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Adomako-Bonsu AG, Jacobsen J, Maser E. Metabolic activation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene; a case for ROS-induced cell damage. Redox Biol 2024; 72:103082. [PMID: 38527399 PMCID: PMC10979124 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2024.103082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The explosive compound 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) is well known as a major component of munitions. In addition to its potential carcinogenicity and mutagenicity in humans, recent reports have highlighted TNT toxicities in diverse organisms due to its occurrence in the environment. These toxic effects have been linked to the intracellular metabolism of TNT, which is generally characterised by redox cycling and the generation of noxious reactive molecules. The reactive intermediates formed, such as nitroso and hydroxylamine compounds, also interact with oxygen molecules and cellular components to cause macromolecular damage and oxidative stress. The current review aims to highlight the crucial role of TNT metabolism in mediating TNT toxicity, via increased generation of reactive oxygen species. Cellular proliferation of reactive species results in depletion of cellular antioxidant enzymes, DNA and protein adduct formation, and oxidative stress. While TNT toxicity is well known, its ability to induce oxidative stress, resulting from its reductive activation, suggests that some of its toxic effects may be caused by its reactive metabolites. Hence, further research on TNT metabolism is imperative to elucidate TNT-induced toxicities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amma Gyapomah Adomako-Bonsu
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Jana Jacobsen
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany.
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Maser E, Andresen KJ, Bünning TH, Clausen OR, Wichert U, Strehse JS. Ecotoxicological Risk of World War Relic Munitions in the Sea after Low- and High-Order Blast-in-Place Operations. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:20169-20181. [PMID: 37933956 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c04873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Submerged munitions from World War I and II are threatening human activities in the oceans, including fisheries and shipping or the construction of pipelines and offshore facilities. To avoid unforeseen explosions, remotely controlled "blast-in-place" (BiP) operations are a common practice worldwide. However, after underwater BiP detonations, the toxic and carcinogenic energetic compounds (ECs) will not completely combust but rather distribute within the marine ecosphere. To shed light on this question, two comparable World War II mines in Denmark's Sejerø Bay (Baltic Sea) were blown up by either low-order or high-order BiP operations by the Royal Danish Navy. Water and sediment samples were taken before and immediately after the respective BiP operation and analyzed for the presence of ECs with sensitive GC-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS technology. EC concentrations increased after high-order BiP detonations up to 353 ng/L and 175 μg/kg in water and sediment, respectively, while low-order BiP detonations resulted in EC water and sediment concentrations up to 1,000,000 ng/L (1 mg/L) and >10,000,000 μg/kg (>10 g/kg), respectively. Our studies provide unequivocal evidence that BiP operations in general lead to a significant increase of contamination of the marine environment and ecotoxicological risk with toxic ECs. Moreover, as compared to high-order BiP detonations, low-order BiP detonations resulted in a several 1000-fold higher burden on the marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Katrine J Andresen
- Department of Geoscience, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 2, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Tobias H Bünning
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Ole R Clausen
- Department of Geoscience, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 2, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Uwe Wichert
- Consultant BLANO, MEKUN and HELCOM SUBMERGED, Eichenweg 6, 24351 Damp, Germany
| | - Jennifer S Strehse
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany
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Strehse JS, Bünning TH, Koschorreck J, Künitzer A, Maser E. Long-Term Trends for Blue Mussels from the German Environmental Specimen Bank Show First Evidence of Munition Contaminants Uptake. TOXICS 2023; 11:347. [PMID: 37112574 PMCID: PMC10142797 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11040347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Submerged munitions are present in marine waters across the globe. They contain energetic compounds (ECs), such as TNT and metabolites thereof, which are considered carcinogenic, exhibit toxic effects in marine organisms, and may affect human health. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of ECs and their trends in blue mussels from the annual collections of the German Environmental Specimen Bank sampled over the last 30 years at three different locations along the coastline of the Baltic and North Sea. Samples were analyzed by GC-MS/MS for 1,3-dinitrobenzene (1,3-DNB), 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT), 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2-ADNT), and 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-ADNT). The first signals indicating trace levels of 1,3-DNB were observed in samples from 1999 and 2000. ECs were also found below the limit of detection (LoD) in subsequent years. From 2012 onwards, signals just above the LoD were detected. The highest signal intensities of 2-ADNT and 4-ADNT, just below the LoQ (0.14 ng/g d.w. and 0.17 ng/g d.w., respectively), were measured in 2019 and 2020. This study clearly shows that corroding submerged munitions are gradually releasing ECs into the waters that can be detected in randomly sampled blue mussels, even though the concentrations measured are still in the non-quantifiable trace range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Susanne Strehse
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Straße 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany (E.M.)
| | - Tobias Hartwig Bünning
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Straße 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany (E.M.)
| | - Jan Koschorreck
- German Environment Agency, Wörlitzer Platz 1, 06844 Dessau, Germany
| | - Anita Künitzer
- German Environment Agency, Wörlitzer Platz 1, 06844 Dessau, Germany
| | - Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Straße 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany (E.M.)
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Xia C, Jin X, Parandoust A, Sheibani R, Khorsandi Z, Montazeri N, Wu Y, Van Le Q. Chitosan-supported metal nanocatalysts for the reduction of nitroaromatics. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 239:124135. [PMID: 36965557 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023]
Abstract
The second most abundant natural polymer in the earth's crust is chitosan (CS). The unique physical, chemical, structural, and mechanical features of this natural polymer have led to its increased application in a variety of fields such as medicine, catalysis, removal of pollutants, etc. To eliminate various pollutants, it is preferable to employ natural compounds as their use aids the removal of contaminants from the environment. Consequently, employing CS to eliminate contaminants is a viable choice. For this aim, CS can be applied as a template and support for metal nanoparticles (MNPs) and prevent the accumulation of MNPs as well as a reducing and stabilizing agent for the fabrication of MNPs. Among the pollutants present in nature, nitro compounds are an important and wide category of biological pollutants. 4-Nitrophenol (4-NP) is one of the nitro pollutants. There are different ways for the removal of 4-NP, but the best and most effective method for this purpose is the application of a metallic catalyst and a reducing agent. In this review, we report the recent developments regarding CS-supported metallic (nano)catalysts for the reduction of nitroaromatics such as nitrophenols, nitroaniline compounds, nitrobenzene, etc. in the presence of reducing agents. The metals investigated in this study include Ag, Au, Ni, Cu, Ru, Pt, Pd, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changlei Xia
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210037, China
| | - Xin Jin
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210037, China
| | - Ahmad Parandoust
- Farabi Educational Institute, Moghadas Ardebili St., Mahmoodiye St., No 13, 1986743413 Tehran, Iran
| | - Reza Sheibani
- Amirkabir University of Technology-Mahshahr Campus, University St., Nahiyeh san'ati, Mahshahr, Khouzestan, Iran.
| | - Zahra Khorsandi
- Department of Chemistry, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 415683111, Iran
| | - Narjes Montazeri
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Yingji Wu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210037, China
| | - Quyet Van Le
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Green Manufacturing Technology, Korea University, 145, Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
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Critical Role of Monooxygenase in Biodegradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene by Buttiauxella sp. S19-1. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041969. [PMID: 36838956 PMCID: PMC9958683 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an aromatic pollutant that is difficult to be degraded in the natural environment. The screening of efficient degrading bacteria for bioremediation of TNT has received much attention from scholars. In this paper, transcriptome analysis of the efficient degrading bacterium Buttiauxella sp. S19-1 revealed that the monooxygenase gene (BuMO) was significantly up-regulated during TNT degradation. S-ΔMO (absence of BuMO gene in S19-1 mutant) degraded TNT 1.66-fold less efficiently than strain S19-1 (from 71.2% to 42.9%), and E-MO mutant (Escherichia coli BuMO-expressing strain) increased the efficiency of TNT degradation 1.33-fold (from 52.1% to 69.5%) for 9 h at 180 rpm at 27 °C in LB medium with 1.4 µg·mL-1 TNT. We predicted the structure of BuMO and purified recombinant BuMO (rBuMO). Its specific activity was 1.81 µmol·min-1·mg-1 protein at pH 7.5 and 35 °C. The results of gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis indicated that 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (ADNT) is a metabolite of TNT biodegradation. We speculate that MO is involved in catalysis in the bacterial degradation pathway of TNT in TNT-polluted environment.
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Maser E, Bünning TH, Brenner M, Van Haelst S, De Rijcke M, Müller P, Wichert U, Strehse JS. Warship wrecks and their munition cargos as a threat to the marine environment and humans: The V 1302 "JOHN MAHN" from World War II. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159324. [PMID: 36216058 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In addition to endangering sea traffic, cable routes, and wind farms, sunken warship wrecks with dangerous cargo, fuel, or munitions on board may emerge as point sources for environmental damage. Energetic compounds such as TNT (which could leak from these munitions) are known for their toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity. These compounds may cause potential adverse effects on marine life via contamination of the marine ecosystem, and their entry into the marine and human food chain could directly affect human health. To ascertain the impending danger of an environmental catastrophe posed by sunken warships, the North Sea Wrecks (NSW) project (funded by the Interreg North Sea Region Program) was launched in 2018. Based on historical data (derived from military archives) including the calculated amount of munitions still on board, its known location and accessibility, the German World War II ship "Vorpostenboot 1302" (former civilian name - "JOHN MAHN") was selected as a case study to investigate the leakage and distribution of toxic explosives in the marine environment. The wreck site and surrounding areas were mapped in great detail by scientific divers and a multibeam echosounder. Water and sediment samples were taken in a cross-shaped pattern around the wreck. To assess a possible entry into the marine food chain, caged mussels were exposed at the wreck, and wild fish (pouting), a sedentary species that stays locally at the wreck, were caught. All samples were analyzed for the presence of TNT and derivatives thereof by GC-MS/MS analysis. As a result, we could provide evidence that sunken warship wrecks emerge as a point source of contamination with nitroaromatic energetic compounds leaking from corroding munitions cargo still on board. Not only did we find these explosive substances in bottom water and sediment samples around the wreck, but also in the caged mussels as well as in wild fish living at the wreck. Fortunately so far, the concentrations found in mussel meat and fish filet were only in the one-digit ng per gram range thus indicating no current concern for the human seafood consumer. However, in the future the situation may worsen as the corrosion continues. From our study, it is proposed that wrecks should not only be ranked according to critical infrastructure and human activities at sea, but also to the threats they pose to the environment and the human seafood consumer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany.
| | - Tobias H Bünning
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Matthias Brenner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Sven Van Haelst
- Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), Wandelaarkaai 7, 8400 Oostende, Belgium
| | - Maarten De Rijcke
- Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), Wandelaarkaai 7, 8400 Oostende, Belgium
| | - Patrick Müller
- 3D Artist Freelancer, Auf dem Steinchen 6, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Uwe Wichert
- Consultant BLANO, MEKUN and HELCOM SUBMERGED, Eichenweg 6, 24351 Damp, Germany
| | - Jennifer S Strehse
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany
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Ni S, Zhang H, Sun L, Zhao Y, Pei C, Nie Y, Liu X, Wu L, Xu A. Transgenerational reproductive toxicity of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and its metabolite 4-ADNT in Caenorhabditis elegans. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2022; 92:103865. [PMID: 35436606 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2022.103865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) as an energetic compound widely used in military applications has aroused great concerns in recent years due to its large-scale contamination in soil and water; however, its toxicity is still largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the reproductive toxicity and the transgenerational effects of TNT on Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Our data showed that exposure to TNT at concentrations ranging from 10 to 100 ng/mL resulted in decreasing the lifespan, brood size, number of oocytes and eggs in uterus, while increasing the number of germ cell apoptosis in C. elegans. The apoptotic effects of TNT were blocked in mutants of cep-1 (w40), egl-1 (n487), and hus-1 (op241), indicating conserved genotoxic response genes was involved in mediating TNT-induced germ cell apoptosis. Parental exposure to TNT significantly increased the germ cell apoptosis from P0 to F2 generation, but the toxicity faded away in F3 and F4 generations. Furthermore, TNT was rapidly metabolized in P0, and the accumulation of 4-aminodinitrotoluene (4-ADNT), the main metabolite of TNT in C. elegans, showed a significant decrease from P0 to F1 and a slow decrease in the subsequent generations. Our results demonstrated that ingested TNT can cause severe transgenerational reproductive toxicity and be rapidly converted to 4-ADNT in the nematodes. These data provided basis for future studies on the effects of energetic compounds across generations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shenyao Ni
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, PR China
| | - Huijun Zhang
- Institute of Polar Environment & Anhui Key Laboratory of Polar Environment and Global Change, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China
| | - Lingyan Sun
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, PR China
| | - Yanan Zhao
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, PR China
| | - Chengcheng Pei
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, PR China
| | - Yaguang Nie
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, PR China.
| | - Xiaodong Liu
- Institute of Polar Environment & Anhui Key Laboratory of Polar Environment and Global Change, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China
| | - Lijun Wu
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, PR China
| | - An Xu
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, PR China; Key Laboratory of High Magnetic Field and Ion Beam Physical Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Pollution Control Technology, High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui 230031, PR China.
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Degradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT): Involvement of Protocatechuate 3,4-Dioxygenase (P34O) in Buttiauxella sp. S19-1. TOXICS 2021; 9:toxics9100231. [PMID: 34678927 PMCID: PMC8540567 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9100231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Extensive use and disposal of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), a primary constituent of explosives, pollutes the environment and causes severe damage to human health. Complete mineralization of TNT via bacterial degradation has recently gained research interest as an effective method for the restoration of contaminated sites. Here, screening for TNT degradation by six selected bacteria revealed that Buttiauxella sp. S19-1, possesses the strongest degrading ability. Moreover, BuP34O (a gene encoding for protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase—P34O, a key enzyme in the β-ketoadipate pathway) was upregulated during TNT degradation. A knockout of BuP34O in S19-1 to generate S-M1 mutant strain caused a marked reduction in TNT degradation efficiency compared to S19-1. Additionally, the EM1 mutant strain (Escherichia coli DH5α transfected with BuP34O) showed higher degradation efficiency than DH5α. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of TNT degradation by S19-1 revealed 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotolune (ADNT) as the intermediate metabolite of TNT. Furthermore, the recombinant protein P34O (rP34O) expressed the activity of 2.46 µmol/min·mg. Our findings present the first report on the involvement of P34O in bacterial degradation of TNT and its metabolites, suggesting that P34O could catalyze downstream reactions in the TNT degradation pathway. In addition, the TNT-degrading ability of S19-1, a Gram-negative marine-derived bacterium, presents enormous potential for restoration of TNT-contaminated seas.
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Schuster R, Strehse JS, Ahvo A, Turja R, Maser E, Bickmeyer U, Lehtonen KK, Brenner M. Exposure to dissolved TNT causes multilevel biological effects in Baltic mussels (Mytilus spp.). MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 167:105264. [PMID: 33725510 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2021.105264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Baltic mussels (Mytilus spp.) were exposed to the explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT) for 96 h (0.31-10.0 mg/L) and 21 d (0.31-2.5 mg/L). Bioaccumulation of TNT and its degradation products (2- and 4-ADNT) as well as biological effects ranging from the gene and cellular levels to behaviour were investigated. Although no mortality occurred in the concentration range tested, uptake and metabolism of TNT and responses in antioxidant enzymes and histochemical biomarkers were observed already at the lowest concentrations. The characteristic shell closure behaviour of bivalves at trigger concentrations led to complex exposure patterns and non-linear responses to the exposure concentrations. Conclusively, exposure to TNT exerts biomarker reponses in mussels already at 0.31 mg/L while effects are recorded also after a prolonged exposure although no mortality occurs. Finally, more attention should be paid on shell closure of bivalves in exposure studies since it plays a marked role in definining toxicity threshold levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romina Schuster
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Jennifer S Strehse
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School, Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Aino Ahvo
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Raisa Turja
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School, Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ulf Bickmeyer
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Kari K Lehtonen
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matthias Brenner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany.
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10
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Can seafood from marine sites of dumped World War relicts be eaten? Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:2255-2261. [PMID: 33837803 PMCID: PMC8241755 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03045-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Since World War I, considerable amounts of warfare materials have been dumped at seas worldwide. After more than 70 years of resting on the seabed, reports suggest that the metal shells of these munitions are corroding, such that explosive chemicals leak out and distribute in the marine environment. Explosives such as TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) and its derivatives are known for their toxicity and carcinogenicity, thereby posing a threat to the marine environment. Toxicity studies suggest that chemical components of munitions are unlikely to cause acute toxicity to marine organisms. However, there is increasing evidence that they can have sublethal and chronic effects in aquatic biota, especially in organisms that live directly on the sea floor or in subsurface substrates. Moreover, munition-dumping sites could serve as nursery habitats for young biota species, demanding special emphasis on all kinds of developing juvenile marine animals. Unfortunately, these chemicals may also enter the marine food chain and directly affect human health upon consuming contaminated seafood. While uptake and accumulation of toxic munition compounds in marine seafood species such as mussels and fish have already been shown, a reliable risk assessment for the human seafood consumer and the marine ecosphere is lacking and has not been performed until now. In this review, we compile the first data and landmarks for a reliable risk assessment for humans who consume seafood contaminated with munition compounds. We hereby follow the general guidelines for a toxicological risk assessment of food as suggested by authorities.
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Strehse JS, Brenner M, Kisiela M, Maser E. The explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT) induces gene expression of carbonyl reductase in the blue mussel (Mytilus spp.): a new promising biomarker for sea dumped war relicts? Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:4043-4054. [PMID: 33094350 PMCID: PMC8215042 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02931-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Millions of tons of all kind of munitions, including mines, bombs and torpedoes have been dumped after World War II in the marine environment and do now pose a new threat to the seas worldwide. Beside the acute risk of unwanted detonation, there is a chronic risk of contamination, because the metal vessels corrode and the toxic and carcinogenic explosives (trinitrotoluene (TNT) and metabolites) leak into the environment. While the mechanism of toxicity and carcinogenicity of TNT and its derivatives occurs through its capability of inducing oxidative stress in the target biota, we had the idea if TNT can induce the gene expression of carbonyl reductase in blue mussels. Carbonyl reductases are members of the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) superfamily. They metabolize xenobiotics bearing carbonyl functions, but also endogenous signal molecules such as steroid hormones, prostaglandins, biogenic amines, as well as sugar and lipid peroxidation derived reactive carbonyls, the latter providing a defence mechanism against oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here, we identified and cloned the gene coding for carbonyl reductase from the blue mussel Mytilus spp. by a bioinformatics approach. In both laboratory and field studies, we could show that TNT induces a strong and concentration-dependent induction of gene expression of carbonyl reductase in the blue mussel. Carbonyl reductase may thus serve as a biomarker for TNT exposure on a molecular level which is useful to detect TNT contaminations in the environment and to perform a risk assessment both for the ecosphere and the human seafood consumer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer S Strehse
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Matthias Brenner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Michael Kisiela
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany.
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12
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Simonovic M, Ostojic S, Micic D, Bisercic-Savic M, Mix T, Glumac M, Pejin B. A novel and effective natural product-based immunodetection tool for TNT-like compounds. Nat Prod Res 2020; 36:857-861. [PMID: 32787566 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2020.1806269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to develop a fast and reliable protocol for Trinitrophenol-Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (TNP-Tris) detection applying a β-lactamase-fusion protein of choice, the natural product-based immunoreagent tool of competitive sensitivity developed herein for the first time. Since the fusion protein 11B3-scFv-β-lactamase is constructed from a scFv-antibody (11B3) linked to an enzyme (β-lactamase), the step related to the use of secondary antibody in the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is completely omitted. Indeed, this fusion protein itself serves both as binding mean of the antigen model and detecting agent, due to the presence of the naturally occurring enzyme. In such a way, it actually affords the one-step TNP-Tris detection reaching a promising LOD value of 45 ± 2 fmol or 157 ± 6 pg/mL. Taken all together, the current protocol does represent much cheaper and significantly less-time consuming alternative compared both to the recombinant antibodies and recombinant phages, previously designed means in our labs for the same purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mladen Simonovic
- Institute of General and Physical Chemistry, IOFH, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sanja Ostojic
- Institute of General and Physical Chemistry, IOFH, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Darko Micic
- Institute of General and Physical Chemistry, IOFH, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Thorsten Mix
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Miodrag Glumac
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology - SFSB, Food Oral Processing Laboratory, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Boris Pejin
- Institute for Multidisciplinary Research - IMSI, Department of Life Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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13
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Strehse JS, Maser E. Marine bivalves as bioindicators for environmental pollutants with focus on dumped munitions in the sea: A review. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 158:105006. [PMID: 32501270 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The seas worldwide are threatened by a "new" source of pollution. Munitions dumped into the seas worldwide will corrode and start to leak. Their impacts on the environment and on human health are now more than ever subject of scientific research. Bivalves are a first choice bioindicator and their importance is demonstrated in numerous worldwide studies as well as their integration in important monitoring programs. In this review, the use of mussels in context with marine pollutants in recent years is pointed out in general but with a special focus on dumped conventional and chemical munitions. Monitoring experiments with mussels are able to generate large data sets, which should be mandatory included in decision support tools to increase their weight of evidence. The usefulness of mussels with regard to dumped munitions has clearly been documented in recent years and the further application of this important biomonitoring system is strongly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer S Strehse
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany.
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14
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Maser E, Strehse JS. "Don't Blast": blast-in-place (BiP) operations of dumped World War munitions in the oceans significantly increase hazards to the environment and the human seafood consumer. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:1941-1953. [PMID: 32303806 PMCID: PMC8172487 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02743-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The seas worldwide are threatened by a "new" source of pollution: millions of tons of all kind of warfare material have been dumped intentionally after World War I and II, in addition to mine barriers, failed detonations as well as shot down military planes and sunken ship wrecks carrying munitions. For example, in the German parts of the North and Baltic Sea approximately 1.6 million metric tons of toxic conventional explosives (TNT and others) and more than 5000 metric tons of chemical weapons are present. Such unexploded ordnance (UXO) constitutes a direct risk of detonation with increased human access (fisheries, water sports, cable constructions, wind farms and pipelines). Moreover, after more than 70 years of resting on the seabed, the metal shells of these munitions items corrode, such that chemicals leak out and distribute in the marine environment. Explosive chemicals such as TNT and its derivatives are known for their toxicity and carcinogenicity. In order not to endanger today's shipping traffic or the installation of pipelines and offshore plants by uncontrolled explosions, controlled blast-in-place (BiP) operations of these dangerous relics is a common practice worldwide. However, blast-in-place methods of in situ munitions disposal often result in incomplete (low-order) detonation, leaving substantial quantities of the explosive material in the environment. In the present free field investigation, we placed mussels (Mytilus spp.) as a biomonitoring system in an area of the Baltic Sea where BiP operations took place and where, by visual inspections by scientific divers, smaller and larger pieces of munitions-related materials were scattered on the seafloor. After recovery, the mussels were transferred to our laboratory and analyzed for TNT and its derivatives via gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy. Our data unequivocally demonstrate that low-order BiP operations of dumped munitions in the sea lead to multiple increases in the concentration of TNT and its metabolites in the mussels when compared to similar studies at corroding but still encased mines. For this reason, we explicitly criticize BiP operations because of the resulting environmental hazards, which can ultimately even endanger human seafood consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Jennifer S Strehse
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany
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15
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Guyot L, Simon F, Garcia J, Vanhalle F, Vilchez G, Bardel C, Manship B, Puisieux A, Machon C, Jacob G, Guitton J, Payen L. Structure-activity relationship study: Mechanism of cyto-genotoxicity of Nitropyrazole-derived high energy density materials family. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2019; 381:114712. [PMID: 31437493 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2019.114712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Stringent toxicological tests have to be performed prior to the industrial development of alternative chemicals particularly high energy dense materials (HEDMs) such as explosives. The properties (e.g., power, stability) of these compounds are constantly being improved, the current axis of research being the nitration of nitrogen heterocycles leading to HEDMs such as nitropyrazole-derived molecules. However, except for 3,4,5-trinitropyrazole (3,4,5-TNP), which was shown to be highly toxic in mice, the toxicological impact of these HEDMs has so far not been investigated. Furthermore, as industrials are strongly advised to develop alternative safety testing assays to in vivo experiments, we herein focused on determining the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of seven Nitropyrazole-derived HEDMs on three rodent cell lines (mouse embryonic BALB/3T3 clone A31 cells, Chinese hamster ovary cells CHO-K1 and mouse lymphoma L5178Y TK +/- clone (3.7.2C) cells), two human fibroblast lines (CRC05, PFS04062) and on the human hepatic HepaRG model (both in proliferative and differentiated cells). A stronger cytotoxic effect was observed for 1,3-dinitropyrazole (1, 3-DNP) and 3,4,5-TNP in all cell lines, though differentiated HepaRG cells clearly displayed fewer likely due to the metabolism and elimination of these molecules by their functional biotransformation pathways. At the mechanistic level, the sub-chronic cytotoxic and genotoxic effects were linked to ROS/RNS production (experimental assays), HA2.X and to transcriptomic data highlighting the increase in DNA repair mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia Guyot
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Laboratoire de biochimie-toxicologie, France; UMR INSERM U1052/CNRS 5286, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Centre Léon Bérard, France
| | - Florian Simon
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Laboratoire de biochimie-toxicologie, France
| | - Jessica Garcia
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Laboratoire de biochimie-toxicologie, France
| | - Floriane Vanhalle
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Laboratoire de biochimie-toxicologie, France
| | - Gaelle Vilchez
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Laboratoire de biochimie-toxicologie, France
| | - Claire Bardel
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Laboratoire de biochimie-toxicologie, France
| | - Brigitte Manship
- UMR INSERM U1052/CNRS 5286, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Centre Léon Bérard, France
| | - Alain Puisieux
- UMR INSERM U1052/CNRS 5286, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Centre Léon Bérard, France; Université Lyon 1, ISPBL, Faculté de pharmacie, Laboratoire de Toxicologie, France
| | - Christelle Machon
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Laboratoire de biochimie-toxicologie, France
| | - Guy Jacob
- Université Lyon 1, Faculté des sciences et technologies, UMR CNRS 5278 Hydrazines et Composés Energetiques Polyazotés, France; ArianeGroup Centre de Recherche du Bouchet, France
| | - Jérôme Guitton
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Laboratoire de biochimie-toxicologie, France; Université Lyon 1, ISPBL, Faculté de pharmacie, Laboratoire de Toxicologie, France.
| | - Léa Payen
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Laboratoire de biochimie-toxicologie, France; UMR INSERM U1052/CNRS 5286, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Centre Léon Bérard, France; Université Lyon 1, ISPBL, Faculté de pharmacie, Laboratoire de Toxicologie, France
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16
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Zhang L, Rylott EL, Bruce NC, Strand SE. Genetic modification of western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii) for the phytoremediation of RDX and TNT. PLANTA 2019; 249:1007-1015. [PMID: 30488285 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-018-3057-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic western wheatgrass degrades the explosive RDX and detoxifies TNT. Contamination, from the explosives, hexahydro-1, 3, 5-trinitro-1, 3, 5-triazine (RDX), and 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), especially on live-fire training ranges, threatens environmental and human health. Phytoremediation is an approach that could be used to clean-up explosive pollution, but it is hindered by inherently low in planta RDX degradation rates, and the high phytotoxicity of TNT. The bacterial genes, xplA and xplB, confer the ability to degrade RDX in plants, and a bacterial nitroreductase gene nfsI enhances the capacity of plants to withstand and detoxify TNT. While the previous studies have used model plant species to demonstrate the efficacy of this technology, trials using plant species able to thrive in the challenging environments found on military training ranges are now urgently needed. Perennial western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii) is a United States native species that is broadly distributed across North America, well-suited for phytoremediation, and used by the US military to re-vegetate military ranges. Here, we present the first report of the genetic transformation of western wheatgrass. Plant lines transformed with xplA, xplB, and nfsI removed significantly more RDX from hydroponic solutions and retained much lower, or undetectable, levels of RDX in their leaf tissues when compared to wild-type plants. Furthermore, these plants were also more resistant to TNT toxicity, and detoxified more TNT than wild-type plants. This is the first study to engineer a field-applicable grass species capable of both RDX degradation and TNT detoxification. Together, these findings present a promising biotechnological approach to sustainably contain, remove RDX and TNT from training range soil and prevent groundwater contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Box 355014, Seattle, WA, 98195-5014, USA
| | - Elizabeth L Rylott
- Department of Biology, Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, University of York, Wentworth Way, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Neil C Bruce
- Department of Biology, Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, University of York, Wentworth Way, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Stuart E Strand
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Box 355014, Seattle, WA, 98195-5014, USA.
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17
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Zhang CL, Yu YY, Fang Z, Naraginti S, Zhang Y, Yong YC. Recent advances in nitroaromatic pollutants bioreduction by electroactive bacteria. Process Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2018.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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18
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Biomonitoring of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene and degradation products in the marine environment with transplanted blue mussels (M. edulis). Toxicology 2017; 390:117-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2017.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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19
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Zhang L, Rylott EL, Bruce NC, Strand SE. Phytodetoxification of TNT by transplastomic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) expressing a bacterial nitroreductase. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 95:99-109. [PMID: 28762129 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-017-0639-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE Expression of the bacterial nitroreductase gene, nfsI, in tobacco plastids conferred the ability to detoxify TNT. The toxic pollutant 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) is recalcitrant to degradation in the environment. Phytoremediation is a potentially low cost remediation technique that could be applied to soil contaminated with TNT; however, progress is hindered by the phytotoxicity of this compound. Previous studies have demonstrated that plants transformed with the bacterial nitroreductase gene, nfsI have increased ability to tolerate and detoxify TNT. It has been proposed that plants engineered to express nfsI could be used to remediate TNT on military ranges, but this could require steps to mitigate transgene flow to wild populations. To address this, we have developed nfsI transplastomic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) to reduce pollen-borne transgene flow. Here we have shown that when grown on solid or liquid media, the transplastomic tobacco expressing nfsI were significantly more tolerant to TNT, produced increased biomass and removed more TNT from the media than untransformed plants. Additionally, transplastomic plants expressing nfsI regenerated with high efficiency when grown on medium containing TNT, suggesting that nfsI and TNT could together be used to provide a selectable screen for plastid transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Box 355014, Seattle, WA, 98195-5014, USA
| | | | - Neil C Bruce
- CNAP, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Stuart E Strand
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Box 355014, Seattle, WA, 98195-5014, USA.
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20
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2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene Induces Apoptosis via ROS-Regulated Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in HepG2 and Hep3B Cells. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8148. [PMID: 28811603 PMCID: PMC5557873 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-08308-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) has been reported to cause numerous adverse effects. However, the detailed molecular mechanisms underlying TNT-induced liver toxicity need to be elucidated. In this study, we used HepG2 (p53wt) and Hep3B (p53null) cell lines to investigate the cytotoxic effects of TNT. At first, we found that TNT significantly decreased cell viability and induced DNA damage. Thereafter, through transcriptomic analysis, we observed that the diverse biological functions affected included mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Mitochondrial dysfunction was evidenced by the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, increased expression of cleaved-caspase-9&-3 and increased caspase-3/7 activity, indicating that apoptosis had occurred. In addition, the expressions of some ER stress-related proteins had increased. Next, we investigated the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in TNT-induced cellular toxicity. The levels of DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, ER stress and apoptosis were alleviated when the cells were pretreated with N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC). These results indicated that TNT caused the ROS dependent apoptosis via ER stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Finally, the cells transfected with CHOP siRNA significantly reversed the TNT-induced apoptosis, which indicated that ER stress led to apoptosis. Overall, we examined TNT-induced apoptosis via ROS dependent mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress in HepG2 and Hep3B cells.
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21
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Naumenko EA, Ahlemeyer B, Baumgart-Vogt E. Species-specific differences in peroxisome proliferation, catalase, and SOD2 upregulation as well as toxicity in human, mouse, and rat hepatoma cells induced by the explosive and environmental pollutant 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2017; 32:989-1006. [PMID: 27322098 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) has been widely used as an explosive substance and its toxicity is still of interest as it persisted in polluted areas. TNT is metabolized in hepatocytes which are prone to its toxicity. Since analysis of the human liver or hepatocytes is restricted due to ethical reasons, we investigated the effects of TNT on cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, peroxisome proliferation, and antioxidative enzymes in human (HepG2), mouse (Hepa 1-6), and rat (H4IIEC3) hepatoma cell lines. Under control conditions, hepatoma cells of all three species were highly comparable exhibiting identical proliferation rates and distribution of their cell cycle phases. However, we found strong differences in TNT toxicity with the lowest IC50 values (highest cell death rate) for rat cells, whereas human and mouse cells were three to sevenfold less sensitive. Moreover, a strong decrease in cellular dehydrogenase activity (MTT assay) and increased ROS levels were noted. TNT caused peroxisome proliferation with rat hepatoma cells being most responsive followed by those from mouse and human. Under control conditions, rat cells contained fivefold higher peroxisomal catalase and mitochondrial SOD2 activities and a twofold higher capacity to reduce MTT than human and mouse cells. TNT treatment caused an increase in catalase and SOD2 mRNA and protein levels in human and mouse, but not in rat cells. Similarly, human and mouse cells upregulated SOD2 activity, whereas rat cells failed therein. We conclude that TNT induced oxidative stress, peroxisome proliferation and mitochondrial damage which are highest in rat cells rendering them most susceptible toward TNT. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 32: 989-1006, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Anatolevna Naumenko
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Kremlevskaya 18, Kazan, 420008, Russia
- Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Division of Medical Cell Biology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Aulweg 123, Giessen, 35385, Germany
| | - Barbara Ahlemeyer
- Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Division of Medical Cell Biology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Aulweg 123, Giessen, 35385, Germany
| | - Eveline Baumgart-Vogt
- Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Division of Medical Cell Biology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Aulweg 123, Giessen, 35385, Germany
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22
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Shinkai Y, Nishihara Y, Amamiya M, Wakayama T, Li S, Kikuchi T, Nakai Y, Shimojo N, Kumagai Y. NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase-mediated denitration reaction of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene to yield nitrite in mammals. Free Radic Biol Med 2016; 91:178-87. [PMID: 26454083 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2015.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Revised: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
While the biodegradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) via the release of nitrite is well established, mechanistic details of the reaction in mammals are unknown. To address this issue, we attempted to identify the enzyme from rat liver responsible for the production of nitrite from TNT. A NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (P450R) was isolated and identified from rat liver microsomes as the enzyme responsible for not only the release of nitrite from TNT but also formation of superoxide and 4-hydroxyamino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-HADNT) under aerobic conditions. In this context, reactive oxygen species generated during P450R-catalyzed TNT reduction were found to be, at least in part, a mediator for the production of 4-HADNT from TNT via formation of 4-nitroso-2,6-dinitrotoluene. P450R did not catalyze the formation of the hydride-Meisenheimer complex (H(-)-TNT) that is thought to be an intermediate for nitrite release from TNT. Furthermore, in a time-course experiment, 4-HADNT formation reached a plateau level and then declined during the reaction between TNT and P450R with NADPH, while the release of nitrite was subjected to a lag period. Notably, the produced 4-HADNT can react with the parent compound TNT to produce nitrite and dimerized products via formation of a Janovsky complex. Our results demonstrate for the first time that P450R-mediated release of nitrite from TNT results from the process of chemical interaction of TNT and its 4-electron reduction metabolite 4-HADNT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Shinkai
- Environmental Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan; Graduate School of Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Yuya Nishihara
- Graduate School of Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Masahiro Amamiya
- Graduate School of Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Wakayama
- Graduate School of Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Song Li
- Doctoral Program in Medical Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Kikuchi
- Graduate School of Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Yumi Nakai
- Application and Research Center, JEOL Ltd., 3-1-2 Musashino, Akishima, Tokyo 196-8558, Japan
| | - Nobuhiro Shimojo
- Graduate School of Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan; Doctoral Program in Medical Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan
| | - Yoshito Kumagai
- Environmental Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan; Graduate School of Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan; Doctoral Program in Medical Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8575, Japan.
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23
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Sviatenko LK, Isayev O, Gorb L, Hill FC, Leszczynska D, Leszczynski J. Are the reduction and oxidation properties of nitrocompounds dissolved in water different from those produced when adsorbed on a silica surface? A DFT M05-2X computational study. J Comput Chem 2015; 36:1029-35. [PMID: 25736204 DOI: 10.1002/jcc.23878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Revised: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The reduction and oxidation properties of four nitrocompounds (trinitrotoluene [TNT], 2,4-dinitrotoluene, 2,4-dinitroanisole, and 5-nitro-2,4-dihydro-3H-1,2,4-triazol-3-one [NTO]) dissolved in water as compared with the same properties for compounds adsorbed on a silica surface were studied. To consider the influence of adsorption, cluster models were developed at the M05/tzvp level. A hydroxylated silica (001) surface was chosen to represent a key component of soil. The PCM(Pauling) and SMD solvation models were used to model water bulk influence. The following properties were analyzed: electron affinity, ionization potential, reduction Gibbs free energy, oxidation Gibbs free energy, and reduction and oxidation potentials. It was found that adsorption and solvation decrease gas phase electron affinity, ionization potential, and Gibbs free energy of reduction and oxidation, and thus, promote redox transformation of nitrocompounds. However, in case of solvation, the changes are more significant than for adsorption. This means that nitrocompounds dissolved in water are easier to transform by reduction or oxidation than adsorbed ones. Among the considered compounds, TNT was found to be the most reactive in an electron attachment process and the least reactive for an electron detachment transformation. During ionization, a deprotonation of adsorbed NTO was found to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liudmyla K Sviatenko
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Interdisciplinary Nanotoxicity Center, Jackson State University, Jackson, Mississippi, 39217; Department of Organic Chemistry, Oles Honchar Dnipropetrovsk National University, Dnipropetrovsk, 49010, Ukraine
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24
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Buryakov IA. Detection of explosives by ion mobility spectrometry. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2011. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934811080077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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