal increase of ACTH (rs = 0.30; P = 0.010), cortisol (rs = 0.33; P = 0.003), prolactin (rs = 0.25; P = 0.03), IL-6 (rs = 0.35; P = 0.008) and with BMI-SDS (rs = - 0.28, P = 0.01). In multivariate regression analysis, prolactin increase was the only independent variable associated with copeptin increase (P = 0.0004). CONCLUSION Our data indicate that: (1) hypoglycemic stress elicits a marked copeptin response in children and adolescents, pointing out its role as an acute stress marker in this population; (2) stress-induced AVP/copeptin release is associated with anterior pituitary activation, mainly a prolactin response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana B Drummond
- Laboratory of Endocrinology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Beatriz S Soares
- Laboratory of Endocrinology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - William Pedrosa
- Hermes Pardini Institute, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Erica L M Vieira
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Antonio L Teixeira
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Immunopsychiatry Laboratory & Neuropsychiatry Program, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, USA
| | | | - Antonio Ribeiro-Oliveira
- Laboratory of Endocrinology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Alfredo Balena, 190, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Sbardella E, Crocco M, Feola T, Papa F, Puliani G, Gianfrilli D, Isidori AM, Grossman AB. GH deficiency in cancer survivors in the transition age: diagnosis and therapy. Pituitary 2020; 23:432-456. [PMID: 32488760 DOI: 10.1007/s11102-020-01052-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Survival rates among childhood cancer survivors (CCSs) have significantly risen in the last 40 years due to substantial improvements in treatment protocols. However, this improvement has brought with it serious late effects that frequently involve the endocrine system. Of the endocrine disorders, GH deficiency (GHD) is the most common among CCSs as a consequence of a history of cancers, surgery, and/or radiotherapy involving the hypothalamo-pituitary region. METHODS A comprehensive search of English language articles regardless of age was conducted in the MEDLINE database between December 2018 and October 2019. We selected all studies on GH therapy in CCSs during the transition age regarding the most challenging topics: when to retest; which diagnostic tests and cut-offs to use; when to start GH replacement therapy (GHRT); what GH dose to use; safety; quality of life, compliance and adherence to GHRT; interactions between GH and other hormonal replacement treatments. RESULTS In the present review, we provide an overview of the current clinical management of challenges in GHD in cancer survivors in the transition age. CONCLUSIONS Endocrine dysfunction among CCSs has a high prevalence in the transition age and increase with time. Many endocrine disorders, including GHD, are often not diagnosed or under-diagnosed, probably due to the lack of specialized centers for the long-term follow-up. Therefore, it is crucial that transition specialized clinics should be increased in terms of number and specific skills in order to manage endocrine disorders in adolescence, a delicate and complex period of life. A multidisciplinary approach, also including psychological counseling, is essential in the follow-up and management of these patients in order to minimize their disabilities and maximize their quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Sbardella
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico, 155, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Marco Crocco
- Department of Pediatrics, IRCCS Giannina Gaslini Institute, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Tiziana Feola
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico, 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Fortuna Papa
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Sezione di Endocrinologia, Università Federico II di Napoli, Naples, Italy
| | - Giulia Puliani
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico, 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniele Gianfrilli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico, 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea M Isidori
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico, 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Ashley B Grossman
- Department of Endocrinology, Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LE, UK
- Centre for Endocrinology, Barts and the London School of Medicine, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
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Yuen KCJ, Biller BMK, Radovick S, Carmichael JD, Jasim S, Pantalone KM, Hoffman AR. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF CLINICAL ENDOCRINOLOGISTS AND AMERICAN COLLEGE OF ENDOCRINOLOGY GUIDELINES FOR MANAGEMENT OF GROWTH HORMONE DEFICIENCY IN ADULTS AND PATIENTS TRANSITIONING FROM PEDIATRIC TO ADULT CARE. Endocr Pract 2019; 25:1191-1232. [PMID: 31760824 DOI: 10.4158/gl-2019-0405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Objective: The development of these guidelines is sponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) Board of Directors and American College of Endocrinology (ACE) Board of Trustees and adheres with published AACE protocols for the standardized production of clinical practice guidelines (CPG). Methods: Recommendations are based on diligent reviews of clinical evidence with transparent incorporation of subjective factors, according to established AACE/ACE guidelines for guidelines protocols. Results: The Executive Summary of this 2019 updated guideline contains 58 numbered recommendations: 12 are Grade A (21%), 19 are Grade B (33%), 21 are Grade C (36%), and 6 are Grade D (10%). These detailed, evidence-based recommendations allow for nuance-based clinical decision-making that addresses multiple aspects of real-world care of patients. The evidence base presented in the subsequent Appendix provides relevant supporting information for the Executive Summary recommendations. This update contains 357 citations of which 51 (14%) are evidence level (EL) 1 (strong), 168 (47%) are EL 2 (intermediate), 61 (17%) are EL 3 (weak), and 77 (22%) are EL 4 (no clinical evidence). Conclusion: This CPG is a practical tool that practicing endocrinologists and regulatory bodies can refer to regarding the identification, diagnosis, and treatment of adults and patients transitioning from pediatric to adult-care services with growth hormone deficiency (GHD). It provides guidelines on assessment, screening, diagnostic testing, and treatment recommendations for a range of individuals with various causes of adult GHD. The recommendations emphasize the importance of considering testing patients with a reasonable level of clinical suspicion of GHD using appropriate growth hormone (GH) cut-points for various GH-stimulation tests to accurately diagnose adult GHD, and to exercise caution interpreting serum GH and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels, as various GH and IGF-1 assays are used to support treatment decisions. The intention to treat often requires sound clinical judgment and careful assessment of the benefits and risks specific to each individual patient. Unapproved uses of GH, long-term safety, and the current status of long-acting GH preparations are also discussed in this document. LAY ABSTRACT This updated guideline provides evidence-based recommendations regarding the identification, screening, assessment, diagnosis, and treatment for a range of individuals with various causes of adult growth-hormone deficiency (GHD) and patients with childhood-onset GHD transitioning to adult care. The update summarizes the most current knowledge about the accuracy of available GH-stimulation tests, safety of recombinant human GH (rhGH) replacement, unapproved uses of rhGH related to sports and aging, and new developments such as long-acting GH preparations that use a variety of technologies to prolong GH action. Recommendations offer a framework for physicians to manage patients with GHD effectively during transition to adult care and adulthood. Establishing a correct diagnosis is essential before consideration of replacement therapy with rhGH. Since the diagnosis of GHD in adults can be challenging, GH-stimulation tests are recommended based on individual patient circumstances and use of appropriate GH cut-points. Available GH-stimulation tests are discussed regarding variability, accuracy, reproducibility, safety, and contraindications, among other factors. The regimen for starting and maintaining rhGH treatment now uses individualized dose adjustments, which has improved effectiveness and reduced reported side effects, dependent on age, gender, body mass index, and various other individual characteristics. With careful dosing of rhGH replacement, many features of adult GHD are reversible and side effects of therapy can be minimized. Scientific studies have consistently shown rhGH therapy to be beneficial for adults with GHD, including improvements in body composition and quality of life, and have demonstrated the safety of short- and long-term rhGH replacement. Abbreviations: AACE = American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists; ACE = American College of Endocrinology; AHSG = alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein; AO-GHD = adult-onset growth hormone deficiency; ARG = arginine; BEL = best evidence level; BMD = bone mineral density; BMI = body mass index; CI = confidence interval; CO-GHD = childhood-onset growth hormone deficiency; CPG = clinical practice guideline; CRP = C-reactive protein; DM = diabetes mellitus; DXA = dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; EL = evidence level; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; FD-GST = fixed-dose glucagon stimulation test; GeNeSIS = Genetics and Neuroendocrinology of Short Stature International Study; GH = growth hormone; GHD = growth hormone deficiency; GHRH = growth hormone-releasing hormone; GST = glucagon stimulation test; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; HypoCCS = Hypopituitary Control and Complications Study; IGF-1 = insulin-like growth factor-1; IGFBP = insulin-like growth factor-binding protein; IGHD = isolated growth hormone deficiency; ITT = insulin tolerance test; KIMS = Kabi International Metabolic Surveillance; LAGH = long-acting growth hormone; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; LIF = leukemia inhibitory factor; MPHD = multiple pituitary hormone deficiencies; MRI = magnetic resonance imaging; P-III-NP = procollagen type-III amino-terminal pro-peptide; PHD = pituitary hormone deficiencies; QoL = quality of life; rhGH = recombinant human growth hormone; ROC = receiver operating characteristic; RR = relative risk; SAH = subarachnoid hemorrhage; SDS = standard deviation score; SIR = standardized incidence ratio; SN = secondary neoplasms; T3 = triiodothyronine; TBI = traumatic brain injury; VDBP = vitamin D-binding protein; WADA = World Anti-Doping Agency; WB-GST = weight-based glucagon stimulation test.
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Ahmid M, Ahmed SF, Shaikh MG. Childhood-onset growth hormone deficiency and the transition to adulthood: current perspective. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2018; 14:2283-2291. [PMID: 30538484 PMCID: PMC6260189 DOI: 10.2147/tcrm.s136576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Childhood-onset growth hormone deficiency (CO-GHD) is an endocrine condition associated with a broad range of health issues from childhood through to adulthood, which requires particular attention during the transition period from adolescence to young adulthood. There is uncertainty in the clinical practice of the management of CO-GHD during transition regarding the clinical assessment and management of individual patients during and after transition to obtain optimal follow-up and improved health outcomes. Despite the availability of clinical guidelines providing the framework for transition of young adults with CO-GHD, there remains substantial variation in approaching transitional care among pediatric and adult services. A well-structured and coordinated transitional plan with clear communication and direct collaboration between pediatric and adult health care to ensure optimal management of adolescents with CO-GHD during transition is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ahmid
- Development Endocrinology Research Group, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK,
| | - S F Ahmed
- Development Endocrinology Research Group, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK,
| | - M G Shaikh
- Development Endocrinology Research Group, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK,
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Ahmid M, Fisher V, Graveling AJ, McGeoch S, McNeil E, Roach J, Bevan JS, Bath L, Donaldson M, Leese G, Mason A, Perry CG, Zammitt NN, Ahmed SF, Shaikh MG. An audit of the management of childhood-onset growth hormone deficiency during young adulthood in Scotland. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PEDIATRIC ENDOCRINOLOGY 2016; 2016:6. [PMID: 26985190 PMCID: PMC4793498 DOI: 10.1186/s13633-016-0024-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Background Adolescents with childhood onset growth hormone deficiency (CO-GHD) require re-evaluation of their growth hormone (GH) axis on attainment of final height to determine eligibility for adult GH therapy (rhGH). Aim Retrospective multicentre review of management of young adults with CO-GHD in four paediatric centres in Scotland during transition. Patients Medical records of 130 eligible CO-GHD adolescents (78 males), who attained final height between 2005 and 2013 were reviewed. Median (range) age at initial diagnosis of CO-GHD was 10.7 years (0.1–16.4) with a stimulated GH peak of 2.3 μg/l (0.1–6.5). Median age at initiation of rhGH was 10.8 years (0.4–17.0). Results Of the 130 CO-GHD adolescents, 74/130(57 %) had GH axis re-evaluation by stimulation tests /IGF-1 measurements. Of those, 61/74 (82 %) remained GHD with 51/74 (69 %) restarting adult rhGH. Predictors of persistent GHD included an organic hypothalamic-pituitary disorder and multiple pituitary hormone deficiencies (MPHD). Of the remaining 56/130 (43 %) patients who were not re-tested, 34/56 (61 %) were transferred to adult services on rhGH without biochemical retesting and 32/34 of these had MPHD. The proportion of adults who were offered rhGH without biochemical re-testing in the four centres ranged between 10 and 50 % of their total cohort. Conclusions A substantial proportion of adults with CO-GHD remain GHD, particularly those with MPHD and most opt for treatment with rhGH. Despite clinical guidelines, there is significant variation in the management of CO-GHD in young adulthood across Scotland.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ahmid
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Royal Hospital for Children, School of Medicine, University of Glasgow, 1345 Govan Road, Glasgow, G51 4TF UK
| | - V Fisher
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Royal Hospital for Children, School of Medicine, University of Glasgow, 1345 Govan Road, Glasgow, G51 4TF UK
| | - A J Graveling
- JJR Macleod Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology & Metabolism, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK
| | - S McGeoch
- JJR Macleod Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology & Metabolism, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK
| | - E McNeil
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Royal Hospital for Children, School of Medicine, University of Glasgow, 1345 Govan Road, Glasgow, G51 4TF UK
| | - J Roach
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Edinburgh, UK
| | - J S Bevan
- JJR Macleod Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology & Metabolism, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK
| | - L Bath
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Edinburgh, UK
| | - M Donaldson
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Royal Hospital for Children, School of Medicine, University of Glasgow, 1345 Govan Road, Glasgow, G51 4TF UK
| | - G Leese
- Ninewells Hospital and Medical School in Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - A Mason
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Royal Hospital for Children, School of Medicine, University of Glasgow, 1345 Govan Road, Glasgow, G51 4TF UK
| | - C G Perry
- Department of Endocrinology, Queen Elizabeth University Hospitals, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - S F Ahmed
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Royal Hospital for Children, School of Medicine, University of Glasgow, 1345 Govan Road, Glasgow, G51 4TF UK
| | - M G Shaikh
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Royal Hospital for Children, School of Medicine, University of Glasgow, 1345 Govan Road, Glasgow, G51 4TF UK
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Spandonaro F, Cappa M, Castello R, Chiarelli F, Ghigo E, Mancusi L. The impact of real practice inappropriateness and devices' inefficiency to variability in growth hormone consumption. J Endocrinol Invest 2014; 37:979-90. [PMID: 25103591 DOI: 10.1007/s40618-014-0138-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Growth hormone (GH) consumption is the object of a particular attention by regulatory bodies, due to its financial impact; nevertheless, GH treatment has been demonstrated to be cost-effective and is, therefore, usually reimbursed by public health service systems. In Italy, significant differences in GH consumption between regions have been recorded. Different appropriateness in real practice is a possible explanation, but the proportion of drug wasted due to different combinations of therapeutic regimes and types of devices used in drug administration is a complementary explanation. Aim of the study is, therefore, to determine how much of the variability in GH consumption is actually due to differences in clinical practice, and how much to waste. MATERIALS AND METHODS A model was settled to estimate the population with indication for GH administration, separately for children, transition subjects and adults, based on both the scientific evidence available and directly collected clinical evaluations. A systematic literature search was conducted using Cochrane Library (HTA and NHSEE) databases, Medline via Ovid, Econlit via Ovid, Embase. CONCLUSION The model applied to the Italian population showed that there was apparently unexplainable over-prescription and potential under-prescription in various regions, ranging from 20 to 40 % less than the estimated theoretical consumption to over 200 %. Wastage, at level of single device, could amount to as much as 15 % of the consumption, demonstrating that price per mg is not in general a good proxy of the cost per mg of therapy. Our estimates of the wastage shows a significant potential gap in the model assessment of the HTA bodies, as far as they do not explicitly take into account the issue of wastage and, consequently, the actual variability in local clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Spandonaro
- CREA Sanità (Consortium for Applied Economic Research in Health), University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via Columbia 2, 00133, Rome, Italy,
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Inzaghi E, Cianfarani S. The Challenge of Growth Hormone Deficiency Diagnosis and Treatment during the Transition from Puberty into Adulthood. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2013; 4:34. [PMID: 23577001 PMCID: PMC3602795 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2013.00034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In children with childhood-onset growth hormone deficiency, replacement GH therapy is effective in normalizing height during childhood and achieving adult height within the genetic target range. GH has further beneficial effects on body composition and metabolism through adult life. The transition phase, defined as the period from mid to late teens until 6-7 years after the achievement of final height, represents a crucial time for reassessing children's GH secretion and deciding whether GH therapy should be continued throughout life. Evidence-based guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of growth hormone deficient children during transition are lacking. The aim of this review is to critically review the up-to-date evidence on the best management of transition patients in order to ensure the correct definitive diagnosis and establish the appropriate therapeutic regimen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Inzaghi
- Molecular Endocrinology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s HospitalRome, Italy
| | - Stefano Cianfarani
- Molecular Endocrinology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s HospitalRome, Italy
- Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Stefano Cianfarani, Molecular Endocrinology Unit, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital, P.zza S. Onofrio 4, 00165 Roma, Italy. e-mail:
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Papadimitriou A, Douros K, Papadimitriou DT, Kleanthous K, Karapanou O, Fretzayas A. Characteristics of the short children referred to an academic paediatric endocrine clinic in Greece. J Paediatr Child Health 2012; 48:263-7. [PMID: 22112203 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1754.2011.02256.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
AIM To describe the characteristics of short children in relation to gender and the various diagnoses. METHODS All new patients of Greek origin that were referred to our institution in the years 2007 and 2008 for evaluation of short stature were included in the study. Children were categorized according to the severity of their short stature in those with height standard deviation score (HSDS) ≤ -3 and HSDS > -3. RESULTS Two hundred ninety-five children (162 boys and 133 girls, ratio 1.2) were referred. HSDS of boys was -2.3 (0.6) and of girls -2.1 (0.5), P= 0.004. Girls had shorter parents, and the predicted adult HSDS was also shorter for girls -1.7 (0.8) than for boys -1.35 (0.76), P= 0.003. Seventy per cent of the children of both sexes had familial short stature (FSS), constitutional delay of growth or a combination of the two conditions. About 10% presented the auxological and biochemical criteria for growth hormone deficiency (GHD). In addition, 11.8% had a HSDS ≤ -3, the most common diagnosis being GHD (36.1%); the less severely short children most commonly presented FSS (41.2%). CONCLUSIONS There is no gender bias in referrals for short stature in Greece. About 70% of children of both sexes presented FSS or constitutional delay of growth or a combination of the two conditions, whereas GHD was diagnosed in about 10% of the children. Normal variants of growth were present in about 80% of children with HSDS > -3, but in only 40% when HSDS was ≤ -3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasios Papadimitriou
- Third Department of Paediatrics, University of Athens, School of Medicine, Attikon University Hospital, Athens, Greece.
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Bechtold S, Bachmann S, Putzker S, Dalla Pozza R, Schwarz HP. Early changes in body composition after cessation of growth hormone therapy in childhood-onset growth hormone deficiency. J Clin Densitom 2011; 14:471-7. [PMID: 21723762 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocd.2011.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2011] [Revised: 05/04/2011] [Accepted: 05/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
At final height, somatic maturity has not been reached yet. We investigated bone and body composition in patients, who completed pediatric growth hormone (GH) treatment at final height. After a mean period of 0.55 ± 0.17 yr off GH treatment 90 (66 m/24 f) childhood-onset growth hormone deficiency (GHD) patients were reinvestigated for GHD by insulin tolerance testing at a mean age of 17.52 ± 1.50 yr. Thirty-seven (25 m/12 f) patients remained GH deficient (persistent GHD). Bone and body composition were measured using peripheral quantitative computed tomography of the nondominant forearm. Bone mineral density (BMD) was within normal limits. Total cross-sectional bone area Z-score (0.64 ± 1.3) was significantly higher as a result of an enlarged medullary cavity Z-score (1.12 ± 1.2) leading to reduction of cortical thickness Z-score (-1.21 ± 1.0). Patients with persistent GHD had a significantly higher fat mass (13.3 ± 8.7 and 6.8 ± 4.6 cm(2), p<0.05), which was more pronounced in multiple pituitary hormone deficiency patients. Shortly after cessation of GH treatment in patients treated for childhood-onset GHD age adequate normal BMD and enlarged diaphysis was detectable. Patients with persistent GHD status had a significant higher fat mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Bechtold
- University Children's Hospital, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Munich, Germany.
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Abstract
Growth hormone is a widely used hormone. This article describes its historical use, current indications and studies for possible future uses.
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Reh CS, Geffner ME. Somatotropin in the treatment of growth hormone deficiency and Turner syndrome in pediatric patients: a review. Clin Pharmacol 2010; 2:111-22. [PMID: 22291494 PMCID: PMC3262362 DOI: 10.2147/cpaa.s6525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth hormone (GH), also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone that is synthesized and secreted by the somatotrophs of the anterior pituitary gland. The main action of GH is to stimulate linear growth in children; however, it also fosters a healthy body composition by increasing muscle and reducing fat mass, maintains normal blood glucose levels, and promotes a favorable lipid profile. This article provides an overview of the normal pathophysiology of GH production and action. We discuss the history of GH therapy and the development of the current formulation of recombinant human GH given as daily subcutaneous injections. This paper reviews two of the longest standing FDA-approved indications for GH treatment, GH deficiency and Turner syndrome. We will highlight the pathogenesis of these disorders, including presentations, presumed mechanism(s) for the associated short stature, and diagnostic criteria, with a review of stimulation test benefits and pitfalls. This review also includes current recommendations for GH therapy to help maximize final height in these children, as well as data demonstrating the efficacy and safety of GH treatment in these populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Southern Reh
- Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Keck School of Medicine of USC, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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Franklin SL, Geffner ME. Growth hormone: the expansion of available products and indications. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2009; 38:587-611. [PMID: 19717006 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecl.2009.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Growth hormone is a widely used hormone. This article describes its historical use, current indications and studies for possible future uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherry L Franklin
- University of California San Diego School of Medicine, Rady Childrens Hospital of San Diego, 7910 Frost Street, Suite 435, San Diego, CA 92123, USA.
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