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Barella LF, Jain S, Kimura T, Pydi SP. Metabolic roles of G protein-coupled receptor signaling in obesity and type 2 diabetes. FEBS J 2021; 288:2622-2644. [PMID: 33682344 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D) has been increasing steadily worldwide. It is estimated that by 2045 more than 800 million people will be suffering from diabetes. Despite the advancements in modern medicine, more effective therapies for treating obesity and T2D are needed. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have emerged as important drug targets for various chronic diseases, including obesity, T2D, and liver diseases. During the past two decades, many laboratories worldwide focused on understanding the role of GPCR signaling in regulating glucose metabolism and energy homeostasis. The information gained from these studies can guide the development of novel therapeutic agents. In this review, we summarize recent studies providing insights into the role of GPCR signaling in peripheral, metabolically important tissues such as pancreas, liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue, focusing primarily on the use of mutant animal models and human data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz F Barella
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Indiana Biosciences Research Institute, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Shanu Jain
- Molecular Recognition Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Takefumi Kimura
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sai P Pydi
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India
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2
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Yuan XC, Tao YX. Fenoprofen-An Old Drug Rediscovered as a Biased Allosteric Enhancer for Melanocortin Receptors. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:1066-1074. [PMID: 30168706 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
It is time-consuming and costly to bring new drugs to market, making it necessary and urgent to exploit existing drugs for new uses. Recently, fenoprofen was demonstrated as an allosteric modulator at melanocortin receptors (MCRs), although the exact mode of action has not been clarified. MCRs regulate multiple functions, including pigmentation, adrenal steroidogenesis, inflammation, energy homeostasis, and exocrine gland secretion. In this study, we showed that fenoprofen failed to displace the orthosteric agonist Nle4-d-Phe7-α-melanocyte stimulating hormone from binding to MC3-5R while possessing positive allosteric modulator activities at these receptors. In addition, fenoprofen induced biased signaling at MC3-5R, as it selectively activated ERK1/2 cascade but not the canonical cAMP signaling. Notably, fenoprofen stimulated biased signaling at MC3-5R, but not at MC1R, hence acting selectively among this highly conserved family of receptors. Moreover, PAM activity and biased signaling induced by fenoprofen were observed not only at wild-type but also at naturally occurring mutant MC3Rs, suggesting that this biased allosteric enhancer action might constitute as novel therapeutic opportunity for obese patients harboring these mutations. Our study might guide novel therapeutic applications for repurposing current drugs or designing new drugs combining allosteric and biased properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Chen Yuan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036 Anhui, China
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, United States
| | - Ya-Xiong Tao
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, United States
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3
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Synthesis and Hypolipidemic Activity of New 6,6-Disubstituted 3-R-6,7-Dihydro-2H
-[1,2,4]triazino[2,3-c
]quinazolin-2-Ones. J Heterocycl Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/jhet.3054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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4
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Ristic B, Bhutia YD, Ganapathy V. Cell-surface G-protein-coupled receptors for tumor-associated metabolites: A direct link to mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2017; 1868:246-257. [PMID: 28512002 PMCID: PMC5997391 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2017.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are the sites of pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, ketogenesis, and fatty acid oxidation. Attenuation of mitochondrial function is one of the most significant changes that occurs in tumor cells, directly linked to oncogenesis, angiogenesis, Warburg effect, and epigenetics. In particular, three mitochondrial enzymes are inactivated in cancer: pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA synthase-2 (HMGCS2). These enzymes are subject to regulation via acetylation/deacetylation. SIRT3, the predominant mitochondrial deacetylase, directly targets these enzymes for deacetylation and maintains their optimal catalytic activity. SIRT3 is a tumor suppressor, and deacetylation of these enzymes contributes to its biological function. PDH catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate into acetyl CoA, SDH oxidizes succinate into fumarate, and HMGCS2 controls the synthesis of the ketone body β-hydroxybutyrate. As the activities of these enzymes are decreased in cancer, tumor cells accumulate lactate and succinate but produce less amounts of β-hydroxybutyrate. Apart from their role in cellular energetics, these metabolites function as signaling molecules via specific cell-surface G-protein-coupled receptors. Lactate signals via GPR81, succinate via GPR91, and β-hydroxybutyrate via GPR109A. In addition, lactate activates hypoxia-inducible factor HIF1α and succinate promotes DNA methylation. GPR81 and GPR91 are tumor promoters, and increased production of lactate and succinate as their agonists drives tumorigenesis by enhancing signaling via these two receptors. In contrast, GPR109A is a tumor suppressor, and decreased synthesis of β-hydroxybutyrate as its agonist suppresses signaling via this receptor, thus attenuating the tumor-suppressing function of GPR109A. In parallel with the opposing changes in lactate/succinate and β-hydroxybutyrate levels, tumor cells upregulate GPR81 and GPR91 but downregulate GPR109A. As such, these three metabolite receptors play a critical role in cancer and represent a new class of drug targets with selective antagonists of GPR81 and GPR91 for cancer treatment and agonists of GPR109A for cancer prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojana Ristic
- Department of Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA
| | - Yangzom D Bhutia
- Department of Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA
| | - Vadivel Ganapathy
- Department of Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA.
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5
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Offermanns S. Hydroxy-Carboxylic Acid Receptor Actions in Metabolism. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2017; 28:227-236. [PMID: 28087125 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2016.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
Lactic acid, the ketone body 3-hydroxy-butyric acid, also known as β-hydroxybutyrate, and the β-oxidation intermediate 3-hydroxy-octanoic acid are hydroxy-carboxylic acids (HCAs) that serve as intermediates of energy metabolism. However, they also regulate cellular functions, in part by directly activating the G protein-coupled receptors HCA1/GPR81, HCA2/GPR109A, and HCA3/GPR109B. During the past decade, it has become clear that HCA receptors help to maintain homeostasis under changing metabolic and dietary conditions, by controlling metabolic, immune, and other body functions. Work based on genetic mouse models and synthetic ligands of HCA receptors has, in addition, shown that members of this receptor family can serve as targets for the prevention and therapy of diseases such as metabolic and inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Offermanns
- Department of Pharmacology, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Ludwigstrasse 43, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany; Medical Faculty, University of Frankfurt, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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Abstract
Two cardiovascular outcome trials established niacin 3 g daily prevents hard cardiac events. However, as detailed in part I of this series, an extended-release (ER) alternative at only 2 g nightly demonstrated no comparable benefits in two outcome trials, implying the alternative is not equivalent to the established cardioprotective regimen. Since statins leave a significant treatment gap, this presents a major opportunity for developers. Importantly, the established regimen is cardioprotective, so the pathway is likely beneficial. Moreover, though effective, the established cardioprotective regimen is cumbersome, limiting clinical use. At the same time, the ER alternative has been thoroughly discredited as a viable substitute for the established cardioprotective regimen. Therefore, by exploiting the pathway and skillfully avoiding the problems with the established cardioprotective regimen and the ER alternative, developers could validate cardioprotective variations facing little meaningful competition from their predecessors. Thus, shrewd developers could effectively tap into a gold mine at the grave of the ER alternative. The GPR109A receptor was discovered a decade ago, leading to a large body of evidence commending the niacin pathway to a lower cardiovascular risk beyond statins. While mediating niacin's most prominent adverse effects, GPR109A also seems to mediate anti-lipolytic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-atherogenic effects of niacin. Several developers are investing heavily in novel strategies to exploit niacin's therapeutic pathways. These include selective GPR109A receptor agonists, niacin prodrugs, and a niacin metabolite, with encouraging early phase human data. In part II of this review, we summarize the accumulated results of these early phase studies of emerging niacin mimetics.
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van Veldhoven JPD, Liu R, Thee SA, Wouters Y, Verhoork SJM, Mooiman C, Louvel J, IJzerman AP. Affinity and kinetics study of anthranilic acids as HCA2 receptor agonists. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:4013-25. [PMID: 25737085 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2014] [Revised: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Structure-affinity relationship (SAR) and structure-kinetics relationship (SKR) studies were combined to investigate a series of biphenyl anthranilic acid agonists for the HCA2 receptor. In total, 27 compounds were synthesized and twelve of them showed higher affinity than nicotinic acid. Two compounds, 6g (IC50=75nM) and 6z (IC50=108nM) showed a longer residence time profile compared to nicotinic acid, exemplified by their kinetic rate index (KRI) values of 1.31 and 1.23, respectively. The SAR study resulted in the novel 2-F, 4-OH derivative (6x) with an IC50 value of 23nM as the highest affinity HCA2 agonist of the biphenyl series, although it showed a similar residence time as nicotinic acid. The SAR and SKR data suggest that an early compound selection based on binding kinetics is a promising addition to the lead optimization process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacobus P D van Veldhoven
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rongfang Liu
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Stephanie A Thee
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Yessica Wouters
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sanne J M Verhoork
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Christiaan Mooiman
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Julien Louvel
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Adriaan P IJzerman
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands.
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8
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Bobileva O, Bokaldere R, Gailite V, Kaula I, Ikaunieks M, Duburs G, Petrovska R, Mandrika I, Klovins J, Loza E. Synthesis and evaluation of (E)-2-(acrylamido)cyclohex-1-enecarboxylic acid derivatives as HCA1, HCA2, and HCA3 receptor agonists. Bioorg Med Chem 2014; 22:3654-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2014.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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9
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Arner P, Langin D. Lipolysis in lipid turnover, cancer cachexia, and obesity-induced insulin resistance. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2014; 25:255-62. [PMID: 24731595 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2014.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Revised: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Triglycerides in adipose tissue are rapidly mobilized during times of energy needs via lipolysis, a catabolic process that plays important role in whole body triglyceride turnover. Lipolysis is regulated through cell surface receptors via neurotransmitters, hormones, and paracrine factors that activate various intracellular pathways. These pathways converge on the lipid droplet, the site of action of lipases and cofactors. Fat cell lipolysis is also involved in the pathogenesis of metabolic disorders, and recent human studies have underscored its role in disease states such as cancer cachexia and obesity-induced insulin resistance. We highlight here topics and findings with physiological and clinical relevance, namely lipid turnover in human fat cells and the role of lipolysis in cancer cachexia and obesity-induced insulin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Arner
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Medicine at Karolinska University Hospital, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Dominique Langin
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 1048, Obesity Research Laboratory, Institute of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, 31432 Toulouse, France; University of Toulouse, UMR 1048, Paul Sabatier University, 31432 Toulouse, France; Toulouse University Hospitals, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, 31059 Toulouse, France
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10
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Offermanns S. Free fatty acid (FFA) and hydroxy carboxylic acid (HCA) receptors. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2013; 54:407-34. [PMID: 24160702 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-011613-135945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Saturated and unsaturated free fatty acids (FFAs), as well as hydroxy carboxylic acids (HCAs) such as lactate and ketone bodies, are carriers of metabolic energy, precursors of biological mediators, and components of biological structures. However, they are also able to exert cellular effects through G protein-coupled receptors named FFA1-FFA4 and HCA1-HCA3. Work during the past decade has shown that these receptors are widely expressed in the human body and regulate the metabolic, endocrine, immune and other systems to maintain homeostasis under changing dietary conditions. The development of genetic mouse models and the generation of synthetic ligands of individual FFA and HCA receptors have been instrumental in identifying cellular and biological functions of these receptors. These studies have produced strong evidence that several FFA and HCA receptors can be targets for the prevention and treatment of various diseases, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Offermanns
- Department of Pharmacology, Max-Planck-Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany and Medical Faculty, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany;
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Abstract
GPR109A has generated expanding interest since its discovery as the receptor for niacin a decade ago, along with deorphanisation as the receptor for endogenous ligand 3-hydroxy-butyrate shortly after. This interest is generated especially because of the continuing exploration of niacin's "pleiotropic" mechanisms of action and its potential in the "cross-talk" between metabolic and inflammatory pathways. As GPR109A's primary pharmacological ligand in clinical use, niacin has been used for over 50 years in the treatment of cardiovascular disease, mainly due to its favourable effects on plasma lipoproteins. However, it has become apparent that niacin also possesses lipoprotein-independent effects that influence inflammatory pathways mediated through GPR109A. In addition to its G-protein-mediated effects, recent evidence has emerged to support alternative GPR109A signalling via adaptive protein β-arrestins. In this article, we consider the role of GPR109A and its downstream effects in the context of atherosclerosis and vascular inflammation, along with insights into strategy for future drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua T Chai
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
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12
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G protein-coupled receptors for energy metabolites as new therapeutic targets. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2012; 11:603-19. [PMID: 22790105 DOI: 10.1038/nrd3777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that are activated by intermediates of energy metabolism - such as fatty acids, saccharides, lactate and ketone bodies - have recently been discovered. These receptors are able to sense metabolic activity or levels of energy substrates and use this information to control the secretion of metabolic hormones or to regulate the metabolic activity of particular cells. Moreover, most of these receptors appear to be involved in the pathophysiology of metabolic diseases such as diabetes, dyslipidaemia and obesity. This Review summarizes the functions of these metabolite-sensing GPCRs in physiology and disease, and discusses the emerging pharmacological agents that are being developed to target these GPCRs for the treatment of metabolic disorders.
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13
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Villines TC, Kim AS, Gore RS, Taylor AJ. Niacin: the evidence, clinical use, and future directions. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2012; 14:49-59. [PMID: 22037771 DOI: 10.1007/s11883-011-0212-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The use of FDA-approved niacin (nicotinic acid or vitamin B3) formulations at therapeutic doses, alone or in combination with statins or other lipid therapies, is safe, improves multiple lipid parameters, and reduces atherosclerosis progression. Niacin is unique as the most potent available lipid therapy to increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and it significantly reduces lipoprotein(a). Through its action on the GPR109A receptor, niacin may also exert beneficial pleiotropic effects independent of changes in lipid levels, such as improving endothelial function and attenuating vascular inflammation. Studies evaluating the impact of niacin in statin-naïve patients on cardiovascular outcomes, or alone and in combination with statins or other lipid therapies on atherosclerosis progression, have been universally favorable. However, the widespread use of niacin to treat residual lipid abnormalities such as low HDL cholesterol, when used in combination with statins among patients achieving very low (<75 mg/dL) low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, is currently not supported by clinical outcome trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd C Villines
- Cardiology Service, Department of Medicine, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, 8901 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20889, USA.
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14
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Nuchtavorn N, Suntornsuk L. Simultaneous Analysis of Biologically Active Pyridines in Pharmaceutical Formulations by Capillary Zone Electrophoresis. J Chromatogr Sci 2012; 50:151-6. [DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmr037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Palani A, Rao AU, Chen X, Huang X, Su J, Tang H, Huang Y, Qin J, Xiao D, Degrado S, Sofolarides M, Zhu X, Liu Z, McKittrick B, Zhou W, Aslanian R, Greenlee WJ, Senior M, Cheewatrakoolpong B, Zhang H, Farley C, Cook J, Kurowski S, Li Q, van Heek M, Wang G, Hsieh Y, Li F, Greenfeder S, Chintala M. Discovery of SCH 900271, a Potent Nicotinic Acid Receptor Agonist for the Treatment of Dyslipidemia. ACS Med Chem Lett 2012; 3:63-8. [PMID: 24900372 DOI: 10.1021/ml200243g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Structure-guided optimization of a series of C-5 alkyl substituents led to the discovery of a potent nicotinic acid receptor agonist SCH 900271 (33) with an EC50 of 2 nM in the hu-GPR109a assay. Compound 33 demonstrated good oral bioavailability in all species. Compound 33 exhibited dose-dependent inhibition of plasma free fatty acid (FFA) with 50% FFA reduction at 1.0 mg/kg in fasted male beagle dogs. Compound 33 had no overt signs of flushing at doses up to 10 mg/kg with an improved therapeutic window to flushing as compared to nicotinic acid. Compound 33 was evaluated in human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anandan Palani
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Ashwin U. Rao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Xiao Chen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Xianhai Huang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Jing Su
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Haiqun Tang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Ying Huang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Jun Qin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Dong Xiao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Sylvia Degrado
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Michael Sofolarides
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Xiaohong Zhu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Zhidan Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Brian McKittrick
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Wei Zhou
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Robert Aslanian
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - William J. Greenlee
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Mary Senior
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Boonlert Cheewatrakoolpong
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Hongtao Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Constance Farley
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - John Cook
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Stan Kurowski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Qiu Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Margaret van Heek
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Gangfeng Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Yunsheng Hsieh
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Fangbiao Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Scott Greenfeder
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Madhu Chintala
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Department of Biology, and §Department of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics, Merck Research Laboratories, 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
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Kang I, Kim SW, Youn JH. Effects of nicotinic acid on gene expression: potential mechanisms and implications for wanted and unwanted effects of the lipid-lowering drug. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96:3048-55. [PMID: 21816780 PMCID: PMC3200242 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2011-1104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Nicotinic acid (NA), or niacin, lowers circulating levels of lipids, including triglycerides, very low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol. The lipid-lowering effects have been attributed to its effect to inhibit lipolysis in adipocytes and thus lower plasma free fatty acid (FFA) level. However, evidence accumulates that the FFA-lowering effect may account for only a fraction of NA effects on plasma lipids, and other mechanisms may be involved. Recent studies have reported NA effects on gene expression in various tissues in vivo and in cultured cells in vitro. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION We reviewed articles reporting NA effects on gene expression, identified by searching PubMed, focusing on potential underlying mechanisms and implications for unexplained NA effects. CONCLUSION The effects of NA on gene expression may be mediated directly via the NA receptor in the affected cells, indirectly via changes in circulating FFA or hormone levels induced by NA, or by activating the transcription factor FOXO1 in insulin-sensitive tissues. NA effects on gene expression provide new insights into previously unexplained NA effects, such as FFA-independent lipid-lowering effects, FFA rebound, and insulin resistance observed in clinics during NA treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insug Kang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kyung Hee University School of Medicine, Seoul 1130-701, Korea
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17
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Abstract
Abnormal blood lipids are the major modifiable risk factor underlying the development of cardiovascular disease. Niacin has a profound ability to reduce low-density lipoprotein-C, very low-density lipoprotein-C and triglycerides and is the most effective pharmacological agent to increase high-density lipoprotein-C. Recently, the receptor for niacin, GPR109A, was discovered. GPR109A in the adipocyte mediates a niacin-induced inhibition of lipolysis, which could play a crucial part in its role as a lipid-modifying drug. GPR109A in epidermal Langerhans cells mediates flushing, an unwanted side effect of niacin therapy. For the past decade, the functions of GPR109A have been studied and full or partial agonists have been developed in an attempt to achieve the beneficial effects of niacin while avoiding the unwanted flushing side effect. This review presents what is known to date about GPR109A biology and function and the future of GPR109A as a pharmacological target.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Wanders
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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Offermanns S, Colletti SL, Lovenberg TW, Semple G, Wise A, IJzerman AP. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXXII: Nomenclature and Classification of Hydroxy-carboxylic Acid Receptors (GPR81, GPR109A, and GPR109B). Pharmacol Rev 2011; 63:269-90. [PMID: 21454438 DOI: 10.1124/pr.110.003301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The G-protein-coupled receptors GPR81, GPR109A, and GPR109B share significant sequence homology and form a small group of receptors, each of which is encoded by clustered genes. In recent years, endogenous ligands for all three receptors have been described. These endogenous ligands have in common that they are hydroxy-carboxylic acid metabolites, and we therefore have proposed that this receptor family be named hydroxy-carboxylic acid (HCA) receptors. The HCA(1) receptor (GPR81) is activated by 2-hydroxy-propanoic acid (lactate), the HCA(2) receptor (GPR109A) is a receptor for the ketone body 3-hydroxy-butyric acid, and the HCA(3) receptor (GPR109B) is activated by the β-oxidation intermediate 3-hydroxy-octanoic acid. HCA(1) and HCA(2) receptors are found in most mammalian species, whereas the HCA(3) receptor is present only in higher primates. The three receptors have in common that they are expressed in adipocytes and are coupled to G(i)-type G-proteins mediating antilipolytic effects in fat cells. HCA(2) and HCA(3) receptors are also expressed in a variety of immune cells. HCA(2) is a receptor for the antidyslipidemic drug nicotinic acid (niacin) and related compounds, and there is an increasing number of synthetic ligands mainly targeted at HCA(2) and HCA(3) receptors. The aim of this article is to give an overview on the discovery and pharmacological characterization of HCAs, and to introduce an International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR)-recommended nomenclature. We will also discuss open questions regarding this receptor family as well as their physiological role and therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Offermanns
- Department of Pharmacology, Max-Planck-Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Ludwigstrasse 43, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany.
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19
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Blad CC, Ahmed K, IJzerman AP, Offermanns S. Biological and pharmacological roles of HCA receptors. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2011; 62:219-250. [PMID: 21907911 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385952-5.00005-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The hydroxy-carboxylic acid (HCA) receptors HCA(1), HCA(2), and HCA(3) were previously known as GPR81, GPR109A, and GPR109B, respectively, or as the nicotinic acid receptor family. They form a cluster of G protein-coupled receptors with high sequence homology. Recently, intermediates of energy metabolism, all HCAs, have been reported as endogenous ligands for each of these receptors. The HCA receptors are predominantly expressed on adipocytes and mediate the inhibition of lipolysis by coupling to G(i)-type proteins. HCA(1) is activated by lactate, HCA(2) by the ketone body 3-hydroxy-butyrate, and HCA(3) by hydroxylated β-oxidation intermediates, especially 3-hydroxy-octanoic acid. Both HCA(2) and HCA(3) are part of a negative feedback loop which keeps the release of fat stores in check under starvation conditions, whereas HCA(1) plays a role in the antilipolytic (fat-conserving) effect of insulin. HCA(2) was first discovered as the molecular target of the antidyslipidemic drug nicotinic acid (or niacin). Many synthetic agonists have since been designed for HCA(2) and HCA(3), but the development of a new, improved HCA-targeted drug has not been successful so far, despite a number of clinical studies. Recently, it has been shown that the major side effect of nicotinic acid, skin flushing, is mediated by HCA(2) receptors on keratinocytes, as well as on Langerhans cells in the skin. In this chapter, we summarize the latest developments in the field of HCA receptor research, with emphasis on (patho)physiology, receptor pharmacology, major ligand classes, and the therapeutic potential of HCA ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara C Blad
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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20
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van Veldhoven JPD, Blad CC, Artsen CM, Klopman C, Wolfram DR, Abdelkadir MJ, Lane JR, Brussee J, Ijzerman AP. Structure-activity relationships of trans-substituted-propenoic acid derivatives on the nicotinic acid receptor HCA2 (GPR109A). Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 21:2736-9. [PMID: 21167710 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.11.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Nicotinic acid (niacin) has been used for decades as an antidyslipidemic drug in man. Its main target is the hydroxy-carboxylic acid receptor HCA2 (GPR109A), a G protein-coupled receptor. Other acids and esters such as methyl fumarate also interact with the receptor, which constituted the basis for the current study. We synthesized a novel series of substituted propenoic acids, such as fumaric acid esters, fumaric acid amides and cinnamic acid derivatives, and determined their affinities for the HCA2 receptor. We observed a rather restricted binding pocket on the receptor with trans-cinnamic acid being the largest planar ligand in our series with appreciable affinity for the receptor. Molecular modeling and analysis of the structure-activity relationships in the series suggest a planar trans-propenoic acid pharmacophore with a maximum length of 8 Å and out-of-plane orientation of the larger substituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P D van Veldhoven
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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21
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Shen HC, Ding FX, Raghavan S, Deng Q, Luell S, Forrest MJ, Carballo-Jane E, Wilsie LC, Krsmanovic ML, Taggart AK, Wu KK, Wu TJ, Cheng K, Ren N, Cai TQ, Chen Q, Wang J, Wolff MS, Tong X, Holt TG, Waters MG, Hammond ML, Tata JR, Colletti SL. Discovery of a biaryl cyclohexene carboxylic acid (MK-6892): a potent and selective high affinity niacin receptor full agonist with reduced flushing profiles in animals as a preclinical candidate. J Med Chem 2010; 53:2666-70. [PMID: 20184326 DOI: 10.1021/jm100022r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Biaryl cyclohexene carboxylic acids were discovered as full and potent niacin receptor (GPR109A) agonists. Compound 1e (MK-6892) displayed excellent receptor activity, good PK across species, remarkably clean off-target profiles, good ancillary pharmacology, and superior therapeutic window over niacin regarding the FFA reduction versus vasodilation in rats and dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong C Shen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories,Merck & Co, Inc, Rahway, New Jersey 07065-0900, USA. mail:
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Ding FX, Shen HC, Wilsie LC, Krsmanovic ML, Taggart AK, Ren N, Cai TQ, Wang J, Tong X, Holt TG, Chen Q, Waters MG, Hammond ML, Tata JR, Colletti SL. Discovery of pyrazolyl propionyl cyclohexenamide derivatives as full agonists for the high affinity niacin receptor GPR109A. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:3372-5. [PMID: 20452209 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2010] [Revised: 04/04/2010] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A series of pyrazolyl propionyl cyclohexenamides were discovered as full agonists for the high affinity niacin receptor GPR109A. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies were aimed to improve activity on GPR109A, reduce Cytochrome P450 2C8 (CYP2C8) and Cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) inhibition, reduce serum shift and improve pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fa-Xiang Ding
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, PO Box 2000, Rahway, NJ 07065-0900, USA.
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Anthranilic acid replacements in a niacin receptor agonist. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:3426-30. [PMID: 20444602 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2010] [Revised: 03/31/2010] [Accepted: 04/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Niacin is an effective drug for raising HDL cholesterol. However, niacin must be taken in large doses and significant side effects are often observed, including facial flushing, loss of glucose tolerance, and liver toxicity. An anthranilic acid was identified as an agonist of the niacin receptor. In order to improve efficacy and provide structural diversity, replacements for the anthranilic acid were investigated and several compounds with improved properties were identified.
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High-Affinity Niacin Receptor GPR109A Agonists. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-7743(10)45005-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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